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Copyright  1911,   Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

BIRD'S-EYE  VIEW  OF  THE  DOUBLE  LOCKS  AT  GATUN.      TOTAL 
RISE  FROM  SEA  LEVEL  TO  LAKE  LEVEL,  85  FEET. 


Scientific  American 
Reference  Book 

Edition  of  1913 


Compiled  and  Edited 
by 

ALBERT   A.  HOPKINS 

For  Part  I.     Statistical  Information 

Editor  of  Scientific  American  Cyclopedia  of  Formulas 
Scientific  American  Handbook  of  Travel,  Etc. 
Member  of  the  American  Statistical  Association 

and 

A.    RUSSELL    BOND 

For  Part  II.    Scientific  Information 

Editor  of  Handyman's 
Workshop  and  Laboratory 

With    1000    Illustrations 


MUNN  &,  CO.,   Inc. 


NEW    YORK,    1913 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,    BY  MUNN  &  CO.,  INC. 


This  work  is  protected  by  over  eighty  Copyrights, 
and  no  matter  must  be  reproduced  except  by  written 
permission.  Rights  of  translation  into  all  languages, 
including  the  Scandinavian,  are  reserved. 


Published  October,  1912. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  by 
A.  H.  Kellogg  Co.,  New  York. 


PREFACE. 

The  Editorial  staff  of  the  " Scientific  American"  re- 
ceives annually  about  15,000  inquiries  covering  a  wide 
range  of  topics — no  field  of  human  achievement  or  of 
natural  phenomena  is  neglected.  The  information  sought 
for,  in  many  cases,  cannot  be  readily  found  in  text-books 
or  works  of  reference.  The  need  of  a  compendium  of 
useful  information  presented  itself  some  twenty  years 
ago,  and  a  part  of  the  field  was  covered  by  the  publication 
in  1901  of  the  "  Scientific  American  Cyclopedia  of  Re- 
ceipts, Notes,  and  Queries,"  of  which  over  25,000  copies 
were  sold.  This  book  becoming  obsolete  in  time  was 
supplanted  by  its  successor,  the  "  Scientific  American 
Cyclopedia  of  Formulas, "  issued  in  191 1 .  There  was,  how- 
ever, another  field  which  was  not  covered:  the  public, 
or  at  least  the  public  of  the  "Scientific  American,"  de- 
manded something  which  did  not  £xist — they  wanted  a 
book  which  should  deal  with  a  vast  range  of  topics  other 
than  formula?.  They  wanted  information  about  the 
Antarctic  region,  the  Panama  route,  shipping,  navies, 
armies,  railroads,  population,  education,  patents,  sub- 
marine cables,  wireless  telegraphy,  manufactures,  agri- 
culture, mining,  mechanical  movements,  astronomy 
and  the  weather.  The  Editors  of  the  present  volume  felt 
constrained  to  compile  such  a  book,  which  was  issued  in 
1904,  under  the  same  title  as  this  book.  Its  success  was 
immediate,  and  an  edition  of  10,000  copies  was  inadequate 
to  supply  the  demand.  In  1905  a  second  large  edition 
was  issued,  and  was  eagerly  bought  up  by  those  who  wished 
this  useful  companion  for  the  desk  or  library.  As  the 

[iii] 

25071? 


figures  became  obsolete,  it  was  allowed  to  become  "out  of 
print/7  and  now  in  response  to  a  considerable  number  of 
requests  a  new  book  is  presented,  following  to  some  ex- 
tent the  old  lines,  but  entirely  recompiled  and  rewritten. 

Immense  masses  of  Government  material  have  been 
digested  with  painstaking  care  by  competent  statisticians, 
and  the  result  will,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Editors,  fully 
warrant  the  expenditure  of  considerable  effort  and  results 
in  the  production  of  a  unique  book. 

It  is  perhaps  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  there  are  certain  inconsistencies  in  the  tables.  In 
procuring  the  figures,  for  example,  from  different  bureaus 
and  departments  of  the  Government,  with  reference  to 
any  subject,  it  is  found  that  statistics  vary  in  certain 
particulars.  These  differences  are  due  to  the  different 
methods  of  tabulation  or  to  different  points  of  view.  In 
many  cases  these  discrepancies  are  noted  in  this  book, 
to  prevent  the  reader  from  forming  erroneous  conclusions. 
These  cases  must  not  be  regarded  as  errors,  and  an  attempt 
has  been  made  to  give,  wherever  possible,  the  date  of  the 
figures  and  the  authority.  Every  available  space  has 
been  taken  up  with  useful  information,  whether  germane 
to  the  chapter  or  not. 

The  debt  for  advice  and  help  is  a  heavy  one.  The 
compilation  of  this  or  any  similar  one  would  be  impossible 
without  the  co-operation  of  many  Government  officials. 
Our  thanks  are  especially  due  to  Dr.  Falkner,  late 
Assistant  Director  of  the  Census,  and  to  the  Hon.  E.  Dana 
Durand,  Director  of  the  Census;  the  Hon.  O.  P.  Austin, 
late  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  now  Assistant- 
Chief  of  the  new  Bureau  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  Com- 
merce, and  to  Mr.  N.  Eckhardt,  Jr.,  of  his  office;  to  the 
Hon.  Eugene  Tyler  Chamberlain,  Commissioner  of  Navi- 
gation; to  Captain  T.  M.  Potts,  of  the  United  States 

[iv] 


Navy;  to  Major  J.  D.  Leitch,  U.  S.  A.,  Secretary 
of  the  War  College  Division;  to  Mr.  C.  F.  Talman, 
of  the  Weather  Bureau,  for  his  condensed  chapter 
on  the  weather;  to  Senator  Wm.  Alden  Smith;  to  Mr. 
Slason  Thompson,  of  the  Bureau  of  Railway  News  and 
Statistics;  to  the  Hon.  S.  B.  Donnelly,  Public  Printer; 
to  Dr.  J.  A.  Holmes,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines;  to  the 
Hon.  Frank  H.  Hitchcock,  Postmaster-General;  to  Dr. 
A.  F.  Zahm;  to  Dr.  W.  W.  Share;  to  Dr.  Geo.  F.  Kunz;  to 
Mr.  Perry  B.  Turpin;  to  Dr.  F.  L.  Hoffman,  Statistician  of 
the  Prudential  Life  Insurance  Co.;  to  Captain  J.  L.  Jayne, 
U.  S.  N.,  Superintendent  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory; 
to  Captain  A.  W.  Lewis,  of  the  Associated  Press;  to  Mr. 
E.  Justice,  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Co.;  to 
the  painstaking  assistants,  Miss  Henrietta  von  Tobel  and 
Mr.  Albert  S.  Regula;  and  to  a  host  of  other  friends  whose 
help  was  invaluable.  A  number  of  interesting  com- 
parisons in  line  are  from  Prof.  A.  L.  Hickmann's  Geo- 
graphical-Statistical Universal  Atlas  and  Philips'  Chamber 
of  Commerce  Atlas.  Acknowledgment  is  made  for  mat- 
ter from  The  American  Almanac  and  Year  Book,  The 
World  Almanac  and  the  Chicago  Daily  News  Almanac 
and  Year  Book,  The  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  publications  of  the  Census.  Many  items 
are  credited  where  used. 

New  York, 
October  15,  1912. 


[vj 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— STATISTICAL  INFORMATION. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I. — Population  and  Social  Statistics 1-42 

Chapter  II.— Farms,  Foods  and  Forests 43-74 

Chapter  III. — Mines  and  Quarries 75—96 

Chapter  IV.— Manufactures t 97-136 

Chapter  V.— Commerce 137-192 

Chapter  VI. — Mercantile  Marine 193-232 

Chapter  VII. — Railroads .'233-264 

Chapter  VIII. — The  Panama  Canal 265-278 

Chapter  IX. — Telegraphs  and  Cables 279-298 

Chapter  X. — Wireless  Telegraphy 299-310 

Chapter  XI. — Telephone  Statistics  of  the  World 311-322 

Chapter  XII.— Post  Office  Affairs 323-350 

Chapter  XIII.— Patents,  Trade-Marks  and  Copyrights 351-388 

Chapter  XIV. — Armies  of  the  World 389-408 

Chapter  XV. — Navies  of  the  World 409-436 

Chapter  XVI. — Aviation 437-456 

PART  II.— SCIENTIFIC  INFORMATION. 

Chapter  I. — Chemistry 457-462 

Chapter  II. — Astronomy  and  Time 463-484 

Chapter  III.— Meteorology 485-518 

Chapter  IV. — Machine  Elements  and  Mechanical  Movements 519—546 

Chapter  V. — Geometrical  Constructions 5-47-560 

Chapter  VI.— Weights  and  Measures 561-586 

NOTE. — A  complete  Table  of  Contents  is  of  little  value  where  a  complete 
Index  is  provided.  Those  interested  in  a  subject  will  find  little  hardship  in 
perusing  the  whole  chapter  devoted  to  it. 


Copyright,    1912,    by  Munn  &  Co.,    Inc. 

THE  LONGEST  SHIP  AND  THE  TALLEST  BUILDING. 
The  "Imperator,"  900  feet;  Woolworth  Building,  750  feet. 


PART   I. 

STATISTICAL  INFORMATION. 
CHAPTER  I. 


POPULATION   AND   SOCIAL 
STATISTICS. 


POPULATION   <>l-'  THK   IMTEU  STATES. 


AREA. 

1910 

1900 

The  United  States  *  total  urea  of  enumeration) 

93,402  151 

1  77,  256,  630 

91  972  266 

75  994  575 

1  429  885 

1  262  055 

Alaska                                    

64,356 

63,592 

Haw-ill 

191,909 

154,  001 

Porto  Rico                                                         

1,118,012 

2  953,  243 

Persons  in  military  and  naval  service  stationed  abroad  

55,608 

91,  219 

1  Includes  953.243  persons  enumerated  in  Porto  Rico  in  1899. 

»  According  to  the  census  of  Porto  Rico  taken  in  1899  under  the  direction  of  the  War  Department. 

COMPARATIVE    AREA    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    AND 
FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


A  COMPARATIVE  MAP 

of  m 
UNITED  STATES. 


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AREA  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ACCESSION. 

Gross  area 
In  square 
miles. 

ACCESSION. 

Gross  area 
in  square 
miles. 

Continental  IT.  S  

3,026,789 

Outlying  possessions  .  .  . 

716,517 

\rea  of  U  S  in  1790' 

892  135 

Alaska  1867 

590  884 

Louisiana  Purchase  1803 

827  987 

Hawaii,  1898    

6  449 

Florida,  1819                    .   .. 

58,666 

Philippine  Islands,  1899.  .. 

115.026 

Territory  pained  through 

Porto  Rico,  1899     . 

3  436 

Treaty  with  Spain,  1819  . 

13,  435 

Guam,  1899  

210 

Texas  1845 

389  166 

Samoa,  1900 

77 

Oreeon,  1846      .            

286,541 

Panama  Canal  Zone,  1904 

436 

Mexican  Cession,  1848  
Gadsden  Purchase,  1853  .  .  . 

529.189 
29,670 

i  Includes  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Red  River  6f  the  North,  not  a  part  of  any 
acquisition,  but  previously  considered  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 


THE  THIRTEEN  ORIGINAL  STATES,  WITH  THE  ACCESSIONS  OF  TERRITORY  GRANTED  BY 
THE  TREATY  OF  1783  WITH  GREAT  BRITAIN 

GREATEST  EARTHQUAKES  OF  MODERN"  TIMES. 


The  greatest  earthquake  of  modern  times 
was  that  of  Sicily  and  Calabria,  December  28, 
1908.  The  shock  lasted  but  35  seconds  and 
resulted  in  the  death  of  76,483  persons,  and 
injuries  to  95,470;  it  is  estimated  that 
1,100.000  persons  were  made  homeless;  no 
estimate  of  the  property  loss  was  attempted. 
la  Sicily  the  chief  cities  and  towns  destroyed 
or  damaged  were  Messina,  Faro,  Santa  Teresa 
and  Scalleta.  In  Calabria:  Reggio,  Gallico, 
San  Giovanni,  San  Eufemia,  Pellaro,  Palmi 
and  Cannitello.  The  San  Francisco  earth- 
quake of  April  18,  1906  resulted  in  the  death 
of  452  persons,  and  injuries  to  1,500;  an 


estimate  of  the  persons  made  homeless  was 

given    as    265,000.     60,000    buildings     were 

destroyed,    resulting   in    a    property    loss   of 

$350,000,000    (estimated).     The    earthquake 

at  Valparaiso    (Chile),  August   16,    1906,   re- 

|    suited  in  the  death  of  1,500  persons;    prop- 

;    erty  loss    amounted    to    8100,000,000.     The 

i    Kingston    (Jamaica)  earthquake  of  January 

14,  1907  resulted  in  death   to    1,100   persons 

and  injuries  to  2,000;  6,000  buildings  were 

destroyed     the    entire    property     loss    being 

about  825,000,000.     1,500  lives  were  lost  in 

the  earthquake  at  Cartago   (Costa  Rica)   on 

May  5,  1910. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CENTRE  OF  POPULATION. 


At  the  time  of  the  first  census,  the  centre 
of  population  was  23  miles  east  of  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  since  which  time  it  has  moved 
steadily  westward.  In  1800  it  was  18  miles 
west  of  Baltimore,  in  1810  40  miles  northwest 
by  west  from  Washington,  D.  C.;  in  1820  16 
miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Va.;  in  1830  19 
miles  west-southwest  of  Moorefield,  W.  Va.; 
in  1840  16  miles  south  of  Clarksburg,  W.  Va.; 
in  1850  23  miles  southwest  of  Parkersburg, 
W.  Va.;  in  1860  20  miles  south  of  Chillicothe, 


Ohio;  in  1870  48  miles  east  by  north  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio;  in  1890  20  miles  east  of  Colum- 
bus, Indiana;  in  1900  6  .miles  southeast  of 
Columbus,  Indiana;  and  finally,  in  1910  in 
the  city  of  Bloomington,  Indiana.  During 
the  120  years  that  the  United  States  has 
existed  the  centre  has  moved  over  550 
miles  westward,  or  in  other  words,  from 
west  latitude  76  degrees  11  minutes  12 
seconds  to  west  latitude  86  degrees  32  minutes 
20  seconds. 


PEKCENTAGE    OF  INCREASE    BY   STATES    1900-1910. 


INCREASE  IN  POPULATION. 


CENSUS  YEAR. 

Population  of 
continental 

INCREASE  OVER 
CENSUS 

'RECEDING 

Adjusted 
percentages 

United  States. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

of  increase. 

1910 

91  979  266 

15  977  691 

21  0 

21  0 

1900           .              

75  994  575 

•13  046  861 

20  7 

20  7 

1890  

62  947  714 

12  791  931 

25  5 

24  9 

1880  

50  155  783 

11  597  412 

30.1 

26  0 

1870 

38  558  371 

7  115  050 

22  6 

26  6 

1860 

31  443'  321 

8  251  445 

35  6 

35  6 

1850       

23  191  876 

6'  122  423 

35  9 

35  9 

1840  

17  069  453 

4  203  433 

32  7 

32  7 

1830  

12  866  020 

3  227  567 

33  5 

33  5 

1820 

9  638  453 

2  398  572 

33  1 

33  1 

1810 

7*  239'  881 

1  931  398 

36  4 

36  4 

1800 

&  308  483 

1  379  269 

35  1 

35  1 

1790 

3  929  214 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


11 


POPULATION  OF  CITIES 

OF    THK 

UNITED  STATES 

Census  of  1910 


Cities  of  over  100,000  population 


Albany,  N.Y....       100,253 
Atlanta,  Ga  154,839 
Baltimore,  Md  .  .      558,485 
Birmingham,  Ala.       132,685 
Boston,  Mass  670,585 
Bridgeport,  Conn      102,054 
Buffalo,  N.Y...  .       423,715 
Cambridge,  Mass      104,839 
Chicago,  111  2,185,283 
Cincinnati,  Ohio.       364,463 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  .       560,663 
Columbus,  Ohio..      181,548 
Dayton,  Ohio  116,577 
Denver.  Colo...  .      213,381 
Detroit,  Mich.  ...      465,766 
Fall  River,  Mass  .       1  19,295 
Grand  Rapids, 
Mich  112,571 

Cities  of 

Akron.  Ohio  69,867 
Allentown,  Pa  51,913 
\ltoona,  Pa                  52  127 

Indianapolis,  Ind.      233,650 
Jersey  City,  X.  J.      267,779 
Kansas  City.  Mo.      248,381 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.      319,198 
Louisville,  Ky.  .  .       223.928 
Lowell,  Mass  106,294 
Memphis,  Term.  .       13  1  ,  105 
Milwaukee.  Wis.  .      373,857 
Minneapolis, 
Minn                       301  408 

Philadelphia.  Pa.   1,549,008 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  .  .      533,905 
Portland,  Ore.  .  .  .      207,214 
Providence.  R.  I.      224,326 
Richmond,  Va.  .  .       127,628 
Rochester,  N.  Y..      218,149 
St.  Louis,  Mo  .  .  .  .      687,029 
St.  Paul,  Minn  .  .       214,744 
San  Francisco, 
Cal                        416912 

Nashville,  Tenn.  .       110,364 
Newark,  N.  J.  .  .  .      347,469 
New  Haven,  Ct  .  .       133,605 
New  Orleans,  La  .      339,075 
New  York,  N.Y.  4.766.883 
Oakland  Cal  150,174 
Omaha,  Neb  124,096 
Paterson.N.  J...       125,600 

from  25,000  to  100,000  po] 
Decatur,  111  .  .          ..  31.140 

Scranton,  Pa  129,867 
Seattle,  Wash.  .  .  .      237,194 
Spokane,  Wash  .       104.402 
Syracuse,  N.  Y..  .       137,249 
Toledo,  Ohio  168,497 
Washington.D  C.      331,069 
Worcester,  Mass.       145,986 

3ulation 

Kansas  City,  Kans.  .  82,331 
Kingston,  N.  Y  25,908 

Des  Moines,  Iowa.  .  .  86,368 
Dubuque.  Iowa  38,494 
Duluth,  Minn  78,466 
Easton,  Pa  28,523 
East  Orange,  N.  J.  .  .  34,371 
East  St.  Louis,  111.  .  .  58,547 
El  Paso  Tex                39  279 

Knoxville,  Tenn  36,346 
La  Crosse,  Wis  30,417 
Lancaster,  Pa  47,227 
Lansing,  Mich  31,229 
Lawrence,  Mass  85,892 
Lewiston  Me.             26  247 

Amsterdam.  N.  Y.  .  .  31,267 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.  .  46,150 
Auburn,  N.  Y  34,668 
\ugusta   Ga                 41  040 

Aurora,  111  29*807 

Austin,  Tex  29,860 
Battle  Creek.  Mich..  25.267 
Bay  City.  Mich  45.166 
Bayonne,  N.  J  45,545 
Berkeley,  Cal  40,434 
Binghamton,  N.  Y.  .  48,443 
Bloomington,  111.  ...  25,768 
Brockton,  Mass  56,878 
Brookline,  Mass  27,792 
Butte  Mont                 39  165 

Elgin,  ill  25J976 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.    ...  73,409 
Elmira,  N.  Y  37,176 
Erie,  Pa  66,525 
Evansville,  Ind  ....  69,647 
Everett,  Mass  33,484 
Fitchburg.  Mass.  .  .  .  37,826 
Flint.  Mich  38,550 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind  63,933 
Fort  Worth.  Tex  73,312 
Galveston,  Tex  36,981 
Green  Bav,  Wis  25,236 
Hamilton,  Ohio  35,279 
Harrisburg,  Pa  64,186 
Hartford,  Conn  98,915 
Haverhill,  Mass  44,115 
Hazleton.  Pa  25.452 
Hoboken,  N.  J  70,324 
Holyoke,  Mass  57.730 
Houston,  Tex  78,800 
Huntington,  W.  Va..  31,161 
Jackson.  Mich  31,433 
Jacksonville.  Fla.  .  .  .  57,699 
Jamestown,  N.  Y  31,297 
Johnstown,  Pa  55,482 
Joliet,  111.  .  .                   34,670 

Lexington  Ky             35  099 

Lima,  Ohio  30.508 
Lincoln.  Nebr  43.973 
Little  Rock,  Ark  45.941 
Lorain  Ohio                 28  883 

Lynchburg,  Va  29,494 
Lvnn,  Mass  89,336 
Macon,  Ga  40,665 
McKeesport,  Pa  42,694 
Madison,  Wis  25,531 
Maiden,  Mass  44,404 
Manchester,  N.  H.  .  .  70,063 
Meriden,  Conn  27,265 
Mobile,  Ala  51,521 
Montgomery,  Ala.  .  .  38,136 
Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y  30,919 
Muskogee.  Okla  25.278 
Nashua,  N.  H  26,005 

Camden,  N.  J  94,538 
Canton,  Ohio  50.217 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa.  32,811 
Charleston,  S   C  58,833 
Charlotte,  N.  C  34,014 
Chattanooga,  Term.  44,604 
Chelsea,  Mass  32,452 
Chester,  Pa  38,537 
Chicopee,  Mass  25,401 
Clinton,  Iowa              25  577 

Newark,  Ohio  25,404 
New  Bedford,  Mass.  96652 
New  Britain.  Conn.  .  43,916 
Newburgh,  N.  Y  27,805 
Newcastle,  Pa.  .      .  .  36.280 

Colorado  Springs 
Colo  29  078 

Columbia,  S.  C  26,319 
Council  Bluffs,  Iowa.  29,292 
Covington,  Ky  53,270 
Dallas.  Tex  92,104 
Danville,  111  27,871 
Davenport,  Iowa  43,028 

Newport,  Kv  30.309 
Newport,  R.  I.  .       .  .  27,149 
New  Rochelle.  N.  Y.  28,867 
Newton,  Mass    .    .  .  39,806 
Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y..  30,445 

Joplin,  Mo  32,073 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.  .  .  39.437 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Norfolk  Va       

67,452 
27,875 
25,580 
64,205 
29,630 
33,062 
30,291 
54.773 
51,622 
66,950 
32,121 
32,121 
58,571 
33,190 

St.  Joseph  Mo.  .  .  .  77,403 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.  . 
Topeka,  Kans.  .  .  . 
Trenton,  N.J  
Troy  N  Y 

..58,157 
.  .  43,684 
.  .  96.815 
76  813 

Norristown,  Pa  

Salem,  Mass  43,697 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  92,777 
San  Antonio,  Tex.  .  .  96,614 
San  Diego,  Cal  39,578 
San  Jose,  Cal  28,946 
Savannah,  Ga  65,064 
Schenectady,  N.  Y.  .  72,826 
Sheboygan,  Wis  26,398 
Shenandoah  Pa  25  774 

Ogden,  Utah  
Oklahoma  City,  Okla 
Orange,  N.  J  

Utica,  N.Y  
Waco,  Tex  
Waltham,  Mass.  .  . 
Warwick,  R.  I  .... 
Waterbury,  Conn. 
Waterloo,  Iowa.  .  . 
Watertown,  N.Y. 
West  Hoboken,  N. 
Wheeling,  W.  Va.  . 
Wichita,  Kans.  .  .  . 
Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.  . 
Williamsport,  Pa.  . 
Wilmington,  Del.  . 
Wilmington,  N.  C. 
Woonsocket,  R.  I  . 
Yonkers  N  Y 

.  .  74,419 
.  .  26,425 
.  .  27,834 
.  .  26,629 
..  73,141 
.  .  26,693 
.  .  26,730 
J.  35,403 
.  .  41,641 
.  .  52,450 
..67,105 
.  .  31,860 
.  .  87,411 
.  .  25,748 
.  .  38,125 
79  803 

Oshkosh,  Wis  

Pasadena  Cal 

Passaic,  N.J  
Pawtucket  R.  I.  .   . 

Peoria  111 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.  . 
Pittsfleld,  Mass  
Portland,  Me  

Shreveport,  La  28,015 
Sioux  City.  Iowa  47,828 
Somerville,  Mass  77,236 
South  Bend.  Ind.  .  .  .  53,684 
South  Omaha,  Nebr.  26,259 
Springfield,  111  51,678 
Springfield,  Mass  88,926 
Springfield,  Mo.  .  .  .  35,201 
Springfield,  Ohio.  .  .  46,921 
Stamford  Conn  25  138 

Portsmouth,  Va.  . 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 
Pueblo  Colo  
Quincy,  111  
Quincy,  Mass  

27,936 
44,395 
36,587 
32,642 
38,002 
96,071 
34,874 
45,401 
44,696 
50,510 

Racine,  Wis  

Reading,  Pa  
Roanoke,  Va  

Superior,  Wis  40,384 
Tacoma,  Wash  83,743 
Tampa  Fla  37  782 

York,  Pa  
Youngstown,  Ohio 
Zanesville  Ohio 

.  .  44,750 
.  .  79,066 
28  026 

Rockford,  111  

Sacramento,  Cal.  .  .  . 
Saginaw,  Mich  

Taunton,  Mass  34,259 

Comparison  of  the  population  of  all  states  of  the  world 

according  to  the  last  censuses  and  estimation. 

ASIA  865^923,000  AMERICA 

175,046,000 


Argentine  Rep. 

6,980,000    Q       *„,«  *„„,„„, 25,5*2,000 
«-**"»-    &.464.000 


Turkey 
6,130,000 

Rumania  O 
5,960,000^-^ 


,116,000  O 


Total  population 
of  the  world 
1.652,945,900 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


1?, 


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14 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  INCREASE  IN  URBAN  POPULATION: 
1900-1910. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  INCREASE  IN  RURAL  POPULATION: 
1900-1910. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


15 


PERCENTAGE  OF  URBAN  IN  TOTAL  POPULATION  IN  1910. 


COLOR,  NATIVITY  AND  PARENTAGE  OF  POPULATION,  FOR 
PRINCIPAL  CITIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


There  are  in  all  229  cities  which  had  in  1910 
more  than  25,000  inhabitants,  with  an  aggre- 
gate population  of  28,543,816.  Of  the  com- 
bined population  of  these  cities,  native  whites 
of  native  parentage  number  10,149,145,  or 
35.6  per  cent.;  native  whites  of  foreign  or 
mixed  parentage,  9,219,007,  or  32.3  percent.; 
foreign-born  white*.  7,479,033,  or  26.2  per 
cent.;  negroes,  1,625,640,  or  5.7  per  cent.;  all 
other,  70,991,  or  0.2  per  cent.  For  continental 
United  States,  as  a  whole,  the  equivalent  num- 
bers and  percentages  are:  Native  whites  of 
native  parentage,  49,488,441,  or  53.8  per  cent; 
native  whites  of  foreign  or  mixed  parentage 
18,900,663,  or  20.6  per  cent.;  foreign-born 
whites,  13,343,583,  or  14.5  per  cent.;  negroes, 
9,828,294,  or  10.7  per  cent. 

The  combined  population  (28,543,816)  of 
the  229  cities  taken  together  constitutes  31 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  (91,972,266) 
of  continental  United  States  in  1910.  In  the 
case,  however,  of  native  whites  of  native  par- 
entage, the  number  in  these  cities  constitutes 
only  20.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  in  the 
United  States,  while  for  native  whites  of  for- 
eign or  mixed  parentage  the  percentage  is 
48.8  and  for  foreign-born  whites,  56.  For 
neeroes  the  percentage  in  the  principal  cities 
is  16.5. 


The  foreign-born  white  element  is  mainly 
concentrated  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
states,  and  in  many  of  the  cities  in  these  states 
the  proportion  of  foreign-born  whites  in  the 
total  population  is  very  large.  Passair,  \.  .).. 
has  28,467  foreign-born  whites,  representing 
52  per  cent,  of  its  total  population  (54,773). 
This  is  the  largest  proportion  of  foreign-born 
whites  in  any  of  the  principal  cities,  and  Law- 
rence, Mass.,  with  41,319  foreign-born  whites 
in  a  total  population  of  85,892,  has  the  next 
largest  proportion,  48.1  per  cent.  There  are 
11  other  cities  in  each  of  which  the  foreign* 
born  whites  constitute  more  than  40  per  cent. 
of  the  total  population,  namely,  Perth  Am- 
boy,  N.  J.,  44.5;  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  44.1 
Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  43.4;  Fall  River,  Mass. 
42.6;  Chelsea,  Mass.,  42.4;  Manchester,  N.  H. 
42.4;  New  Britain,  Conn.,  41:  Lowell,  Mass. 
40.9;  Shenandoah,  Pa.,  40.6;  New  York,  N.  V. 
40.4;  Holyoke,  Mass.,  40.3. 

Negroes  constitute  one-fourth  or  more  of 
the  total  population  in  each  of  27  principal 
cities,  and  in  4  of  them  the  proportion  is  more 
than  half,  namely,  Charleston,  S.  C..  31,05 
negroes,  or  52.8  per  cent.;  Savannah,  Ga., 
33,246,  or  51.1  per  cent.;  Jacksonville,  Fla., 
29,293  or  50.8  per  cent.;  Montgomery,  Ala., 
19,322,  or  50.7  per  cent. 


16 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AREA  OF  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

(Based  upon  careful  joint  calculations  made  in  tho  General  Land  Office,  the  Geological  Survey,  and  the 

Bureau  of  the  Census.) 


States  or  Territories. 

Land  surface. 

Water  surface. 

Total  areas. 

Alabama 

Sq.m. 
51,279 
113,810 
52,525 
155,652 
103,658 
4,820 
1  965 
.     60 
54,861 
58,725 
83,354 
56,043 
35,815 
55,586 
81  ,774 
40,181 
45,409 
29,895 
9,941 
8,039 
57,480 
80,858 
46,362 
68,727 
146,201 
76,808 
109,821 
9,031 
7,514 
122,  .503 
47,654 
48.740 
70,183 
40,740 
69,414 
95,607 
44,832 
1,067 
30,495 
76,868 
41,687 
263,398 
82,184 
9,124 
40,262 
66,836 
24,022 
55,256 
97,594 

Acres. 
32,818,560 
72,838,400 
33,616,000 
99,617,280 
66,341,120 
3,084,800 
1,257,600 
38,400 
35,111,040 
37,584,000 
53,346,560 
35,867,520 
23,068,800 
35,575,040 
52,335,360 
25,715,840 
29,0til,760 
19,132,800 
6,362,240 
5,144,%0 
36,787,200 
51,749,120 
29,671,680 
43,985,280 
93,568,^40 
49,157,120 
70,285,440 
5,779,840 
4,808,960 
78,401,920 
30,498,560 
31,193,600 
44,917,120 
26,073,600 
44,424,960 
61,188,480 
28,692,480 
682,880 
19,516,800 
49,195,520 
26,679,680 
167,934,720 
52,597,760 
5,839,360 
25,767,680 
42,775,040 
15,374,080 
35,363,840 
62,460,160 

Sq.  TO. 
719 
146 
810 
2,645 
290 
145 
405 
10 
3,S05 
540 
534 
622 
309 
561 
384 
417 
3,097 
3,145 
2,386 
227 
500 
3,824 
503 
693 
796 
712 
869 
310 
710 
131 
1,550 
3,686 
654 
300 
643 
1,092 
294 
181 
494 
747 
335 
3,498 
2,806 
440 
2,365 
2,291 
148 
810 
320 

Acres. 
460,160 
93,440 
518,400 
1,692,800 
185,600 
92,800 
259,200 
6,400 
2,435,200 
345,600 
341  ,760 
398,089 
197,760 
359,040 
245,760 
266,880 
1  ,982,080 
2,012,800 
1,527,040 
145,280 
320,000 
2,447,360 
321,920 
443,520 
509,440 
455,680 
556,160 
198,400 
454,400 
83,840 
992,000 
2,359,040 
418,560 
192,000 
411,520 
698,880 
188,160 
115,840 
316,  160 
478,080 
214,400 
2,238,720 
1,795,840 
281,600 
1,513,600 
1,466,240 
94,720 
518,400 
204,800 

5l!998 
113,956 
53,335 
158,297 
103,948 
4,965 
2,370 
70 
58,666 
59,265 
83,888 
56,665 
36,354 
56,147 
82,158 
40,598 
48,506 
33,040 
12,327 
8,266 
57,980 
84,682 
46,865 
69,420 
146,997 
77,520 
110,690 
9,341 
8,224 
122,634 
49,204 
52,426 
70,837 
41,040 
70,057 
96,699 
45,126 
1,248 
30,989 
77,615 
42,022 
265,896 
84,990 
9,564 
42,627 
69,127 
24,170 
56,066 
97,914 

A  CT(S. 

33,278,720 
72,931  ,840 
34,134,400 
101,310,080 
66,526,720 
3,177,M)0 
1,516,800 
44,800 
37,546,240 
37,929,600 
53,688,320 
36,265,fiOO 
23,266,560 
35,934,080 
52,581,120 
25,982,720 
31,043,840 
21,145,600 
7,889,280 
5,290,240 
37,107,200 
54,19(5,480 
29,  £03,  600 
44,428,800 
94,075,080 
49,612,800 
70,841  ,600 
5,978,240 
5,263,360 
78,485,760 
31,490,560 
33,562.640 
45,335,680 
26,265,600 
44,836,480 
61,887,360 
28,880,640 
798,720 
19,832,960 
49,673,600 
26,894,080 
170,173,440 
54,393,600 
6,120,960 
27,281,280 
44,241,280 
15,468,800 
35,882,240 
62,664,960 

Arizona              

California             '.- 

Connecticut       

District  of  Columbia  

Florida 

•Georgia     

Idaho                         .    .-    - 

Illinois      

Indiana                          

Iowa        

Kentucky     

Maine          

Michigan                 

Minnesota 

Mississippi               

Missouri 

Montana         

Nevada              

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey     

New  Mexico          .  . 

New  York  

North  Carolina  

North  Dakota  

Ohio 

Oklahoma  

Oregon 

Rhode  Island     

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota  

Texas    . 

Utah 

Vermont  . 

Virginia 

Washington  

West  Virginia             .      . 

Wisconsin 

Wvoming       .         .... 

Alaska  

2,973,890 

1,903,289,600 

52.899 

33,855,360 

3.026,789     1,937,144,960 
590,884         378,165,760 
210                134,400 
6,449  :          4,127,360 
474                303,360 
115,026           73,616,640 
3,435            2,198,400 
77                 49,280 

Guam... 

Hawaii 

Panama  Canal  strip  . 

Philippine  Islands 

Porto  Rico  

Tutuila  Group  Samoa 

Total  

3,743,344 

2,395,740,160 

Owing  to  their  location  adjoining  the  Great  Lakes,  the  States  enumerated  below  contain  approximately 
an  additional  number  of  square  miles  as  follows:  Illinois,  1,674  square  miles  of  Lake  Michigan;  Indiana, 
230  square  miles  of  Lake  Michigan:  Michigan,  16,653  square  miles  of  Lake  Superior,  12,922  square  miles 
of  Lake  Michigan,  9,925  square  miles  of  Lake  Huron,  and  460  square  miles  of  lakes  St.  Clair  and  Erie; 
Minnesota.  2,514  square  miles  of  Lake  Superior,  New  York,  3,140  square  miles  of  lakes  Ontario  and  Erie; 
Ohio,  3,443  square  miles  of  Lake  Erie;  Pennsylvania,  891  square  miles  of  Lake  Erie;  Wisconsin,  2,378 
square  miles  of  Lake  Superior  and  7,500  square  miles  of  Lake  Michigan. 

In  addition  to  the  water  areas  noted  above,  California  claims  jurisdiction  over  all  Pacific  waters  lying 
within  3  English  miles  of  her  coast;  Oregon  claims  jurisdiction  over  a  similar  strip  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
1  marine  league  in  width  between  latitude  42°  north  and  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River;  and  Texas 
claims  jurisdiction  over  a  strip  of  Gulf  water  3  leagues,  in  width,  adjacent  to  her  coast  and  between  the 
Rio  Grande  and  the  Sabine  River. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IT 


AREA  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  SIZE  OF  STATES. 


STATE. 

Rank 
in 
gross 
area. 

AREA  IN  SQUARE   MILES. 

Gross. 

Land. 

Water.  » 

Continental  United  States 

3,026,789 

265,896 
158,297 
146,  997 
122.634 
113,956 

110.690 
103,948 
97.  914 
96,699 
84,990 

84,682 
83,888 
82,  158 
77,615 
77,520 

70,837 
70,057 
69,420 
69.  127 
59,265 

58.666 
57.980 
56,665 
56,147 
56,066 

53,335 
52,  426 
51,998 
49,204 
48,506 

46.865 
45,126 
42,627 
42,022 
.41,040 

40.598 
36.354 
33,040 
30,  989 
24,170 

12.327 
9.564  ! 
9.341  ! 
8.266 
8,224 

4.965 
2.370  , 
1,248 
70 

2,973,890 

262,398 
155,652 
146.  201 
122.503 
113,810 

109,821 
103.658 
97,  594 
95,607 
82,184 

80,858 
83,354 
81,  774 
76,868 
76,808 

70,183 
69,414 
68,727 
66|  836 
58,725 

54,861 
57,480 
56,043 
55,586 
55,256 

52,525 
48,740 
51,279 
47,654 
45,409 

46,362 
44,832 
40,262 
41,687 
40,740 

40,181 
36,045 
29.895 
30,495 
24,022 

9.941 
9.124 
9,031 
8.039 
7,514 

4,820 
1,965 
1,067 
60 

52,899 

3.498 
2.645 
796 
131 
146 

869 
290 
320 
1.092 
2,806 

3,824 
534 
384 
747 
712 

654 
643 
693 
2.291 
540 

3.805 
500 
622 
561 
810 

810 
3,686 
719 
1.550 
3,097 

503 
294 
2,365 
335 
300 

417 
309 
3,145 
494 
148 

2,386 
440 
310 
227 

710 

145 
405 
181 
10 

Texas  

2 
3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

11 

12 

\l 

15 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 
48 
49 

California.    .. 

Montana 

New  Mexico.. 

\rizona 

Nevada  

Colorado  . 

Wyoming  

Oregon. 

Utah 

Minnesota  . 

Idaho  

Kansas. 

South  Dakota 

Nebraska  

North  Dakota 

Oklahoma.. 

Missouri 

Washington. 

Georgia  ...   . 

Florida  

Michigan. 

Illinois  

Iowa  .    . 

Wisconsin  

A  rkansas  

North  Carolina... 

A  labama  .  .  . 

New  York  

Louisiana  

Mississippi  

Pennsylvania  

Virginia  

Tennessee  

Ohio  

Kentucky...  . 

Indiana  

Maine  

South  Carolina  .. 

West  Virginia  

Maryland  

Vermont  

New  Hampshire 

Massachusetts  

New  Jersey  .... 

Connecticut 

Delaware... 

Rhode  Island 

District  of  Columbia     . 

1  Does  not  include  the  water  surface  of  the  oceans,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  the 
Great  Lakes,  lying  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 


A  census  just  completed  by  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  shows  that  in  1911  there 
worn  154,255  persons  in  the  Canal  Zone. 
The  City  of  Panama  has  a  population  of 


35,368,  of  which  18,237  are  Mestizos,  10,963 
negroes,  7,008  white,  and  1,180  Amarillos 
or  yellows.  Colon  has  17,748  inhabit- 
ants. 


18 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


POPULATION  OF  CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES 
PER  SQUARE  MILE. 


CENSUS  YEAR. 

Population  of 
continental 
United  States. 

Land  area 
in  square 
miles. 

Popula- 
tion per 
square 
mile. 

1910 

91  972  266 

2  973  8% 

30  9 

1900 

75,  994.  575 

2,974.159 

25.6 

1800 

62,947,714 

2  973  %5 

21  2 

1880...    . 

50,  155,  783 

2,  973,  965 

16.9 

1870 

38  558,371 

2,  973,  965 

13.0 

1860   .. 

31,443,321 

2,973,965 

10.6 

1850 

23,191,876 

2.  944,  337 

7.9 

1840.    . 

17,069,453 

1,753,588 

9.7 

1830 

12,  866,  020 

1,753,588 

7.3 

1820.. 

9,638,453 

1,753,588 

5.5 

1810 

7,  239,  881 

1,685,865 

4.3 

1800  

5,  308,  483 

867,980 

6.1 

1790 

3,929,214 

867,980 

4.5 

PRISON  POPULATION  IN  1910. 


The  prison  population  of  the  United  States 
on  January  1,  1910  was  113,579;  and  the  num- 
ber of  commitments  to  prisons  or  other  penal 
institutions,  during  the  year  1910,  was  479,763. 
These  figures  include  every  class  of  offense, 
from  vagrancy  to  murder  in  the  first  degree. 
They  also  include  cases  in  which  the  offender 
was  committed  to  jail  or  prison  for  the  non- 
payment of  a  fine.  The  ratio  of  prisoners  to 
population  on  January  1,  1910,  was  125  to 


100,000,  and  the  ratio  of  commitments  to 
population  during  the  year  1910  was  522  to 
100,000.  Thus  it  appears  that,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  1910,  one  person  out  of  every 
800  in  the  United  States  greeted  the  New 
Year  in  jail;  and  that,  during  1910,  for 
every  190  persons  in  the  total  population, 
there  was  one  commitment  to  prison  or  jail, 
for  a  period  ranging  from  one  day  to  a  life 
sentence. 


POPULATION  PER  SQUARE  MILE:  1910. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


19 


Mortality  from  Consumption  by  Age  and  Sex, 

Prudential  Industrial  Experience  ^   1897-1906. 


MALES. 

Other  Cmtfi  cfDeatA. 


AgesalDeak. 


FEMALES. 


Mortality  from  Consumption  -  General  Population. 

1887-1906. 


Mortality  of  Northern  Cities.  Mortality  of  Southern  Cities. 

.cm  RATE  PER  IO.OOO.  RATE    PER  IO.OOO,  a. 


Proportionate  Consumption  Mortality  —- '  MALES. 


•*iZ17ftfn>mtaiamttmm*Be&> 


INDIANS. 


Only  eleven  of  the  states  in  the  United 
States  have  large  Indian  populations,  namely : 
Oklahoma  with  117,247;  Arizona  with 
39,216;  New  Mexico  with  20,909;  South 
Dakota  with  20,352;  California  with  16,369; 
Wisconsin  with  11,428;  Washington  with 
10,997;  Montana  with  10,814;  Minnesota 
with  10,711;  North  Dakota  with  8,253;  and 


Michigan  with  7,520.  The  other  states  of 
the  Union  have  a  total  Indian  population 
of  34,097  and  rank  according  to  the  number 
of  Indian  inhabitants  as  follows:  Oregon, 
New  York,  Nevada,  Nebraska,  Wyoming, 
Kansas,  Utah  and  other  states.  The  total 
Indian  population  of  the  United  States  is 
307,913. 


20 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Mortality  from  Consumption  in  Dusty  Trades. 

Prudential  Industrial  Experience  ^  1897-1906. 


Ages 

Ages 

Ages 

Ar 

A. 

Age, 

MetallicDtat 

15-24  . 

3 

25-34 

3 

3544 

3 

<3 

6 

6 

MwtralDmt 

3 

3 

3 

O 

(5 

o 

t^&erti 

-3 

3 

3 

(5 

O 

o 

-3 

3 

3 

(5 

O 

o 

TT^TO  »*^ 

3 

3 

3 

(5 

O 

o 

4r> 

,3 

3 

3 

O 

o 

o 

/Vole  Jnt  Jegrtt  of  consumption  frequency 

is  shovn  to  fsry  wdely  according  to  the  kind  of  dust  exposure 

r&e  proportion 

ite  consumption 

mortality  in  insurance   etrjer 

lence  was  great 

"St  in  trad&s  ex 

posing  to  the 

continuous  inhalation  of  considerable  amounts 

of  metallic  and  mineral  dusts 

Mortality  from  Consumption  -Exposure  to  Metallic  Dust. 

Prudential  Industrial  Experience  -  189?- 1906. 


PRINTERS. 


COMPOSITORS. 


Accident 


PerCeut  of  fasnmptim  Motulitg  at  Spectfel  Age  hoods 
Jyes  a  Death  Consumption  Mir  Cauats. 

1524 


Cmmphon 


Jmode 

PaCauifCauuaftion  Uortabtg  a  St*tflfd  dye  Penods 
AgesatDealh     Cauurta,  Ofa,  Caaa 


.  Hot  OittfKSiUkcfa*nat 

deaths  Jo*  allaux!  fflmtfai 


-,  fa.  Coupon  Ji,  ***!**<*,,  mrtatty 
'am^axaaiinpatnit  f  S3. 


Recent  statistics  show  that  at  the  end  of 
May,  1910,  there  were  431  state  and  local 
anti-tuberculosis  associations,  286  special 
dispensaries,  393  special  sanatoria  and 
hospitals,  and  22,720  beds  for  tuberculosis 


It  was  estimated  that  there  wero 
300,000  indigent  consumptives  in  the  United 
States,  in  May,  1910,  and  that  it  would  cost 
S50,000,000  yearly  to  take  care  of  them  iu 
institutions. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


21 


SUICIDES  IN  ONE  HUNDRED  AMERICAN  CITIES,    1891-1910. 


YEARS. 

Population. 

Suicides. 

Rate  per 
100,000 
Population. 

1891         ,                

12  818  957 

1  727 

13  5 

1892    

13,335  186 

1  713 

12  8 

1893  

13,686,566 

2,097 

15  3 

1894 

14  038  525 

2  139 

15  2 

1895... 

14,539,050 

2,218 

15.3 

1896 

15027  676 

2  360 

15  7 

1897 

15  416634 

2  583 

16  8 

1898  

15,892  764 

2,630 

16  5 

1899... 

16,269,285 

2,594 

15.9 

1900 

16  753  366 

2  728 

16  3 

1901                               

17  248  177 

2  855 

16  6 

1902 

17  743  001 

3  139 

17  7 

1903                              

18237  846 

3513 

19  3 

1904                                                           .    . 

18732  699 

3  766 

20  1 

1905     .  >  

19  254  249 

3650 

19  0 

1906 

19  837  798 

3537 

17  8 

1907 

20  421  363 

3  975 

19  5 

1908 

21*004'936 

4  582 

21  8 

1909 

21  588  516 

4  537 

21  0 

1910                          

22  172  095 

4  377 

19  7 

1891-1895 

€8  418  284 

9  894 

14  5 

1896-1900 

79  359  725 

12  895 

16  2 

1901-1905 

.91  215972 

16923 

18  6 

1906-1910  

105,024,708 

21,008 

20  0 

Courtesy  of  The  Spectator. — F.  L.  Hoffman,  Compiler. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  4,460  suicides  out  of  a  population  of 
22.758,471,  or  equivalent  to  19.6  per  100,000  of  population.  There  were  also 
12,652  business  failures,  out  of  1,514,164  business  concerns,  or  8.8  business  failures 
per  1,000  existing  concerns. 

COMPARISON  OF  SUICIDES  AND  BUSINESS  FAILURES  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  1891-1910. 


*EAR. 

Suicides 
per  100,000  of 
Population  in  100 
American  Cities. 

Business  Failures  in 
the  United  States 
per  1,000  Existing 
Business  Concerns.  * 

1891 

13  5 

10  7 

1892                  

12.8 

8.8 

1893                              

15  3 

12.8 

1894 

15  2 

12  5 

1895                                

15  3 

10  9 

1896  

15.7 

13.1 

1897              .       

16  8 

12.6 

1898 

16  5 

11  0 

1899                           

15  9 

8.1 

1000 

16  3 

9.2 

1901.                                    

16  6 

9.0 

1902 

17  7 

9  3 

1903..                                  

19.3 

9.4 

1904 

20  1 

9.2 

1905..                  

19  0 

8.5 

1906                              ..                              .... 

17  8 

7.7 

1907. 

19.5 

8.2 

1908                                                           .   .. 

21  8 

10  8 

1909... 

21.0 

8.0 

1910                                                     

19.7 

8.0 

*  Furnished  by  R.  G.  Dun  &  CQ. 


22 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DEATHS. 


During  the  year  1910  the  total  number  of 
deaths  in  the  United  States  was  805,412,  and 
of  this  number  753,308,  or  935.3  for  every 
thousand  deaths,  were  white.  Of  this  number 
546,507  were  native  born;  281,837  had  both 
parents  native  born;  201,378  had  parents 
either  one  or  both  of  which  were  foreign  born. 
Other  deaths  among  the  white  population 
were  196,753  foreign  born,  and  10,068  un- 
known. The  deaths  among  the  colored  popu- 
lation totaling  52,104,  or  64.7  for  every  thou- 
sand deaths,  were  divided  as  follows:  Negro, 
49,499;  Indian,  886;  and  Chinese  and  Japanese 
1,719. 

Of  this  number  439,757  were  males  and 
365,655  females.  The  total  number  of  deaths 
among  children  less  than  a  year  of  age  was 
154,393  ;«of  those  from  one  to  five  years  of  age, 
62,946;  from  five  to  twenty-five,  79,667:  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty,  174,072;  from  fifty  to 
seventy-five,  228,691;  over  seventy-five,  104,- 
875;  and  of  unknown  age,  788. 

Out  of  every  thousand  deaths  191.7  occur 
before  the  end  of  the  first  year  of  life;  78.2 
between  the  ages  of  one  and  five;  98.8  be- 
tween the  ages  of  five  and  twenty-five;  216.1 
between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  fifty;  284  be- 
tween the  ages  of  fifty  and  seventy-five;  130.3 
over  seventy-five;  and  one  at  an  unknown  age. 
Out  of  every  one  thousand  deaths  546  are 
-males  and  454  females. 


Dividing  the  deaths  in  the  United  States 
for  the  year  1910  according  to  diseases,  we 
find  that  12,673  died  of  typhoid  fever;  1,167 
of  malaria;  smallpox,  202;  measles,  6,598; 
scarlet  fever,  6,255;  whooping  cough,  6,146; 
diphtheria  and  croup,  11,521;  influenza,  7,774; 
other  epidemic  diseases,  6,663;  tuberculosis, 
86,309;  cancer  and  other  malignant  tumors, 
41,039;  diabetes,  8,040;  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system  and  of  the  organs  of  special  sense, 
77,991;  diseases  of  the  circulatory  system, 
100,106;  diseases  of  the  respiratory  system, 
100,835;  diseases  of  the  digestive  system,  104.- 
801;  non-venereal  diseases  of  the  genito-urin- 
ary  system  and  annexa,  62,559;  from  external 
causes;  8,590,  suicide;  45,416,  accidental  or 
undefined;  3,190,  homicide;  and  all  other 
causes,  107,537. 

The  rate  of  death  per  hundred  thousand 
population  of  the  more  important  of  these 
diseases  is  as  follows:  typhoid  fever,  23.5; 
tuberculosis,  160.3;  cancer  and  other  malig- 
nant tumors,  76.2;  diseases  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem and  *f  the  organs  of  special  sense,  144.8; 
diseases  of  the  circulatory  system,  185.9;  dis- 
eases of  the  respiratory  system,  187.3;  diseases 
of  the  digestive  system,  194.6;  non-venereal 
diseases  of  the  genito-urinary  system  and 
annexa,  116.2. 


DEGENERATIVE  DISEASES-U'.S. 

Increase  in  Death-Rate  per  /o.ooo 


38.7 


(  HEART*  BLOQD  VESSELS, 
KIDNEYS.  ETC) 


31.4 


24.3 


I9.O 


:  THE  PENALTY  OF  NEGLECT 

The  heavy  'increase  in  life  waste  from  diseases  of  the  heart,  blood  vessels,  kidneys — apoplexy, 
etc.,  dernShds  the  attention  of  the  American  peo'ple.  (  They  are  over-taxing  and  neglecting  the 
hardest  worked  oYgans  of  the  Hody,  anti  the  penalty'  is  needless  disease  afro1  premature  de^th 
for  tens  of  thousands  annually.  This  caii.  only  be, checked  by  the  adoption  of  ; 
hamfs  o/  HVing  and  by  -  improvement  in  hygiene"  and  sanitation. 


more   healthful 


SUICIDE  RECORD  OF  1911. 


The  suicide  record  of  100  American  cities 
for  the  year  ending  1911  shows  a  suicide 
mortality  of  4,460  out  of  a  total  population  for 
these  cities  of  22,758,471,  or  equivalent  to 
19.6  per  100,000  of  population.  With  only 
four  exceptions  this  is  the  highest  rate  at- 
tained during  any  year  since  1892,  when  the 
rate  was  only  12.8.  The  average  suicide  rate 
by  quinquennial  periods  for  the  last  two 
decades,  eliminating  fluctuations  by  single 
years,  has  shown  a  continuous  upward 
tendency,  being  14.9  for  the  first  five  years, 
16.4  during  the  next  five  years,  and  increasing 
to  18.8  and  20.3  in  the  succeeding  periods. 
Th«  highest  record^  rate  for  the  100  cities 


was  for  San  Diego,  Cal.,  in  which  the  rate  was 
59.9  per  10,0000  of  population,  against  the 
general  average  fpr  all  the  cities  of  19.6.  A 
comparison  or  suicides  and  business  failure* 
for  the  period  1892-1911  shows  that  the 
economic  condition  of  the  nation  is  one  of  the 
many  factors  which  determines  the  degree 
of  suicidal  frequency.  With  8.8  business 
failures  in  1892,  the  rate  was  12.8.  while 
during  the  panic  years  of  1893  and  1907  there 
was  a  decided  increase  in  suicides,  following 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  business  failures. 
Abstract  from  article  by  F.  L.  Hoffman  in, 
"The  Spectator,"  July  11,  1918, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


23 


MARRIAGES  AND  DIVORCES:  NUMBER   AND  INCREASE,    SPECIFYING 
DIVORCES  GRANTED  TO  HUSBAND  OR  WIFE,  1887  TO  1906. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Calendar  year. 

Marriages. 

Divorces. 

Number. 

Increase 
over  pre- 
ceding 
year. 

Total 
number. 

Increase 
over  pre- 
ceding 
year. 

Granted  to 
husband. 

Granted  to 
wife. 

Number. 

Per 

cent. 

Number. 

Per 
cent. 

1887  •.... 

483,069 
504,530 
531,457 
542,537 
562,  412 
577,870 
578,673 
566,161 
588,855 
613,  873 
622,3-50 
625,655 
650,610 
685,284 
716,621 
746,733 
786,  132 
781,  145 
804,787 
853,290 

"'2i,"46i' 
26,927 
11,080 
19,  875 
15,458 
803 
U2,512 
32,694 
15,018 
8,477 
3,305 
24,  955 
34,674 
31,337 
30,112 
39,399 
U.9S7 
23,642 
48,503 

27,  919 
28,669 
31,735 
33,461 
35,540 
36,579 
37,468 
37,568 
40,387 
42,937 
44,699 
47,849 
51,437 
55,751 
60,984 
61,480 
64,925 
66,199 
67,  976 
72,062 

2,384 
750 
3,066 
1,726 
2,079 
1,039 
889 
100 
2,819 
2,550 
1,762 
3,150 
3,588 
4,314 
5,233 
496 
3,445 
1,274 
1,777 
4,086 

9,729 
10,022 
11,  12G 
11,625 
12,478 
12,577 
12,590 
12,551 
13,456 
14,448 
14,765 
15,988 
16,925 
18,620 
20-008 
20;  056 
21,321 
22,189 
22,220 
23,455 

34.8 
35.0 
35.1 
34.7 
35.1 
34.4 
33.6 
33.4 
33.3 
33.6 
33.0 
33.4 
32.9 
33.4 
32.8 
32.6 
32.8 
33.5 
32.7 
32.5 

18,190 
18,647 
20,609 
21,836 
23,062 
24,002 
24,878 
25,017 
26,  931 
28,489 
29,934 
31,861 
34,512 
37,  131 
40,976 
41,424 
43,604 
44,010 
45,756 
48,607 

65.2 
65.0 
64.9 
65.3 
£4.9 
65.6 
66.4 
66.6 
66.7 
66.4 
67.0 
66.6 
67.1 
66.6 
67.2 
67.4 
67.2 
66.5 
67.3 
67.5 

1SS8 

1SS9 

1S90  „ 

1891 

1802  

1S93     .     

1831 

1803 

1S90 

1837 

1838 

1899  

1000 

1901  

1902... 

1903 

1904... 

1905 

1W6 

*  Decrease. 

FOREIGN-BORN  WHITE  POPULATION  OF 
THE  U.  S.  BY  COUNTRY  OF  BIRTH. 


ANNUAL  NUMBER  OF  DIVORCES 
1867-1906. 


During  the  hunting  season  of  1911  there 
were  101  deaths  recorded  as  against  113  for  j 
1910,  87  in  1909,  57  in  1908,  82  in  1907  and 
74  in  1906.  The  greatest  number  of  deaths 
occurred  in  the  State  of  Michigan  where  16 
persons  were  killed,  followed  by  Illinois  with 
14  and  Wisconsin,  with  13, 


COUNTRY. 

1910 

1900 

In- 
crease. 

Total  foreign- 
boru  white  

Austria-Hungary.  .  . 
Austria 

13,342,500 

10,213,817 

3,128,683 

1,658,700 
1,190,200 
468,500 
2,499,200 
1,221,400 
875,400 
203,400 
82,600 
1,351,400 
1,341,800 
1,706,900 
1,577,300 
129,600 

1,250,500 
403.500 
665,500 
181.500 
749,300 
117,100 
101,100 
120,000 
124,800 
286,300 

1,198,000 
218,800 
146,500 

636,968 
491,259 
145,709 
2,813,413 
1,166,863 
839,830 
233,473 
93,560 
1.615,232 
483,963 
640,710 
578,072 
62,638 

1,062,124 
336,379 
571,986 
153,759 
450,036 
104,031 
8,513 
104,922 
115,581 
116,989 

1,172,745 

101,908 
69,855 

1,021,732 
698,941 
322,791 
-314,213 
54,537 
35,570 
29,927 
-10,960 
-263,832 
857,837 
1,066,190 
999,228 
66,962 

188,376 
67,121 
93,514 
27,741 
299,264 
13,069 
92,587 
15,078 
9,219 
169,311 

25,255 
116,892 
76,645 

Hungary....  

Germany 

Great  Britain  

England 

Scotland  

Wales. 

Ireland     

Italy. 

Russia  and  Finland. 
Russia    

Finland  
Norway,     Sweden, 
and  Denmark... 
Norway 

Sweden         

Denmark 

Other  Europe  

France 

Greece 

Holland 

Switzerland  
All  other  

Canada  and   New- 
foundland   

Mexico  

All  other  countries.. 

2-1 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DIVORCES:  NUMBER  AND  CAUSES,  SPECIFYING  THOSE  GRANTED  TO  HUS- 
BAND OR  WIPE,  BY  QUINQUENNIAL  PERIODS,  1887  TO  1906. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Cause., 

1887-1891 

1892-1896 

1897-1901 

1902-1906 

Increase 
1902-1906  as 
compared 
with 
1887-1891 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

GRANTED  TO  HUSBAND. 

Adultery.. 

17,  139 
4,047 
27,  150 
592 

31.2 
7.4 
49.4 
1.1 

19,  956 
6,068 
31,805 
765 
2 

3,190 
3,836 

30.4 
9.2 
48.5 
1.2 
(») 

4.9 

5.8 

24,269 
9,385 
43,186 
986 
1 

3,681 
4,798 

28.1 
10.9 
50.0 
1.1 
(l) 

4.3 
5.6 

29,526 
13,678 
54,142 
1,093 

4,805 
5,994 

27.0 
12.5 

49.6 
1.0 
(l) 

4.4 
5.5 

12,387 
9,631 
26,992 
501 
3 

2,151 
2,596 

72.3 
238.0 
99.4 
84.6 
0) 

81.0 

76.4 

Cruelty  

Desertion  

Drunkenness  . 

Neglect  to  provide 

Combinations    of    preceding 
causes,  etc.... 

2,654 
3,398 

4.8 
6.2 

All  other  causes  2  

Total... 

54,980 

10,880 
25,200 
35,  (.06 
5,397 
4,605 

13,  770 
6,826 

100.0 

10.6 
24.6 
34.8 
5.3 
4.5 

13.5 
6.7 

65,622 

13,714 
34,  509 
43,  153 
6,913 
6,857 

15,757 
8,414 

100.0 

10.6 
26.7 
33.4 
5.3 
5.3 

12.2 
6.5 

86,306 

16,  915 
48,  797 
58,382 
8,828 
10,423 

19,  979 
11,090 

100.0 

9.7 
28.0 
33.5 
5.1 
6.0 

11.5 
6.4 

109,  241 

21,360 
64,  541 
74,018 
11,942 
12,  779 

25,013 
13,  748 

100.0 

9.6 
28.9 
33.1 
5.3 
5.7 

11.2 
6.2 

54,261 

10,480 
39,  341 
38,352 
6,545 
8,174 

11,243 
6,922 

98.7 

96.3 

156.1 
107.5 
121.3 
177.5 

81.6 
101.4 

GRANTED  TO  WIFE. 

Adultery.. 

Cruelty  

Desertion  

Drunkenness. 

Neglect  to  provide 

Combinations    of    preceding 

All  other  causes*  
Total 

102,  344 

100.0 

129,  317 

100.0 

174,414 

100.0 

223,401 

100.0 

121,057 

118.3 

Less  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 


2  Includes  causes  unknown. 


8S\  AGRICULTURAL 
£\       PURSUITS 


UNOCCUPIED 

AND  NOT  REGISTERED 

62  p.c. 


APPROXIMATE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PURSUITS. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


25 


DIVORCES:  TOTAL  NUMBER  GRANTED,  SPECIFYING  THOSE  GRANTED  TO 
HUSBAND  OR  WIFE,  BY  NUMBER  OF  YEARS  MARRIED,  1887  TO  1906. l 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Number  of  years  married. 

Granted  to 
husband. 

Granted  to  wife. 

Total. 

Number. 

Percent. 

Number. 

Percent. 

Number. 

Percent. 

Lf'es  than  1  year 

6,684 
9,074 
19,  571 
24,033 
•^4,438 
22,942 
81,  142 
18,947 
17,059 
14,659 
13,631 
12,081 
10,  521 
9,230 
8,210 
7,376 
6,393 
6,742 
5,125 
4!  446 
4,351 
3,805 
3,318 
2,913 
2,644 
19,120 

2.2 
3.1 
6.6 
8.1 
8.2 
7.7 
7.1 
6.4 
6.7 
4.9 
4.6 
4.1 
3.5 
3.1 
2.8 
2.5 
2.1 
.9 
.7 
.5 
.5 
.3 
.1 
1.0 
.9 
6.4 

12,192 
18,689 
41,910 
49,019 
49,475 
45,828 
41,524 
37,470 
33,595 
29,738 
27,099 
24,288 
21,450 
19,030 
16,867 
15,603 
13,632 
12,159 
10,893 
9,807 
9,513 
8,336 
7,171 
6,575 
5,952 
35,314 

2.0 
3.1 
6.9 
8.1 
8.2 
7.6 
6.9 
6.2 
6.6 
4.9 
4.5 
4.0 
3.6 
3.2 
2.8 
2.6 
2.3 
2.0 
.8 
.6 
.6 
.4 
.2 
.1 
.0 
6.9 

18,876 
27,763 
61,481 
73,052 
73,913 
68,770 
62,666 
56,417 
50,654 
44.397 
40,730 
36,369 
31,  971 
28,260 
25,077 
22,979 
20,025 
17,901 
16,018 
14,263 
13,864 
12,  141 
10,489 
9,488 
8,596 
54,434 

2.1 
3.1 
6.8 
8.1 
8.2 
7.6 
7.0 
6.3 
5.6 
4.9 
4.5 
4.0 
3.6 
3.1 
2.8 
2.6 
2.2 
2.0 
1.8 
1.6 
1.5 
1.3 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
6.0 

1  year    ..        ...... 

2  vears  

3  years  

4  vears 

5  vears 

6  vears 

7  vears 

8  years  

9  vears        

10  vears  

11  vears  

12  vears 

13  vears    • 

14  vears 

15  vears  

16  vears  

17  years  

18  vears  

19  vears  

20  vears  

21  vears 

2">  vears 

23  vears 

24  vearo 

25  vears  and  over 

Total  

297,465 

100.0 

603,129 

100.0 

900,584 

100.0 

1  Calendar  years. 


GRANTED   TO   HUSBAND.  GRANTED   TO   WOTD, 

CAUSES  FOR  DIVORCES  1902-1906. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


27 


IMMIGRANT  ALIENS  ADMITTED,  YEARS  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1902  TO 

1911:  BY  RACE  OR  PEOPLE. 
[Source:  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.) 


Race  or  people. 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908  |  1909 

1910 

1911 

African  (black).  ..^  

832 
1,151 
5,590 

1,291 
1,631 
30.233 
2,423 

1,004 

*'*£ 
14,942 
120 
13,868 
4,126 
51,682 
8,115 
57,688 
29,001 
27,620 
152,  915 
14,  455 

11,629 
23,610 
715 
40 
69,620 
5,309 
2;033 
1,551 

7,533 
55,780 
2,432 
36,934 
1,954 
496 
4,982 
165 
760 

137 

147 

2,174 
1,759 
9,591 

6,479 
2.192 
32,907 
2,944 

1,736 
6,496 
83 
28.451 
133 
18,864 
7,166 
71,782 
14,376 
76,203 
35,366 
37,429 
196,  117 
^,041 
564 
14,432 
27,124 
486 
52 
82,343 
8,433 
4,740 
3.608 

9,843 
79,347 
6,219 
34,427 
3,297 
978 
5,551 
449 
1,278 

1>497 
89 

'  2,386 
1,745 
11,911 

4,577 
4,327 
21,  2& 
4,811 

2,036 
7,832 
258 
41,479 
29 
10,  157 
11,557 
74,790 
12,625 
106,236 
37,076 
36,699 
159,329 
14,382 
1,907 
12,780 
23,883 
447 
12 
67,757 
6,338 
4,364 
3,96J 

9,592 
61,029 
11,483 
27,940 
4,662 
1,666 
3,653 
1,482 
l,82d 

1,942 
668 

3,598 
1,878 
11,757 

5,823 
1,971 
35,104 
7,259 

2,639 
8,498 
145 
50,865 

17,012 
11,347 
82,360 
12,144 
129,910 
54.266 
39,930 
186,390 
11,021 
4,929 
18,604 
46.030 
227 
17 
102,437 
4,855 
7,818 
3,746 

"  14,  473 
62,284 
16,144 
52,368 
5,590 
1,658 
4,822 
2,145 
2,531 

1,548 
351 

3,786 
1,895 
12,958 

11,548 
1,485 
44,272 
5,591 

4,568 
9,735 
271 
45,079 

5,235 
2,644 
13,554 

27/174 
770 
47,826 
5,475 

7,393 
12,467 
1,072 
.51,126 

4,626 
3,299 
10,164 

18,246 
1,263 
20,472 
3,323 

3,747 
9,526 
1,710 
49,056 

4,307 
3,108 
6,850 

6,214 
1,841 
20,181 
3,380 

1,888 
8,114 
337 
39,021 

4,966 
5,508 
8,462 

15,130 
1,770 
39,562 
3,331 

4,911 
18,012 
1,782 
53,498 

6,721 
3,092 
9,223 

10,222 
1,307 
18.982 
3;  914 

4.400 
13,862 
517 
57,258 

Armenian  ,  

Bohemian,  Moravian.. 
Bulgarian,      Servian, 
Montenegrin 

Chinese  . 

Croatian,  Slovenian.  .. 
Cuban.  ..'.  '.  

Dalmatian,    Bosnian, 
Herzegovinian 

Dutch  Flemish 

East  Indian...  .         •* 

English  

Filipino  

Finnish                       > 

14,  136 
10,379 
86,813 
23,127 
153,748 
40,959 
46,286 
240,528 
14,243 
127 
14,257 
44,261 
141 
13 
95,835 
8,729 
11,425 
5,814 

"  16,  257 
58,141 
16,463 
38,221 
5,332 
1,585 
5  824 
2;  033 
2,367 

1,476 
1,027 

14,860 
9,392 
92,936 
46,283 
149,  182 
38,706 
51,564 
242,497 
30,824 
39 
25,884 
60,071 
91 
3 
138,033 
9,648 
19,200 
v   16,807 

24,081 
53,425 
20,516 
42,041 
9,495 
1,060 
5,880 
1,902 
2,754 

'1,381 
2,058 

6,746 
12,881 
73,038 
28,808 
103,387 
36,427 
24,700 
110,547 
16,418 
26 
13,720 
24,378 
5,682 
2 
68,105 
6,809 
9,629 
17,  111 

12,361 
32,789 
17,014 
16,  170 
6.636 
1,063 
5,520 
2,327 
2,504 

1,110 
1,530 

11,687 
19,423 
58,534 
20.262 
57,551 
31,185 
25,150 
165,248 
3,275 
11 
15,254 
28,704 
15,591 
7 
77,565 
4,606 
8,041 
10,038 

15,808 
34,9% 
16,446 
22,586 
4,939 
890 
3,668 
820 
1,699 

1,024 
1,537 

15,736" 
21,107 
71,380 
39,135 
84,260 
38,382 
30,780 
192,673 
2,798 
19 
22,714 
27,302 
17,760 
61 
128,348 
7,657 
14,199 
17,294 

27,907 
52,037 
24,612 
32,416 
5,837 
900 
6,317 
1,283 
2,244 

1,150 
3,330 

9,779 
18,  132 
66,471 
37,021 
91,223 
40,246 
30,  312 
159,638 
4,575 
8 
17,027 
19,9% 
18,784 
12 
-71,446 
7,469 
5,311 
18,  721 

17,724 
45,859 
25,625 
21,415 
8,068 
1,153 
5,444 
918 
2,248 

1,141 
3,323 

German 

Greek 

Hebrew    

Irish  j 

Italian  (north)  
Italian  (south) 

Japanese 

Korean 

Lithuanian               .  . 

Magyar  

Mexican  

Pacific  Islander  
Polish  

Portuguese 

Roumanian 

Russian 

Ruthenian  (Russniak), 
Scandinavian  '. 
Scotch     .        ... 

Slovak  

Spanish  .  :  

Spanish-American  
Syrian  

Turkish 

Welsh 

West  Indian  (except 
Cuban)  

All  other  peoples  
Total  .. 

648,743 

857,046 

812,870 

1,026,499 

1,100,735 

1,285,349 

782,870 

751,786 

1,041,570 

878,587 

SUMMARY  OF  BOILER  EXPLOSIONS. 


A  summary  of  the  number  of  persons  killed 
or  injured,  per  explosions,  for  successive  ten- 
year  periods,  shows  that  the  bciler  explosions 
of  this  country  have  been  becoming  less  and 
less  serious.  In  1871  there  were  89  ex- 
plosions recorded,  resulting  in  the  death  of 
383  persons  and  injuries  to  225,  or  4.3  persons 
killed  and  2.53  injured  per  explosion.  In  1881 
with  159  explosions,  there  were  251  persons 
killed  and  313  injured,  or  1.57  killed  and  1.96 
injured  per  explosion.  In  1891,  257  ex- 
plosions resulted  in  the  death  of  263  persons 
and  injuries  to  371,  or  1.02  killed  and  1.44 
injured  per  explosion.  In  1901,  423  ex- 
plosions resulted  in  312  deaths  and  in  juries 


to  646,  or  0.73  persons  killed  and  1.52  injured 
per  explosion.  In  1911,  there  were  499  ex- 
]  plosions  resulting  in  the  death  of  222  persons 
and  injuries  to  416,  or  0.47  persons  killed 
and  0.83  injured  per  explosion.  This  decrease 
is  most  probably  due  to  the  improvement  that 
has  taken  place  in  the  design,  construction, 
and  operation  of  steam  boilers,  and  not  to  the 
increased  use  of  sectional  boilers,  for  ex- 
perience has  indicated  that  the  bursting  or 
rupture  of  such  boilers  is  frequently  at- 
tended with  serious  consequences  in  the  way 
of  killing  or  injuring  the  attendants. 

Courtesy  of "  The  Locomotive"  Jan,  1909. 


28 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  IMMIGRANTS  IN  SPECIFIED  YEARS,  1891  TO 
1911:  BY  SEX  AND  AGE;  ALSO  IMMIGRANTS  DEBARRED  AND  RETURNED  WITHIN 
ONE  YEAR  AFTER  ARRIVAL,  AND  ILLITERATES  OVER  14  AND  16  YEARS  OP  AGE. 

[Sources:  Records  of  Bureau  of  Statistics  prior  to  1896;  for  subsequent  years,  reports  of  the  Commissioner 
General  of  Immigration,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Year 
ended 
June 
30— 

Total 
immi- 
grants. 

Sex. 

Ages. 

De- 
barred 
from 
land- 
ing. 

Re- 
turned 
within 
1  year 
after 
land- 
ing. 

Re- 
turned 
within 
3  years 
after 
land- 
ing. 

Able  to 
read, 
but  not 
write.  » 

Un- 
able to 
reader 
write.  » 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Under 
14 

years. 

14  to  45 
years. 

45  years 
and 
over. 

1891. 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911. 

560,319 
623,084 
502,917 
314,467 
279,948 
343,267 
230,832 
229,299 
311,715 
448,  572 
487,918 
648,  743 
857,046 
812,870 
1,026,499 
1,  100,  735 
1,285,349 
782.870 
751,786 
1,041,570 
878,587 

354,059 
385,  781 
315,845 
186,247 
'159,924 
212,  466 
135,  107 
135,775 
195,277 
304,  148 
331,055 
466,369 
613,  146 
549,  100 
724,*914 
764,463 
929,976 
506,912 
519,969 
736,038 
570,057 

206,260 
237,303 
187,072 
128,220 
120,024 
130,801 
95,725 
93,524 
116,  438 
144,  424 
156,863 
182,374 
243,900 
263,  770 
301,585 
336,272 
355,373 
275,958 
231.817 
305,  532 
308,530 

295,879 
289,167 
257,392 
241,755 
233,289 
252,741 
238,627 
*  38,  267 
43,983 
54,  624 
62,562 
74,063 
102,  431 
109,150 
114,668 
136,273 
138,344 
112,  148 
88,393 
120,509 
117,837 

•  405,843 
3491,839 
3  419,  701 
8258,162 
3233,543 
8254,519 
8  165,  181 
3164,905 
248,  187 
370,382 
396,  516 
539,254 
714,053 
657,  155 
855,  419 
913,955 
1,100,771 
630,  671 
624,  876 
868,310 
714,709 

*  58,  597 
<  42,  078 
<  25,  824 
<  14,  550 
<  13,  116 
*  36,  007 
«  27,  024 
<  26,  127 
19,545 
23,566 
28,840 
35,426 
40,562 
46,565 
56,  412 
50,507 
46,234 
40,051 
38,517 
52,751 
46,041 

2,164 
1,053 
2,389 
2,394 
2,799 
1,617 
3,030 
3,798 
4,246 
3,516 
4,974 
8,769 
7,994 
11,879 
12,371 
13,064 
10,902 
10,411 
24,270 
22,349 

'      637 
577 
417 
189 
238 
263 
199 
263 
356 
363 
465 
547 
300 
98 
61 
70 
114 
58 
23 
9 

59,  582 
16,784 
2,612 
5,066 
1,572 
1,416 
1,022 
2,097 
3,058 
2,917 
3,341 
3,953 
8,209 
4,755 
5,829 
2,310 
2,431 
4,571 
2,930 

61,038 
41,614 
42,302 
78,  130 
43,008 
43,057 
60,446 
93,576 
117,  587 
162,  188 
185,667 
168,903 
230,  882 
265,068 
337,  573 
172,  293 
191,049 
253,569 
182,273 

•;E; 



479 
747 
615 
925 
1,955 
2,066 
2,672 
2,779 

i  For  the  years  prior  to  1895  the  figures  are  for  persons  over  16  years;  for  1895  to  1910  for  persons  14  years 
of  age  and  over. 
» Under  15  years.  » 15  to  40  years.  « 40  years  and  over. 


1906-1911  1911 

IMMIGRANT  ALIENS  ADMITTED. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


29 


NET  INCREASE  OR  DECREASE  OF  POPULATION   BY  ARRIVAL  AND  DEPARTURE 
OF  ALIENS,  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  3O,  1910,  BY  RACES  OF  PEOPLES. 


Admitted. 

Departed. 

Increase 

Race  or  people. 

Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 

Total. 

Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Nonemi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Total. 

(+)or 
decrease 
(-)• 

African  (black)..              

4,966 

2,029 

6,995 

926 

1,878 

2,804 

+    4  191 

Armenian..., 

5,508 

140 

5,648 

521 

241 

762 

+    4  886 

Bohemian    and     Moravian 
(Czech)  

8,462 

604 

9,066 

943 

520 

1,463 

+    7  603 

B  ulgarian  ,  Servian  ,  and  Mon- 
tenpgrln 

15,130 

1,244 

16,  374 

2,720 

1,385 

4  105 

+  12  269 

Chinese 

1,770 

4,746 

6,516 

2.383 

5  267 

7  650 

1  134 

Croatian  and  Slavonian  

39,562 

2,513 

42,075 

7,133 

2,441 

9,574 

+  32,501 

Cuban  
Dalmatian,     Bosnian,    and 
Herzegovinian     ...   . 

3,331 
4,911 

4,116 
251 

7,447 
5,162 

1,556 
432 

5,813 
168 

7,369 
600 

+          78 
4.    4  562 

Dutch  and  Flemish     . 

13,012 

2,367 

15,379 

1,192 

2,755 

3,947 

+  11  432 

East  Indian 

1,782 

86 

1,868 

80 

98 

178 

+     1  690 

English 

53,498 

22,572 

76,070 

6  508 

33  582 

40  090 

+  35  980 

Finnish 

15  736 

1,492 

17  228 

1  276 

2  607 

3  883 

+  13'  345 

French  

21,  107 

5,349 

26,456 

4,029 

5,821 

9,850 

+  16  606 

German  

71,380 

14,650 

86,030 

13,303 

13,145 

26,448 

+  59  582 

Greek... 

39,135 

2,037 

41,  172 

8,814 

1,810 

10,624 

+  30  548 

Hebrew 

84,260 

3,503 

87,763 

5,689 

3,682 

9  371 

+  78  392 

Irish  . 

38,382 

8,807 

47,189 

2  472 

11  443 

13  915 

+  33  274 

Italian  (north) 

30,780 

7,412 

38  192 

13  431 

9  160 

22  591 

+  15  601 

Tt^iftn  (south) 

192  673 

22  772 

215  445 

41  772 

21  782 

63  554 

+  151  891 

Japanese 

2  798 

1  348 

4  146 

4  377 

3  133 

7  510 

3  364 

Korean  

19 

1 

20 

137 

16 

153 

—        133 

Lithuanian 

22.714 

"   628 

23,342 

1,812 

603 

2  415 

+  20  927 

Magyar  .. 

27,302 

2,766 

30,068 

10  533 

4  610 

15  143 

+  14  925 

Meilcan     " 

17,760 

3,237 

20,997 

210 

973 

1  183 

+  19  814 

Pacific  Islander 

61 

6 

67 

1 

g 

g 

+          58 

Polish  

128,  348 

6,055 

134,403 

16,884 

5,049 

21,933 

+112,470 

Portuguese..                    .  . 

7,657 

942 

8.599 

906 

2,368 

3,274 

+    5,325 

Roumanian 

14,199 

755 

14,954 

1,834 

813 

2,647 

+  12,307 

Russian 

17  294 

1,336 

18,630 

5  682 

2  213 

7  895 

+  10  735 

Ruthenian  (Russniak)  

27,907 

2,616 

30,523 

1,719 

1,601 

3,320 

+  27,203 

Scandinavian  (Norwegians, 
Danes,  and  Swedes)  

52,037 

11,569 

63,606 

5,032 

13,877 

18,909 

+  44,697 

Scotch  

24,612 

6.315 

30,927 

1,992 

7,883 

9,875 

+  21,052 

Slovak 

32,  416 

3,074 

35,490 

9,259 

1,912 

11,171 

+  24,319 

Spanish 

5  837 

4,555 

10,  392 

2,323 

3,676 

5  999 

+    4,  393 

Spanish-  American  

900 

1,563 

2,463 

387 

1,631 

2,018 

+        445 

Syrian  .  .  . 

6,317 

754 

7,071 

1,077 

816 

1,893 

+    5,  178 

Turkish... 

1,283 

139 

1,422 

1,058 

506 

1,564 

-        142 

Welsh. 

2,244 

744 

2,988 

195 

71,8 

913 

+    2,  075 

West  Indian  (except  Cuban). 
Other  peoples 

1,150 
3,330 

963 
411 

2,113 
3  741 

388 
806 

1,304 

674 

1,692 
1  480 

+        421 
+    2,  261 

Not  specified  

20,644 

20,644 

—  20,644 

Total  

1,041,570 

156,467 

1,198,037 

202,436 

177,982 

380,418 

+817,619 

Admitted  in  and  departed 
from  Philippine  Islands  

2,308 

7,223 

9,531 

1,010 

8,785 

9,795 

-        264 

ARRIVALS  OF  PASSENGERS  AT  THE 
PORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  total  number  of  passengers  that  arrived 
at  the  various  ports  of  the  United  States 
during  the  year  1900  was  594,478,  of  which 
number  120,477  were  United  States  citizens 
returning  from  foreign  countries;  25,429 
were  non-immigrant  aliens;  and  448,572 
were  immigrants.  In  1905  the  total  number  < 
of  passengers  arriving  at  the  ports  of  the 
United  States  was  1,234,615,  and  of  this 
number  167,227  were  United  States  citizens 
returning  to  the  States;  40,889  were  non- 


immigrant  aliens;  and  1,026,499  immigrants. 
For  the  year  1911  the  total  number  of 
passengers  arriving  at  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  was  1,299,428,  of  which  number 
269,128  were  United  States  citizens  returning 
home;  151,713  were  non-immigrant  aliens; 
and  878,587  were  immigrants. 

During  the  year  §  1910  there  were  2,838 
fatalities  In  coal  mines  as  against  1,465  in 
1900;  during  the  former  year  there  were  403 
persons  lost  at  sea  as  against  418  in  1900; 
in  1911,  there  were  9,857  deaths  as  a  result 
of  railway  accidents,  as  against  7,865  in  1900. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SEX,  AGE,  LITERACY,  FINANCIAL  CONDITION,  ETC.,  OF  IMMIGRANT 


Race  or  people. 

Number 
admitted. 

Sex. 

Age. 

Literacy,  14  years  and  over. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

Under 
14 
•"ears. 

14  to  44 
years. 

45  years 
and 
over. 

Can  read 
but  can 
not  write. 

Can  neither 
read  nor  write. 

Male. 

Fe- 

male. 

Male. 

Fe- 
male. 

African  (black)  

4,966 
5,508 

8,462 

15,130 
1,770 

39,562 
3,331 

4,911 
13,012 
1,782 
53,498 
15,736 
21,107 
71,380 
39,135 
84,260 
38,382 
30,780 
192,673 
2,798 
19 
22,714 
27,302 
17,760 
61 
128,348 
7,657 
14,199 
17,294 

27,907 

52,037 
24,612 
32,416 
5,837 
900 
6,317 
1,283 
2,244 

1,150 
3,330 

2,961 
4,686 

4,874 

14,253 
1,598 

32,947 
2,342 

4,453 
8,742 
1,768 
32,199 
10,724 
11,715 
42,191 
36,580 
46,206 
21,075 
23,754 
151,249 
915 
14 
15,360 
18,382 
11,617 
45 
91,275 
4,887 
12,602 
14,918 

21,198 

35,019 
15,546 
23,642 
4.890 
645 
4,148 
1,237 
1,504 

634 
3,243 

2,005 
822 

3,588 

877 
172 

6,615 
989 

458 
4,270 
14 
21,299 
5,012 
9,392 
29,189 
2,555 
38,054 
17,307 
7,026 
41,424 
1,883 
5 
7,354 
8,920 
6,143 
16 
37,073 
2,770 
1,597 
2,376 

6,709 

17,018 
9,066 
8,774 
947 
255 
2,169 
46 
740 

516 
87 

449 
389 

1,503 

388 
221 

1,855 
550 

173 
2,630 
6 
8,697 
1,235 
4,918 
12,165 
1,041 
21,869 
2,837 
2,722 
20,065 
121 
2 
1,813 
3,650 
4,078 

4,315 
4,957 

6,493 

14,250 
1,397 

36,438 
2,516 

4,594 
9,611 
1,762 
39,633 
14,182 
14,  114 
54,142 
,37,589 
557,191 
33,916 
27,014 
160,859 
2,609 
16 
20,381 
22,129 
11,951 
53 
115,112 
5,691 
12,778 
15,849 

25,933 

45,588 
18,805 
28,537 
5,058 
687 
5:ill 
1,245 
1,714 

838 
3,252 

202 
162 

466 

492 
152 

1,269 
265 

144 
771 
14 
5,168 
319 
2,075 
5,073 
505 
5,200 
1,629 
1,044 
11,749 
68 
1 
520 
1,523 
1,731 
8 
3,438 
440 
1,032 
343 

911 

1,997 
1,910 
1,092 
360 
90 
260 
17 
171 

106 
34 

6 
2 

2 

11 
11 

23 
2 

3 
5 

15 

637 

1,008 

38 

5,817 
142 

11,104 
63 

1.696 
188 
930 
•142 
30 
1,177 
1,910 
7,891 
7,593 
315 
1,611 
70,563 
42 

180 
183 

38 

327 

87 

1,525 
49 

168 
88 
6 
86 
34 
567 
1,472 
1,238 
10,370 
173 
417 
18.890 
689 
1 
3,827 
038 
2.892 

Armenian  
Bohemian  and  Mo- 
ravian (Czech)  — 
Bulgarian,  Servian, 
and  Montenegrin.. 
Chinese  

3 

""3" 

10 

Croatian    and    Slo- 
venian 

Cuban 

Dalmatian  ,  Bosnian  , 
and  Herzegovinian 
Dutch  and  Flemish. 
East  Indian  

1 

English  

10 
5 
18 
68 
13 
193 
18 
16 
118 

18 

4 
18 
59 

"iis" 

10 
1 

68 

Finnish. 

French 

German 

Greek 

Hebrew... 

Irish  

Italian  (north)  
Italian  (south)  .  . 

T^orwvn  .  .   . 

"eos" 

3 

18 

Lithuanian  
Magyar 

471 
3 
15 

6,6i9 
11,861 

£,103 
1 
29,598 
2,814 
4,405 
5,132 

10,660 

28 
55 
X4,691 
617 
20 
1,289 
788 
7 

18 
1,836 

Mexican 

Pacific  Islander..... 
Polish  ........ 

9,798 
1,526 
389 
1,102 

1,063 

4,452 
3,897 
2,787 
419 
123 
946 
21 
359 

206 

44 

1,237 
2 
6 
40 

56 

5 
5 
66 
9 

3 

1,059 

11,900 
1,348 
629 
1,038 

2,878 

25 
30 
1,611 
103 
U 
1,229 
26 
6 

14 

34  | 

Portuguese  

Roumanian  ,  L  , 

Russian. 

14 

29 

5 
3 

25 
3 

""»" 

Ruthenian  (Russ- 
niak)    . 

Scandinavian  (Nor- 
wegians,    Danes, 
and  Swedes)  
Scotch  

Slovak.. 

Spanish 

Spanish-  American  .  . 
Syrian 

Turkish 

Welsh 

1 

West  Indian  (except 
Cuban) 

Other  peoples. 

3 

Total 

1,041,570 

736,038 

305,532 

120,509 
440 

868,310 
1,768 

52,751 
100 

2,583 

1,988 

~ 

188,439 
167 

65,130 

Admitted  hi  Philip- 
pine Islands  

2,308 

1,984 

324 

24  \ 

ILLITERACY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  statement  shows  that  in  1910  there 
were  71,580,270  persons  10  years  of  age  or 
over  in  the  United  States,  of  whom  5,517,608 
were  unable  to  read  or  write,  constituting  7.7 
per  cent,  of  the  population. 

The  native  whites,  who  constituted  nearly 


75.0  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population,  had 
the  smallest  number  of  illiterates,  1,535,530, 
or  3.0  per  cent. 

The'foreign  born  whites  had  1,650,519  illite- 
rates, or  12.8  per  cent,  of  their  number. 

The  colored  had  2,331,559  illiterates,  or  30.5 
per  cent. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


31 


ALIENS  ADMITTED,  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDED,  JUNE  30,  1910,  BY  RACES  OR  PEOPLES. 


Money. 

By  whom  passage  was  paid. 

Going  to  join- 

Aliens  bringing— 

Total 

Other 

Neither 

amount 

Self. 

Relative. 

than 

en  If  n-w 

Relative. 

Friend. 

relative 

$50  or 

Less 

of  money 
shown. 

sen  or 
relative. 

nor 
friend. 

over. 

than  $50. 

667 

3,239 

$112,099 

3,831 

994 

141 

3,371 

615 

980 

479 

4,033 

143,120 

4,678 

811 

19 

4,552 

880 

76 

1,075 

5,026 

287,071 

5,463 

2,948 

51 

7,181 

1,091 

190 

779 

13,527 

390,864 

14,177 

907 

46 

7,395 

7,129 

606 

•622 

1,040 

70,242 

886 

854 

30 

862 

281 

627 

1,503 

34,455 

871.332 

35,926 

3,501 

135 

28,576 

10,303 

683 

599 

1,259 

78,371 

2,106 

1,,199 

26 

2,444 

367 

520 

279 

3,962 

111,285 

4,507 

394 

10 

3*553 

1,175 

183 

2.749 

5,058 

582,471 

7,994 

-4,795 

223 

9,310 

2,847 

855 

324 

1,412 

63,152 

1,623 

137 

22 

178 

451 

1,153 

18,377 

17,784 

2,966,225 

35,004 

17,097 

1,397 

36,733 

9,307 

7,458 

1,487 

12,205 

441,467 

10,537 

4,671 

528 

9,701 

5,589 

446 

5,295 

5,657 

958,  165 

11,917 

8,670 

520 

15,504 

2,438 

3,165 

15,706 

30,791 

3,300,315 

47,878 

22,567 

935 

57,778 

9,754 

3,848 

2,547 

34,047 

961,087 

37,019 

2,078 

38 

26,974 

11,637 

524 

5J367 

36,501 

1,555,585 

39,698 

44,174 

388 

79,660 

3,024 

1,576 

5,812 

24,832 

1,467,480 

23,541 

14,300 

541 

33,049 

3,309 

2.024 

4,031 

21,115 

875,644 

25,774 

4,727 

279 

24,974 

4,764 

1,042 

12,008 

146,608 

3,616,088 

147,763 

44,092 

818 

182,269 

8,706 

1,698 

1,427 

1,070 

144,369 

497 

2,265 

36 

2,271 

159 

368 

12 

4 

940 

(14 

4 

1 

6 

7 

6 

805 

16,958 

391,798 

14,004 

8,538 

172 

21,104 

1,457 

153 

2,177 

19,  193 

591,476 

19,905 

7,333 

64 

23,597 

2,809 

896 

759 

7,450 

178,951 

9,438 

8,129 

193 

8,442 

1,218 

8,100 

40 

1 

2,545 

1 

60 

1 

40 

20 

3,431 

106,082 

2,223,095 

""98,"  745' 

29,127 

476 

118,472 

8,390 

1,486 

539 

4,512 

128,284 

4,551 

2,228 

878 

5,252 

1,451 

954 

739 

12,335 

352.696 

12,524 

1,641 

34 

10,  142 

3,211 

846 

936 

13,363 

391,848 

13,605 

2,084 

1,605 

11,431 

3,719 

2,144 

439 

25,412 

569,776 

23,438 

4,339 

130 

23,549 

3,548 

810 

6,132 

36,232 

1,602,352 

38,016 

12,510 

1,511 

88,523 

11,279 

2,235 

7,609 

9,723 

1,237,906 

16,933 

7,408 

271 

17,091 

5,044 

2,477 

1,625 

27,019 

653.965 

27,014 

5,357 

45 

28,717 

2,976 

723 

1,622 

3,075 

262,811 

4,776 

980 

81 

3,348 

1,147 

1,342 

547 

109 

89,417 

549 

267 

84 

250 

118 

532 

936 

3,339 

192,359 

4.414 

1,873 

•30 

5,421 

705 

191 

117 

1,113 

54,861 

1,224 

57 

2 

797 

430 

56 

822 

742 

111,954 

1,538 

663 

43 

1,690 

393 

161 

429 

391 

61,608 

773 

340 

37 

586 

159 

405 

222 

2,921 

102,671 

3,173 

144 

13 

1,937 

1,266 

127 

111,071 

693,  595 

28,197,745 

755,453 

274.204 

11,913 

856,691 

133,  193 

51,686 

1,465 

726 

117 

888 

261 

1,159 

There  is  a  growing  increase  in  the  death 
rate  due  to  accidents?  in  the  air.  During  the 
period  1896-1909,  inclusive,  there  were  only 
8  deaths.  There  were  32  deaths  in  1910,  99 
in  1911  and  33  up  to  July  17,  in  1912,  the  total 
being  172  deaths.  France,  which  has  been 
more  active  in  aeronautics  than  any  other 


nation,  has  lost  54  of  her  airmen,  two  of  them 
women.  The  United  States  comes  second 
with  33  victims,  two  of  them  women.  Ger- 
many has  lost  29,  England  14,  Russia  8,  and 
Italy  7.  Other  nations  which  have,  lost  one 
or  more  airmen  are  Spain,  Belgium,  Peru, 
Hungary  and  Holland. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


INTENDED  FUTURE  PERMANENT  RESIDENCE  OF  ALIENS  ADMITTED 
AND  LAST  PERMANENT  RESIDENCE  OF  ALIENS  DEPARTED, 
FISCAL  YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1910. 


State  or  Territory. 

Admitted, 

Departed. 

Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 

Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Non- 
emigrant 
aliens. 

Alabama  

870 
356 
2,870 
378 
22,444 
5,114 
27,540 
1,579 
1,380 
6,207 
559 
4,186 
1,508 
93,340 
10,556 
7,545 
2,984 
736 
1,952 
5,328 
5,357 
82,666 
37,172 
21,541 
261 
12,746 
5,101 
5,244 
915 
6,561 
56,  462 
853 
280,880 
312 
7,626 
50,746 
1,092 
4,224 
174,  877 
22 
1,264 
12.078 
191 
3,389 
'574 
18,741 
3,578 
2,687 
1,521 
15,769 
9,132 
19,073 
1,483 

99 
160 
768 
41 
3,248 
536 
2,257 
108 
276 
2,795 
113 
492 
93 
6,457 
602 
538 
216 
73 
332 
226 
450 
7.742 
2,873 
1,527 
73 
826 
389 
307 
86 
269 
4,951 
113 
30,629 
42 
373 
3,112 
71 
310 
12,417 
4 
550 
1,076 
17 
212 
83 
2,068 
218 
198 
135 
1,566 
650 
1,191 
117 
62,392 

159 
101 
192 
86 
8,226 
1,376 
3,283 
159 
348 
1,967 
83 
2,267 
134 
13,165 
1,357 
616 
493 
151 
602 
292 
1,023 
11,  172 
2,598 
1,456 
217 
2,451 
603 
458 
201 
571 
8,468 
133 
59,  149 
54 
195 
7,286 
224 
571 
27,040 
4 
688 
1,207 
36 
126 
94 
920 
534 
354 
362 
1,581 
1,260 
2,090 
210 

90 
92 
208 
82 
5,491 
764 
1,661 
81 
237 
3,156 
76 
1,114 
118 
6,955 
494 
587 
279 
61 
534 
290 
308 
8,706 
2,584 
2,016 
147 
947 
734 
377 
136 
194 
3,435 
109 
27,549 
46 
490 
2,927 
77 
514 
9,800 
5 
414 
1,230 
30 
277 
53 
246 
253 
174 
158 
1,762 
410 
1,108 
168 
88,228 

Alaska  

Arizona  

Arkansas  

California  

Colorado  

Connecticut  .... 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida... 

Georgia  

Hawaii... 

Idaho... 

Illinois  

Indiana  

Iowa  .... 

Kansas.. 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine  

Maryland  

Massachusetts  .  .  . 

Michigan..      . 

Minnesota  . 

Mississippi.. 

Missouri 

Montana  

Nebraska  

Nevada  

New  Hampshire  

New  Jersey.  .  . 

New  Mexico... 

New  York. 

North  Carolina... 

North  Dakota 

Ohio.. 

Oklahoma  

Oregon 

Pennsylvania                                    « 

Philippine  Islands... 

Porto  Rico  

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee  

Texas... 

Utah.. 

Vermont  

Virginia 

Washington... 

West  Virginia... 

Wisconsin  

Wyoming  

Outside  the  United  States 

U  nknown  o  ^  

34,043 

Total 

1,041,570 

156,467 

202,436 

177,382 

34 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


OCCUPATION  OF  ALIENS. 


Occupation. 

Admitted. 

Departed. 

Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 

Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Non- 
emigrant 
aliens. 

PROFESSIONAL. 

Actors  

1,233 
312 
823 
154 
689 
1,921 
230 
282 
844 
264 
365 
398 
1,524 
1,295 

1,339 
179 
804 
181 
213 
1,911 
520 
294 
457 
551 
659 
280 
785 
1,163 

199 
85 
285 
23 
84 
467 
47 
65 
328 
163 
146 
471 
516 
401 

791 
244 
983 
195 
241 
2,183 
685 
209 
696 
711 
842 
527 
1,277 
1,164 

Architects  

Clergy  

Editors  

Electricians  .             

Engineers  (professional)  ...                               .            

Lawyers                                                                           .  •  . 

Literary  and  scientific  persons 

Musicians 

Officials  (government)  

Sculptors  and  artists                           .  .           ....         

Teachers     ......                                                                . 

Other  professional  

Total  professional.  ;  

10.334 

9,336 

3,280 

10,  748 

SKILLED. 
Bakers                                                                                   

3,469 
2.558 
4,789 
425 
185 
2,797 
607 
13,887 
11,297 
6,491 
1,695 
124 
543 
1,384 
500 
2,845 
352 
2.346 
3,336 
4.869 
6,257 
1,449 
808 
684 
703 
7,851 
3,460 

654 
745 
951 

4,ffi 

174 
8,785 
1,057 
1,491 
18,701 
486 
1,278 
720 
2,265 
287 
567 
4,500 
538 
585 
3,512 

562 
539 
577 
50 
66 
460 
87 
2,200 
4,027 
712 
669 
30 
69 
395 
61 
359 
99 
172 
777 
2,039 
1,116 
406 
114 
93 
97 
1,675 
536 
31 
97 
129 
154 
176 
49 
277 
24 
946 
312 
301 
1,348 
52 
158 
93 
1,454 
36 
64 
451 
59 
57 
964 

526 
582 
356 
33 
37 
360 
77 
1,501 
1,523 
475 
298 
18 
49 
229 
40 
120 
60 
51 
414 
640 
573 
287 
46 
38 
65 
6,665 
343 
4 
57 
38 
46 
112 
24 
326 
6 
752 
512 
209 
1,875 
31 
197 
49 
802 
30 
54 
247 
3 
31 
763 

549 
424 
396 
32 
55 
419 
127 
2,731 
4,887 
771 
605 
28 
63 
428 
45 
366 
144 
54 
982 
1,447 
989 
461 
60 
41 
113 
4,340 
612 
26 
97 
190 
170 
199 
53 
192 
1 
643 
347 
322 
1.409 
28 
651 
85 
2,419 
47 
61 
561 
15 
75 
1,608 

Barbers  and  hairdressers 

Blacksmiths 

Bookbinders 

Butchers  

Cabinetmakers.  .  .   .            .                 ...      

Carpenters  and  joiners               .                         

Clerks  and  accountants                                                     ..  

Dressmakers    .                                                                        .  .  . 

Engineers  (locomotive  marine,  and  stationary)                      ... 

Engravers 

Fim*iprs  and  fnr  workers 

Gardeners 

Hat  and  cap  makers  

Iron  and  steel  workers  

Jewelers  

Locksmiths  

Machinists  

Mariners.  .  .  . 

Masons  . 

Mechanics  (not  specified) 

Metal  workers  (other  than  iron,  steel,  and  tin)  

Milliners... 

Miners  .... 

Painters  and  glaziers  

Pattern  makers  

Photographers  

Plasterers  

Plumbers 

Printers  

Saddlers  and  harness  makers  ..                .                          ......... 

Seamstresses  

Shipwrights  

Shoemakers  

Stokers  

Stonecutters  

Tailors  

Tanners  and  curriers  

Textile  workers  (not  specified)  

Tinners. 

Tobacco  workers  .      .            

Upholsterers  .             

Watch  and  clock  makers                                               .  .     .     . 

W  pavers  and  SpintlPrs                ,                                                   ... 

Wheelwrights  "    .  . 

Woodworkers  (not  specified) 

Other  skilled 

Total  skilled                                                     .    . 

138,  570 



25,219 

21,574 

30,368 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


35 


OCCUPATION  OF  ALIENS— Continued. 


Occupation. 

Admitted. 

Departed. 

Immi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Nonim- 
migrant 
aliens. 

Emi- 
grant 
aliens. 

Non- 
emigrant 
aliens. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Agents 

922 
238 
932 
288,745 
11,793 
1,225 
236 
214,300 
450 
10,746 
96,658 
6,419 

1,566 
511 
212 
22,159 
3,683 
297 
276 
24,726 
685 
10,349 
13,152 
3,943 

154 

86 
134 
3,082 
3,015 
148 
110 
89,393 
86 
4,582 
8,318 
1,891 

938 
813 
335 
7,337 
5,529 
209 
231 
42,279 
945 
12,545 
17,630 
4,588 

Bankers 

Draymen,  hackmen,  and  teamsters  

Farm  laborers  

Farmers  

Fishermen.  . 

Hotel  keepers 

Laborers 

Manufacturers  

Merchants  and  dealers  

Servants  

other  Tnis«>]]anpoiis 

Total  miscellaneous 

632,664 

81,559 

110,999 

93,379 

No  occupation  (including  women  and  children)  

260,002 

40,353 

32,540 
34,043 

43,487 

Unknown  <*  

Grand  total  .                     

1,041,570 

156,467 

202,436 

177,982 

o  Left  United  States  via  Canadian  border.    Figures  reported  by  Canadian  government. 


POPULATION 

OF  EUROPE 

453  MILLIONS 


ENG-LISHAMDSCOTC 
43  MILLIONS 


SWEDES  6 

DUTCH   5'5 
FLEMINC-S 
DANES 
NORWEGIANS  I 


IPSIES  0'3 
IRANIANS  04 
BASQUES  0'6 
ALBANIANS  1.5 
ARMENIANS  I'S 
CAUCASIANS  3 
RHAETOROMANS 
AND  FURLANS   0'5 
WALLOONS  Z--5 


THE  RACES  OF  MANKIND. 


36 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RELIGIONSJ3F  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


DENOMINATIONS 

SUMMARY  FOR  1911 

MINISTERS 

CHURCHES 

COMMUNICANTS 

Adventists  (6  bodies) 

1,170 

41,627 
3,462 

'"226 
15 
33 
237 
17,151 

2,499 
56,439 
1,216 
403 
102 
74 
24 
239 

*t 
M. 

1,306 
237 
595 
68 
146 
22 
6,050 
13,479 
2634 
146 
15 
1,167 
3 
66 
1,308 
1,769 
1,350 
14,321 
844 
606 
61,969 
135 
204 
500 
16,711 
7,701 
2,657 
872 
8 
17 
6 
1,500 
123 
4,268 
492 
886 
879 
221,197 
218,365 

95,764 
5,634,565 
123,677 
10,566 
4,847 
3,165 
4,927 
424,000 
12,575,085 
1.412 
87,478 
5,865 
85,096 
13,905 
41,475 
4,286 
9.390 
2,272 
741,400 
1,464,774 
183,574 
9,572 
1,835 
122,796 
376 
34,704 
253,890 
143,000 
400,650 
2,289,897 
68,500 
55,007 
6,819,660 
18,939 
6,396 
21,921 
1,944,181 
956,930 
451,938 
26,724 
850 
1,262 
2,450 
200,000 
3,092 
311,834 
70,542 
53,048 
48,673 
35,836,  190 
35,241,824 

Baptists  (15  bodies)  

Brethren  (Dunkards,  4  bodies)  

Brethren  (Plymouth,  4  bodies)  

Brethren  (River,  3  bodies)  

Buddhists  (2  bodies)  ...             

Catholic  Apostolic  (2  bodies) 

Catholics  (Eastern  Orthodox  7  bodies) 

Catholics  (  Western  3  bodies) 

Christians  

993 
35 
2,612 
295 
509 
101 
131 

Christian  Catholic  (Dowie)  

Christian  Scientists  

Christian  Union     .  .                                                  .  . 

Church  of  the  Living  God  (Colored  3  bodies) 

Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  (2  bodies)  

Communistic  Societies  (2  bodies)  

Congregationalists  .  .  .•  

6,070 
8,070 
1,492 
241 
20 
1,413 
3 
59 
1,036 
1,084 
2,483 
8,774 
608 
1.008 
42,583 
142 
50 
865 
13,896 
5,453 
2,154 
3,112 
6 
15 
7 

'  2,207 
533 
709 
267 

Disciples  of  Christ  (2  bodies).  .   . 

Evangelical  (2  bodie*S) 

Faith  Associations  (9  bodies) 

Free  Christian  Zion  Church                                        . 

Friends  (4  bodies)  

Friends  of  the  Temple      

German  Evangelical  Protestant.  ...                    

Jewish  Congregations                                        .             . 

Latter-Day  Saints  (2  bodies)                                             . 

Lutherans  (23  bodies)  

Scandinavia  Evangelical  (3  bodies)  

Mennonkes  (12  bodies)  .... 

Methodists  (17  bodies) 

Moravians  (2  bodies) 

Non-sectarian  Bible  Faith  Churches  

Pentecostal  (2  bodies)  

Presbyterians  (12  bodies)  

Protestant  Episcopal  (2  bodies)  

Reformed  (4  bodies)  

Salvationists  (2  bodies) 

Schwenkf  eldians  

Social  Brethren  

Society  for  Ethical  Culture. 

Spiritualists  

Theosophical  Society 

United  Brethren  (2  bodies)  

Independent  Congregations  

Grand  total  for  1911    . 

172,431 

170,441 

Grand  total  for  1910  

d  Decrease. 


c  Census  of  1906. 


The  Religions  of  Mankind 

according  to  the  numbers  of  their  adherents. 


The  Religions  of  Europe 
according  to  the  numbers  of  their  adherents. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ORDER  OF  DENOMINATIONS. 


37 


Denominations. 


i  Rank  in 
1911. 


Communicants. 


Rank  in 
1890. 


Communicants. 


Roman  Catholic 1 

Methodist  Episcopal 2 

Regular  Baptist  (South) 3 

Methodist  Episcopal  (South) 4 

Regular  Baptist  (Colored) 

Presbyterian  (Northern) 6 

Disciples  of  Christ 7 

Regular  Baptist  (North) 

Protestant  Episcopal 9 

Lutheran  Synodical  Conference. .  .  10 

Congregationalist 11 

African  Methodist  Episcopal 12 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion.  I  13 

Lutheran  General  Council 14 

Latter-Day  Saints 15 

Lutheran  General  Synod 16 

Reformed  (German) 17 

United  Brethren I  18 

Presbyterian  (Southern) 19 

German  Evangelical  Synod I  20 

Colored  Methodist  Episcopal 21 

Spiritualists ' 22 

Methodist  Protestant 23 

Greek  Orthodox  (Catholic) 24 

United  Norwegian  Lutheran 25 

L'nited  Presbyterian 26 

Lutheran  Synod  of  Ohio 27 

Reformed  (Dutch) 28 

Evangelical  Association 29 

Primitive  Baptist 30 

Dunkard  Brethren  (Conservative)  31 


12,556,612 

3,234,822 

2304,724 

1,892,454 

1,799,222 

1,340,310 

1,308,116 

1,211.426 

947,320 

780.938 

741,400 

620,234 

547,216 

467,495 

350,000 

309,702 

297,829 

291,461 

287,174 

253,890 

234,721 

200,000 

183,318 

175,000 

170,088 

136,850 

131,923 

117,288 

109,506 

102,311 

100,000 


1 
2 

4 

5 

3 

7 

8 

6 

9 

12 

10 

11 

13 

14 

21 

20 

15 

16 

18 

17 

24 

39 

22 

138 

26 

27 

33 

28 

23 

25 

35 


6,231,417 

2,240,354 

1,280,066 

1,209,976 

1.348,989 

788,244 

641,051 

800,450 

532,054 

357,153 

512,771 

452,725 

349,788 

324,846 

144,352 

164,640 

204,018 

202,474 

179.721 

187,432 

129,383 

45,030 

141,989 

100 

119,972 

94,402 

69,505 

92,970 

133,313 

121,347 

61,101 


ORDER  OF  DENOMINATIONAL  FAMILIES. 


Denominational  Families. 


Rank  in 
1911. 


Communicants. 


Rank  in 
1890. 


Communicants. 


Catholic  (Roman,  etc.) 

Methodist 

Baptist 

Lutheran 

Presbyterian 

Episcopal 

Reformed 

Latter-Day  Saints 

United  Brethren 

Dunkard  Brethren 

Friends 

Adventists. . . 


12.575,085 

6,819,660 

5.634,565 

2,289,897 

1.944,181 

956,930 

451,938 

400,650 

311.834 

123,677 

122,796 

95,764 


1 

•2 

3 

5 

4 

G 

7 

() 

8 

13 

11 

14 


6,257,871 

4,589,284 

3,717,969 

1.231,072 

1,278,362 

540.509 

309,458 

166,125 

225,281 

73,795 

107.208 

60,491 


— Courtesy  of  the  Christian  Advocate. 

FOURTH  OF  JULY  FATALITIES. 

Fourth  of  July  fatalities  in  1912  were 
reduced  to  17  as  a  result  of  the  movement 
to  do  away  with  the  old  custom  of  causing 
dangerous  explosions  for  fun.  In  1911 
there  had  been  57  deaths.  The  number  of 
persons  injured  in  1912  was  326  as  against 
1,546  in  1911  and  2,792  hi  1910.  The  loss 
sustained  by  Fourth  of  July  fires  caused 
by  gunpowder  throughout  the  country 
exceeded  half  a  million  dollars. 


1003      190*     1905      1906      1907      1908       }9tW       1910       1911 


38 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PENSION  ACT  APPROVED  MAY  11,  1912. 


That  any  person  who  served  ninety  days  or 
more  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States  during  the  late  Civil  War,  who 
has  been  honorably  discharged  therefrom, 
and  who  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty-two  or 
over,  shall,  upon  making  proof  of  such  facts, 
according  to  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  may  provide,  be 
placed  upon  the  pension  roll  and  be  entitled 
to  receive  a  pension  as  follows:  In  case  such 
person  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty-two  years 
and  served  ninety  days,  thirteen  dollars  per 
month;  six  months,  thirteen  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  per  month;  one  year,  fourteen 
dollars  per  month;  one  and  a  half  years, 
fourteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  month; 
two  years,  fifteen  dollars  per  month ;  two  and 
a  half  years,  fifteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
month;  three  years  or  over,  sixteen  dollars 
per  month.  In  case  such  person  has  reached 
the  age  of  sixty-six  years  and  served  ninety 
days,  fifteen  dollars  per  month;  six  months, 
fifteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  month;  one 
year,  sixteen  dollars  per  month;  one  and  a 
half  years,  sixteen  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
month;  two  years,  seventeen  dollars  per 
month;  two  and  a  half  years,  eighteen  dollars 
per  month;  three  years  or  over,  nineteen 
dollars  per  month.  In  case  such  person  has 
reached  the  age  of  seventy  years  and  served 
ninety  days,  eighteen  dollars  per  month;  six 
months,  nineteen  dollars  per  month ;  one  year, 
twenty  dollars  per  month;  one  and  a  half 
years,  twenty-one  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
month;  two  years,  twenty-three  dollars  per 
month;  two  and  a  half  years,  twenty-four 
dollars  per  month;  three  years  or  over, 
twenty-five  dollars  per  month.  In  case  such 
person  has  reached  the  age  of  seventy-five 
years  and  served  ninety  days,  twenty-one 
dollars  per  month;  six  months,  twenty-two 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  per  month;  one  year, 
twenty-four  dollars  per  month;  and  a  half 
years,  twenty -seven  dollars  per  month;  two 
years  or  over,  thirty  dollars  per  month.  That 
any  person  who  served  in  the  military  or 
naval  service  of  the  United  States  during  the 
Civil  War  and  received  an  honorable  discharge 
and  who  was  wounded  in  battle  or  in  line  of 
duty  and  is  now  unfit  for  manual  labor  by 
reason  thereof,  or  who  from  disease  or  other 
causes  incurred  in  line  of  duty  resulting  in 
his  disability  is  now  unable  to  perform  manual 
labor,  shall  be  paid  the  maximum  pension 
under  this  Act,  to  wit,  thirty  dollars  per 
month,  without  regard  to  length  of  service  or 
age. 

That  any  person  who  has  served  sixty  days 
or  more  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States  in  the  War  with  Mexico  and  has 
been  honorably  discharged  therefrom,  shall, 
upon  making  like  proof  of  such  service,  be 
entitled  to  receive  a  pension  of  thirty  dollars 
per  month. 


All  of  the  aforesaid  pensions  shall  com- 
mence from  the  date  of  filing  of  the  applica- 
tions in  the  Bureau  of  Pensions  after  the 
passage  and  approval  of  this  Act:  Provided, 
That  pensioners  who  are  sixty-two  years  of 
age  or  over,  and  who  are  now  receivin-r 
pensions  under  existing  laws,  or  whose  claim , 
are  pending  in  the  Bureau  of  Pensions,  may, 
by  application  to  the  Commissioner  of 
Pensions,  in  such  form  as  he  may  prescribe, 
receive  the  benefits  of  this  Act;  and  nothing 
herein  contained  shall  prevent  any  pensioner 
or  person  entitled  to  a  pension  from  prosecut- 
ing his  claim  and  receiving  a  pension  under 
any  other  general  or  special  Act:  Provided, 
That  no  person  shall  receive  a  pension  under 
any  other  law  at  the  same  time  or  for  the 
same  period  that  he  is  receiving  a  pension 
under  the  provisions  of  this  Act:  Provided 
further,  That  no  person  who  is  now  receiving 
or  shall  hereafter  receive  a  greater  pension, 
under  any  other  general  or  special  law,  than 
he  would  be  entitled  to  receive  under  the 
provisions  herein  shall  be  pensionable  under 
this  act. 

SEC.  2.  That  rank  in  the  service  shall  not 
be  considered  in  applications  tiled  hereunder. 

SEC.  3.  That  no  pension  attorney,  claim 
agent,  or  other  person  shall  be  entitled  to 
receive  any  compensation  for  services  rendered 
in  presenting  any  claim  to  the  Bureau  ot 
Pensions,  or  securing  any  pension,  under  this 
Act,  except  in  applications  for  original  pension 
by  persons  who  have  not  heretofore  received 
a  pension. 

SEC.  4.  That  the  benefits  of  this  Act  shall 
include  any  person  who  served  during  the  late 
Civil  War,  or  in  the  War  with  Mexico,  and 
who  is  now  or  may  hereafter  become  entitled 
to  pension  under  the  Acts  of  June  twenty- 
seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety, 
February  fifteenth,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-five,  and  the  joint  resolutions  of  July 
first,  nineteen  hundred  and  two,  and  Juno 
twenty -eighth,  nineteen  hundred  and  six, 
or  the  Acts  of  January  twenty -ninth,  eighteen 
hundred  and  eighty-seven,  March  third, 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-one,  and 
February  seventeenth,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety  -seven. 

SEC.  5.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Pensi9ns,  as  each  application 
for  pension  under  this  Act  is  adjudicated, 
to  cause  to  be  kept  a  record  showing  the  name 
and  length  of  service  of  each  claimant,  the 
monthly  rate  of  payment  granted  to  or  re- 
ceived by  him,  and  the  county  and  state  of  his 
residence;  and  shall  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal 
year  nineteen  hundred  and  fourteen  tabulate 
the  record  so  obtained  by  States  and  counties, 
and  shall  furnish  certified  copies  thereof  upon 
demand  and  the  payment  of  such  fee  therefor 
as  is  provided  by  law  for  certified  copies  of 
records  in  the  executive  departments. 


PENSIONS. 


On  June  30,  1911,  the  pensioners  on  the 
roll  of  the  United  States  Government  were 
divided  as  follows:  War  of  1812,  widows  279; 
Indian  wars,  survivors  1,387,  widows  2,629; 
War  with  Mexico,  survivors  1,639,  widows 
5,982;  Civil  War,  by  the  Act  of  February  6, 


1907,  356,830,  by  the  general  law,  invalidj 
113,063,  widows  67,509,  minor  children  385, 
mothers  1,877,  fathers  278,  brothers,  sisters, 
sons  and  daughters  5,353,  helpless  children 
508,  by  the  Act  of  June  27,  1890,  invalids 
59,991,  minor  children  3,983,  helpless  children 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


39 


375,  by  the  Act  of  April  19,  1908,  widows 
22X.198,  army  nurses  406;  war  with  Spain, 
invalids  23,383,  widows  1,217,  minor  children 
326,  mothers  3,032,  fathers  522,  brothers, 
sisters,  sons  and  daughters  9,  helpless  chil- 
dren 1;  and  by  regular  establishment,  in- 
valids 13,757,  widows  2,799,  minor  children 
149,  mothers  1,066,  fathers  152,  brothers, 
sisters,  sons  and  daughters  8,  helpless  chil- 
dren 5.  Thus  the  total  number  of  pensioners 
at  that  time  was  892,098;  the  number  of 
soldiers  and  sailors  on  the  roll  being  570,050; 
the  number  of  dependents  and  widows 
321,642,  and  the  number  of  army  nurses  406. 

The  total  amount  available  for  pensions  for 
the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1911  was 
$157,507,359.74  and  of  this  amount  $157,- 
325,160.35  was  disbursed;  thus  leaving  an 
unexpended  balance  of  $182,199.39. 

With  the  total  number  of  pensioners 
892,098,  and  the  total  annual  value  of  the 
pensions  $154,834,237.80,  the  average  annual 
value  of  each  pension  for  all  classes  amounts 
to  $173.56;  by  general  establishment  each 
pension  has  an  annual  value  of  $173.63;  by 
the  General  Law,  Civil  War  $228.58;  by  the 
Act  of  June  27,  1890  $143.26;  by  the  war  with 
Spain  $128.47;  by  the  Act  of  Feb.  6,  1907 
$173.47;  for  survivors  of  the  Civil  War 
S191.41;  by  the  Act  of  April  19,  1908, 
S141.99. 

Beginning  with  the  year  1866  the  number 
of  pensioners  for  certain  years  were  as  follows: 
1866,  126,722;  1870,  198,686;  1875,  234,821; 
1880,  250.802;  1885,  345,125;  1890,  537,944; 
1895,  970,524;  1900,  993,529;  1905,  998,441; 
1910,  921.083;  1911,  892,098. 


PENSIONS  OF  THE  SEVERAL    WARS  AND    OF  THE 
PEACE  ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  amounts  that  have  been  paid  for 
pensions  to  soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines, 
their  widows,  minor  children,  and  dependent 
relatives  on  account  of  military  and  naval 
service  in  the  several  wars  and  in  the  regular 
service  since  the  foundation  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  June  30,  1911,  are  as  follows: 
War  of  the  Revolution 

(estimate) $70,000,000.00 

War  of  1812  (service  pension        45,853,024.19 
Indian         wars          (service 

pensi9n) 11,192,205.52 

War   with    Mexico    (service 

pension) 45,279,686.83 

Civil  War 3,985,719,836.93 

War  with  Spain  and  insur- 
rection in  Philippine  Isls . .        34, 142,976.37 

Regular  establishment 21,705,852.33 

Unclassified 16,488.147.99 

Total    disbursements    for 

pensions $4,230,381,730.16 

HISTORICAL. 

There  are  now  no  pensioners  on  account  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  on  the  roll,  the  last 
pensioner  of  that  war  having  died  during  the 
year  1911.  The  last  survivor  of  the  Revolu- 
tion was  Daniel  F.  Bakeman,  who  died  at 
Freedom,  Cattaraugas  County,  N.  Y.,  on 
April  5,  1869,  aged  100  years  6  months  and 
8  days. 

The  last  surviving  pensioned  soldier  of  the 
War  of  1812  was  Hiram  Cronk,  of  Ava,  N.  Y.t 
who  died  May  13,  1905,  aged  105  years  and 
16  days. 


POPULATION  OF  CANADA. 


The  population  of  Canada  by  first  census 
of  1665  was  3,251;  in  1763,  70,000;  in  1871, 
3,485,761;  in  1881,  4,324,810;  in  1891, 
4,833,239;  in  1901,  5,371,315.  Canada 
began  the  20th  century  with  the  same  popula- 
tion as  the  United  States  began  the  19th. 
Unrevised  returns  of  the  census  in  1911  give 
the  population  at  7,081,869,  an  increase  of 
1,710,554,  or  32  per  cent,  in  ten  years. 

The  population  of  Canada  by  provinces, 
as  shown  by  the  census  of  1901  and  1911,  is  as 
follows: 


1911 


Alberta 372,919 

British  Columbia 362,768 

Manitoba 454,691 

New  Brunswick 351,815 

Nova  Scotia 461,847 

Ontario 2,519,902 

Prince  Edward  Island .  .  .         93,722 

Quebec :2,000,697 

Saskatchewan 153,508 

Northwest  Territories 10,000 

Yukon 


1901 

73,022 

178,657 

255,211 

331,120 

459,574 

2,182,947 

103,259 

1,648,898 

91,279 

20,129 

27,129 


7,081,869  5,371,315 


EXPENDITURES    FOR    1910.  PUPILS  ENROLLED  AND  TEACHERS  EMPLOYED. 

COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  UNITED  STATES,  1910. 


40 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


EDUCATION. 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES. 

The  statistics  relative  to  school  attendance 
in  the  United  States  has  just  become  available. 
The  total  number  of  persons  of  school  age, 
that  is  to  say,  from  6  to  20  years,  inclusive, 
in  continental  United  States  in  1910  was 
27,750,599,  of  whom  17,300,202,  or  62.3  per 
cent,  attended  school. 

Persons  from  6  to  9  years  of  age  numbered 
7,725,234,  of  whom  5,678,320,  or  73.5  per  cent, 
attended  school,  while  those  from  10  to  14 
years  of  age  numbered  9,107,140,  of  whom 
8,028,660,  or  88.2  per  cent,  attended  school. 

Of  the  whole  number  of  persons  from  15  to 

17  years  of  age,  namely,  5,372,177,  those  at- 
tending school  numbered  2,748,387,  or  51.2 
per  cent.,  while  of  the  5,546,048  persons  from 

18  to  20  years  of  age,  there  were  844,835,  or 
15.2  per  cent,  who  attended  school. 

For  the  combined  group,  6  to  14  years,  in- 
clusive— the  most  common  years  of  school  at- 
tendance— there  was  a  total  of  16,832,374  per- 
sons reported  in  1910  and  of  this  number 
13,706,980,  or  81.4  per  cent.,  attended  school. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  period  of  maximum 
school  attendance  is  in  the  ages  10  to  14  years. 
For  these  years  a  comparison  can  be  made 
with  the  census  of  1900.  In  1900,  79.8  per 
cent,  of  the  children  attended  school,  as  com- 
pared with  88.2  per  cent,  in  1910.  The  f9llow- 
mg  summary  gives  the  percentage  of  children 
10  to  14  years  of  age  attending  school  in  each 
of  the  years  1910  and  1900  by  geographic 
divisions:  191Q  1900 

United  States. ..                       ,.  88.2  79 . 8 

New  England 94.1  90.0 

Middle  Atlantic 92.9  85.7 

East  North  Central 93.8  88.1 

West  North  Central 93 .6  88.3 

1910  1900 

South  Atlantic 78.7  65.6 

East  South  Central 79.0  65.8 

West  South  Central 80.5  68.3 

Mountain 90.2  85.2 

Pacific 94.1  91.8 

In  the  Northern  and  Western  divisions  over 
nine-tenths  of  the  children  in  these  ages  are 
enrolled  in  schools.  In  the  three  Southern 
divisions,  the  proportion  approximates  eight- 
tenths.  A  comparison  of  the  two  years  shows 
an  advance  in  all  sections,  but  it  is  most 
marked  in  the  Southern  states,  reflecting  the 
great  progress  of  popular  education  in  those 
states  in  recent  years. 

The  age  of  compulsory  school  attendance 
where  it  exists  differs  under  the  laws  for  dif- 
ferent states.  It  generally  begins  when  a  child 
reaches  8  years  of  age  and  ceases  when  he 
reaches  14  years  of  age.  The  percentage  of 
children  in  the  ages  8  to  13  years,  both  inclu- 
sive, who  attend  school  is  undoubtedly  higher 
than  for  the  children  6  to  14  years,  given  in 
the  table.  The  latter  group  comprises  some 
children  who  have  not  begun  and  some  who 
have  finished  their  schooling. 

PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  PRIVATE 
HIGH  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 

In  the  school  year  1911  there  were  10.234 
public  high  schools,  and  1,979  private  high 


schools.  In  the  public  high  schools  there  were 
20,152  male  secondary  teachers  and  25,015 
female  secondary  teachers;  433,053  male  sec- 
ondary students  and  551,624  female  secondary 
students. 

In  the  private  high  schools  there  were  4,986 
male  teachers  and  7,087  female  teachers;  then- 
were  61,298  male  secondary  students  and 
69,351  female  secondary  students. 

PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

In  the  school  year  1911  there  were  22:< 
public  normal  schools  having  1,254  male 
teachers  and  2,385  female  teachers.  There 
were  15,358  male  students  and  60,284  female 
students.  There  were  65  private  normal 
schools,  having  202  male  and  286  female 
teachers,  and  2,622  male  students  and  5,831 
female  students. 

UNIVERSITES,    COLLEGES   AND    TECH- 
NOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 

In  the  school  year  there  were  581  institu- 
tions of  this  class,  having  23,260  male  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  and  5,025  female  pro- 
fessors and  instructors.  In  the  preparatory 
schools  there  were  39,615  male  and  20,552  fe- 
male students.  In  the  collegiate  department 
there  were  111,449  male  students  and  61,2<>"> 
female  students.  The  total  receipts,  exclu- 
sive of  additions  to  endowment  funds,  was 
$80,902,571. 

UNDERGRADUATE   STUDENTS  IN  UNI- 
VERSITIES, COLLEGES  AND  SCHOOLS 
OF  TECHNOLOGY. 

Out  of  581  institutions  included  under  the 
above  head,  there  were  145  colleges  for  men, 
having  37,144  undergraduate  students.  Then- 
were  97  colleges  for  women,  having  lX.<tN.~> 
undergraduate  .students.  There  were  339  co- 
educational institutions,  having  74,305  male- 
undergraduate  students,  and  42,280  female 
undergraduate  students,  making  a  total  of 
116,585. 

PROFESSIONAL  SCHOOLS. 

In  the  school  year  1911  the  number  of 
schools  and  of  students  was  as  follows: 

193  schools  of  theology  served  10,834  stu- 
dents; 116  law  schools  had  19,615  students 
enrolled;  122  medical  colleges  had  19,14(1 
students  enrolled;  55  dental  colleges  had  6,961 
students;  77  schools  of  pharmacy  had  6,131 
students;  21  veterinary  schools  had  2,571 
students. 

SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  BLIND,  DEAF  AND 
FEEBLE-MINDED. 

In  the  school  year  1911  there  were  53  State 
schools  for  the  blind  in  the  United  States, 
having  4,670  pupils.  There  were  57  State 
schools  for  the  deaf,  having  10,740  pupils. 
In  addition  there  were  55  public  day  schools 
for  the  deaf,  having  1,607  pupils,  and  20  pri- 
vate schools,  having  693  pupils.  There  were 
also  27  State  institutions  for  the  feeble-minded 
caring  for  19,672  inmates,  while  IX  private  in- 
stitutions cured  for  997  inmates. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


41 


REGISTRATION  STATISTICS  OF  SPECIFIED  UNIVERSITIES 
ON  NOVEMBER  1,  1911. 

[Data  furnished  by  Rudolf  Tombo,  jr.,  alumni  secretary  Columbia  University.] 


University. 

Total 
attend- 
ance i 
Nov.  1, 
1911. 

Attend- 
ance 
summer 
session, 
1911. 

Grand 
total. 

Deduct 
summer 
session 
students 
who  re- 
turned 
in  fall. 

Net  total, 
Nov.  1, 
1911. 

Total, 
Nov.  1, 
1910. 

Total, 
Nov.  1, 
1908. 

Total, 
Nov.  i, 
1903. 

California     

4,051 

1,964 

6,015 

291 

5,724 

4,758 

3,751 

3,690 

Chicago 

2  666 

3  248 

5,914 

524 

5,390 

5,883 

5,114 

4  146 

5  669 

2,973 

8,642 

704 

7,938 

7,411 

5,675 

4,557 

Cornell 

4,889 

1,152 

6,041 

432 

5,609 

5,169 

4,700 

3,438 

Harvard  (including  Rad- 
cliffe)       

4,724 

787 

5,511 

85 

5,426 

5,329 

5,342 

6,013 

Illinois                 

4,570 

647 

5,217 

288 

4,929 

4,659 

4,400 

3,239 

1,350 

1,068 

2,418 

264 

2,154 

2,132 

2,113 

1,143 

Iowa                 

1,772 

309 

2,081 

114 

1,967 

1,957 

2,356 

1,260 

Johns  Hopkins  

740 

335 

1,075 

18 

1,057 

784 

698 

694 

2  019 

429 

2,448 

183 

2,265 

2,246 

2,086 

1  319 

Michigan      

4,783 

1,194 

5,977 

525 

5,452 

5,339 

5,188 

3,926 

Minnesota  

4,307 

476 

4.783 

235 

8  4,  548 

4,972 

4,607 

3,550 

2  273 

507 

2,780 

184 

2,596 

2,678 

2  558 

1  540 

Nebraska 

2  474 

403 

2,877 

144 

»2,733 

3,661 

3  154 

2  513 

New  York 

3,688 

490 

4,178 

123 

4,055 

3,947 

3  951 

2  177 

3  387 

94 

3  481 

43 

3  438 

3  543 

3  113 

2  740 

Ohio  State 

3  085 

792 

3,877 

310 

3  567 

3  181 

2  700 

1  710 

Pennsylvania            . 

4  718 

682 

5,400 

180 

5  220 

5  187 

4  555 

2  644 

Princeton      

1,543 

1,543 

1,543 

1,451 

1,314 

1  434 

Stanford      

1,634 

50 

1,684 

36 

1,648 

1,648 

1,541 

1  370 

Syracuse 

3  183 

225 

3  408 

101 

3  307 

3  248 

3  204 

2  207 

Texas 

1  935 

734 

2,669 

130 

2  539 

2  597 

1  446 

'785 

Tulane           

1,192 

936 

2,128 

88 

2,040 

1  985 

1  171 

1  037 

Virginia 

804 

804 

804 

688 

757 

638 

Western  Reserve 

1  331 

1  331 

1  331 

1  274 

1  016 

765 

W  isconsin         ... 

3,956 

1,536 

5,492 

477 

5  015 

4  745 

3*876 

3  221 

Yale      

3,224 

3,224 

3,224 

3  287 

3  466 

2  990 

1  In  all  faculties,  excluding  preparatory  or  extension  department. 

2  These  figures  do  not  include  the  registration  in  the  two  branch  schools  of  agriculture,  nor  in  any  of  the 
short  courses,  some  of  which  were  included  in  the  previous  years.    The  actual  attendance  in  the  fall  of 
1911  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  1910. 

3  Certain  classes  of  students  counted  in  previous  years  must  have  been  omitted  in  the  total  for  1911,  since 
the  institution  reports  a  gain  over  1910. 


TRAINING  SCHOOLS  FOR  NURSES,  COM- 
MERCIAL SCHOOLS,  MANUAL  AND 
INDUSTRIAL  TRAINING 
SCHOOLS. 

In  the  school  year  1911  there  were  1,118 
training  schools  for  nurses,  having  29,762  stu- 
dents. There  were  also  600  commercial 
schools,  having  155,244  students.  There  were 
285  manual  training  schools,  having  61.296 
students;  115  reform  schools  took  care  of 
51,387  of  the  wayward. 

INSANE  ix  INSTITUTIONS. 

The  number  of  insane  persons  in  institutions 
in  the  United  States  in  1910  was  1S7.454.  of 
which  number  G0,»;o:i  were  committed  during 


the  year.  Those  discharged,  dying,  or  trans- 
ferred totaled  53,880.  The  number  of  persons 
committed  to  hospitals  for  the  insane  per 
100,000  of  population  for  the  year  1910  was 
65.9  and  the  total  number  of  insane  persons 
in  institutions  per  100,000  population  was 
203.8. 


According  to  the  latest  figures  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  is  the  largest  university  in  the 
workTwith  17,000  students,  after  which  follow 
Cairo  with  10,000;  Berlin,  9,600;  -Moscow. 
9,000  and  St.  Petersburg,  9,000.  The 
Asiatic  universities  are  not  considered  m  the 
above  rating.  Columbia  is  the  largest 
university  in  the  United  States  with  8.00O 
students  followed  by  California  with  5,724 
and  Cornell  with  a, Hit'.). 


42 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  TOWNS  OF  THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  POPULATION. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  (with  suburbs)  is  given  in  thousands.     The  inner  circles  give 
the  population  80  to  100  years  ago. 


CHAPTER   II. 


FARMS,  FOODS  AND  FORESTS. 


FARMS,  FARM  LAND,  AND  FARM  PROPERTY  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


1910 

1MO 

INCKEASE.I 

(April  15) 

(June  1) 

Amount. 

Percent. 

Urban  population  -'  
Rural  population  3  

Number  of  all  farms 

42,623,383 
49,348,883 

6  361  508 

31,609,645 
44,384,930 

11,013,738 
4,963,953 

34.8 
11.2 

Land  area  of  the  country  acres.  . 
Land  in  farms  acres 

1,903,289,600 
878  798  S^o 

1,903,461,760 
838  591  774 

-172,160 
40  206  551 

48 

Improved  land  in  farms  acres.  . 

Average  acreage  per  farm  
Average  improved  acreage  per  farm  
Per  cent  of  total  land  area  in  farms  

478,451,750 

138.1 
75.2 
46.2 

414,498,487 

146.2 
72.2 
44.1 

63,953,263 

-8.1 
3.0 

15.4 

-5.5 
4.2 

Per  cent  of  land  in  farms  improved  

54  4 

49  4 

Per  cent  of  total  land  area  improved  

25.  1 

21  8 

Value  of  farm  property,  total..  
Land 

$40,991,449,090 

28  475  674  169 

$20,439,901,164 

$20,551,547,926 

100.5 

Buildings...     
Implements  and  machinery  
Domestic  animals,  poultry",  and  bees  

6,325,451,528 
1,265,149,783 
4,925,173,610 

$6  444 

3,556,639,496 
749,775,970 
3,  075,  477,  703 

$3  563 

2,768,812,032 
515,  373,  813 
1,849,695,907 

77.8 
68.7 
60.1 

Average  value  of  all  property  per  acre  of  land  in  farms. 
Average  value  of  land  per  acre  

46.64 
32  40 

2437 
15  57 

22.27 
16  83 

91.4 
108  1 

'  A  minus  sign  (  -  )  denotes  decrease. 

usW  ^STon  tf^ 
>  Total,  exclusive  ol  urban. 


**  '^  *"  "* 


NUMBER  AND  ACREAGE  OF  FARMS  AND  NUMBER  OF  ACRES 
IMPROVED  AND  UNIMPROVED. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.] 


Census  year, 

Number  of 
farms. 

Number  of  acres  in  farms. 

Per  cent  of  farm 
land- 

Improved. 

Unimproved^ 

Total. 

Average 
number 
of  acres 
to  a  farm. 

Im- 
proved. 

Unim- 
proved. 

1850  
1860 

1,449,073 
2,044,077 
2,  659,  985 
4,  008,  907 
4,564,641 
5,737,372 
6,361,502 

113,032,614 
163,  110,  720 
188,321,099 
284,771,042 
357,616,755 
414,498,487 
478,  451,  750 

180,528,000 
244,  101,  818 
218,813,942 
251,310,793 
265,601,864 
424,093,287 
400,  346,  575 

293,  560,  614 
407,212,538 
407,  735,  041 
536,  081,  836 
623,218,619 
838,591,774 
878,798,325 

202.6 
199.2 
153.3 
133.7 
136.5 
146.2 
138.1 

38.5 
40.1 
46.3 
53.1 
57.4 
49.4 
54.4 

61.5 
59.9 
53.7 
46.9 
42.6 
50.6 
45.6 

18701 

1880  » 

1890'  
19002  .... 

1910*  * 

Not  including  farms  of  less  than  3  acres  which  reported  the  sale  of  less  than  $500  worth  of  prod- 
ucts  in  the  census  year. 
*  Exclusive  of  Alaska  and  Hawaii. 
» Exclusive  of  Alaska,  Hawaii,  and  Porto  Rico. 

43 


44 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


8313  I  =?s 
1§SS"  a'  aa 


ej 
** 


sill.8  ~~ 


S    ^S?5J 


ISII 

ton     C* 


'"  "^^    " 


7°  sill 


|  Slil 


§t-*co  o  ^*  -^r  o 

SSS  5  ^ 

fggg  8  ?" 

iiii 


Is  -s 

—  ~"  <n  "5 


- 


N! 


s 
8-8,  :§ 


oo  :o 


e^g.2  ss 
;|°S°  I-S||  *'i 


Loss  of  Constituents  on  Boiling. 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF 

A  POTATO,  TURNIP  AND 

STRAWBERRY. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


45 


WEALTH  PRODUCTION  ON  FARMS. 

[Source:  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Calendar  year. 

Wealth  pro- 
duction. 

Calendar  year. 

Wealth  pro- 
duction. 

1899 

Dollars. 
4  717  000  000 

1906  

Dollars. 
6,755,000,000 

1900                                             

6,017  000,000 

1907  

7,488,000,000 

1901                            

5,  317,  000,  000 

1908  

7,778,000,000 

1902 

6  617  000  000 

1909 

8  760  000  000 

1903 

6  917  000  000 

1910                    

8  694  000  000 

1904                                               

6  159  000  000 

1911        

8,417,000,000 

1905 

6  309  000  000 

VRQTEID  i?e/ 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF 
WHITE  AND  YOLK  OF  EGG. 


ACTUAL  COMPOSITION  OF  EGG. 
WEIGHT  50  CMS. 


•'  !  •••••  • 

? ••••Oil, 


•  400,000  acres. 

9  SCO.GOO  to  400,000 

3  200,000  to  300,000  acres. 

O  100,000  to  200,000  acres. 

O  Less  than  100,000  acres. 


CORN:  ACREAGE  BY  STATES,  1000. 


46 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CEREAL  CROPS:  ESTIMATED  PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE. 


Total. 

Average. 

Commodity. 

Area. 

Production. 

Farm  Value 
Dec.  1. 

Farm  Value 
per  bushel 

Yield 
per 

Farm  Value 
of  yield 

Dec.  1. 

acre.        per  acre. 

Acres. 

Bushels. 

Dollars. 

Cents. 

Bshls. 

Dollars. 

Corn: 

' 

1866-751.. 

32,715,700      969,947,600 

454,534,800 

47.8 

26.1 

12  48 

1911  

105,825,000  2,531,488,000!  1,565,258,000 

61.8 

23.9 

14.77 

Wheat: 

1866-751.. 

20,470,300 

244,672,300 

257,586,800 

108.6 

11.9 

12.92 

1911  

49,543,000 

621,338,000 

543,063,000 

87.4 

12.5 

10.93 

Oats: 

1866-751.. 

9,746,000 

272,992,800 

102,422,700 

37.8 

28.1 

10.62 

1911  
Rye: 

37,763,000 

922,298,000 

414,663,000 

45.0 

24.4 

10.98 

1866-751.. 

1,346,800 

18,266.600 

14,559.000 

78.1 

13.6 

10.62 

1911  

2,127,000 

33,119,000 

27.557,000 

83.2 

15.6 

12.98 

Barley: 

1866-751.. 
1911  
Buckwheat: 

-  1,196,500 
7,627,000 

26  992,300 
160,240,000 

21,382.200 
139,182,000 

79.0 
86.9 

22.9 
21.0 

18.09 
18.25 

1866-751.. 

729.900 

13,368.800          9.735.200          72.5 

18.3 

13.27 

1911  

833,000 

17,549,000 

12,735,000 

72.6 

21.1 

15.32 

i Average  per  year  for  the  period. 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U.  S.— Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


0  400,000  acres. 

9  300  000  to  400,000  acres. 

9  200,000  to  400,000  acres. 

O  180,000  to  200,000  acres. 

Q  Less  than  100,000  acres. 


WHEAT:  ACREAGE  BY  STATES,  1909. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE-  BOOK. 


47 


Copyright,    Munn    &    C 


THE    ENORMOUS    CROPS    OF    1909. 
poh'tan1  tower  ^  Madison  S(5uare  the  cr°Ps  of  this  year  would  completely  swamp  the  Metro- 

OVER  HALF  THE  CEREAL  ACREAGE  IX  CORX. 

In  the  United  States  as  a  whole  a  little 
more  than  one-half  of  the  acreage  devoted  to 
cereals  is  in  corn,  a  little  less  than  one-fourth 
in  wheat,  and  slightly  less  than  one-sixth  in 
oats.  In  each  of  the  nine  divisions,  except  the 
Pacific,  the  three  leading  cereals — corn,  wheat, 
and  oats — occupy,  as  in  the  United  States  at 
large,  much  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 


total  cereal  acreage.  In  the  Pacific  states  the 
acreage  of  corn  is  insignificant,  and  that  of 
barley  exceeds  that  of  pats.  Corn  occupies 
the  leading  place  in  the  important  cereal-pro- 
ducing regions,  but  in  the  New  England  and 
-Middle  Atlantic  divisions  the  first  place  is  held 
by  oats,  and  in  the  Pacific  and  Mountain 
divisions  by  wheat. 


48 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


HAY  CROP:  ESTIMATED  ACREAGE,  PRODUCTION,  AND  VALUE,  1911. 

For  the  year  1911  the  production  of  hay  in  The  average  price  of  hay  per  short  ton  on 

the  United  States  was  47,444,000  short  tons,  December  1,  1911  was  $14.64,  and  the  average 

and   the   total   acreage  of  land  in   hay  was  yield  per  acre  for  the  year  was  1.10  short  tons. 

43,017,000.  The  total  farm  value  of  the  United  The  average  farm  value  of  yield  per  acre  on 

States  on  December  1,  1911,  was  $694,570,000.  December  1,  1911  was  $16.10. 


•  400,000  acres. 

9  300,000  to  400,000  acres, 

d  200,000  to  300,000  acres. 

O  100,000  to  200,000  acres. 

O  Less  than  100,000  acres. 


HAY  AND  FORAGE  CROPS,  1909. 


INITIATIVE  AND 

The  "initiative"  is  a  political  device  by 
which  the  people  are  enabled  to  pass  laws  or 
ordinances  without  change  or  modification 
by  the  ordinary  legislative  bodies.  It  has 
been  called  the  positive  or  constructive  side 
of  direct  legislation,  just  as  the  referendum, 
which  enables  the  people  to  reject  proposed 
laws,  is  the  negative  side.  By  this  method 
a  minority  ranging  in  number  from  5  to  25 
per  cent,  may  file  a  petition  for  a  law,  or, 
when  a  city,  an  ordinance.  The  measure  must 
then,  without  change  or  revision,  go  before 
the  people  for  their  judgment,  and,  if  it  is 
approved  by  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast,  it 
becomes  law  without  further  process.  Laws 
and  ordinances  so  passed  are  not  subject  to 
veto. 


REFERENDUM. 

The  "referendum"  may  be  defined  as  tho 
submission  of  a  proposed  law,  or  ordinance, 
which  has  been  passed  by  the  people's 
representative  in  a  legislature  or  council,  to 
a  vote  of  the  people  for  ratification  or  re- 
jection. It  has  been  in  use  in  a  reetricted 
form,  in  the  United  States  for  many  years', 
especially  in  passing  upon  constitutions  and 
constitutional  amendments.  It  is  only  sinco 
1898,  however,  that  the  referendum,  in  con- 
nection with  the  initiative,  has  been  used  as 
an  instrument  of  direct  legislation  both  by 
states  and  cities.  The  states  which  have 
adopted  the  initiative  and  referendum  are 
Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Illinois, 
Maine,  Missouri,  Montana,  Oklahoma,  Oregon, 
South  Dakota  and  Utah.  Nevada  has 
adopted  the  referendum  only. 


THE  RECALL. 


The  "recall"  is  a  method  of  procedure  by 
which  the  people  are  enabled  to  remove  from 
his  position  any  public  elective  official  at  will. 
This  requires  a  petition  signed  by  a  certain 
specified  percentage  or  number  of  voters. 
The  usual  percentage  in  such  cases  is  25.  In 
most  cities  under  the  commission  form  of 
government  the  recall  of  elective  public 


officers  is  provided  for  through  the  filing  of 
petitions  signed  by  from  15  to  75  per  cent,  of 
the  voters.  In  South  Dakota  cities  the  per- 
centage is  only  15,  while  in  Illinois  it  is  55, 
and  33  in  Louisiana.  In  Oregon  all  state 
officials,  including  judges  and  members  of  the 
legislature,  are  subject  to  the  recall. — Chicago 
News  Almanac,  1912. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


49 


TOBACCO  CROP  IN  CONTINENTAL  UNITED  STATES:  1911. 


For  the  year  1911  there  were  1,012,800 
acres  of  land  planted  in  tobacco,  and  the  total 
product  derived  therefrom  amounted  to  9( ,,',,- 
1(K).  >.),)  non-ids.  Th'>  value  of  this  product 
was  estimated  at  ?K.5,210.387.  Kentucky 
rankexl  first  in  the  tobacco  producing  states 


UMITED  KlflQDOM 
1.98 


A  YEAR  S  CONSUMPTION  OF  TOBACCO 
(in  pounds  per  head) 


of  the  Union.  West  Virginia  second,  then  fol- 
lowed, in  their  respective  order,  Nortn  C'aro- 
li.ia,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania.  Tennessee,  ^isron- 
.sri,  Indiana,  Maryland.  West  Virgim-i,  South 
Carolina,  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Missouri, 
and  Illinois. 


UNITED  5TATE5 
6,411,000 


INDIA 
5,000,000   ? 


RUSSIA 
1,447,000 


DUTCH  E.INDlEi      JAPAN 
1,001,000          835,000 


-HUNGARY 
601,000 


577.00O 


CUBA 
367,000 


A  YEAR  S  CROP  OF  TOBACCO 
(per  cwt.,  112  pounds) 


«  <3C,OCO  acres. 

9  300,000  to  400,000  acres. 

3  200,000  to  300,000  acres, 

O  100,000  10  200,000  acres. 

O  Less  than  100,000  acres. 


0\TS:   ACIlKAdK   liY  STATI-S.    1<)(H). 


50 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,    Munn    &    Co. 


WHAT  OUR  AVHEAT  CROP  MEANS. 

The  735,260,970-bushel  wheat  crop  of  1996  converted  into  a  1,214-fool  'barrel  of  flour,  and 
baked  into  an  immense  loaf,  2,158  feet  high. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


51 


WOOL  PRODUCTION,  CALENDAR  YEAR  1911. 

On  April  1,  1911  the  total  number  of  sheep  and  unwashed,    and    139,896,195   pounds    , 

of  shearing  age  was  39,761,000,  and  the  aver-  scoured  wool.     The  average  value  per  pound 

age  weight  of  a  fleece  for  the  year  was  6.98  of   scoured    wool    for    1911    was    477    cents 

pounds.     The  per  cent,  of  shrinkage  for  the  -J     ^       '    • 
same  year  was  60.4.    For  the  same  year  there 
were   318,547,900    pounds   of   wool,    washed 


the    total    value    of    all    the    scoured 

'• 19U  <Boston  Market) 


For  the  year  1911  the  total  3,619,000  acres 
planted  to  potatoes  in  the  United  States  pro- 
duced a  total  of  292,737.000  bushels  of  pota- 
t •><•-.  Their  total  farm  value  on  December  1, 
1911  was  $233,778,000,  making  the  average 


and 


POTATO  CROP:   1911. 

price    per   bushel     79.9   cants.     The    average 
yield  per  acre   for   the  whole  United    Sta  tes 
was     80  9    bushels    and    the    average    farm 
yicld  per  acre  on   December  1  was 


SUGAR  BEETS. 


During  the  year  1910  there  were  61  sugar 
beet  factories  in  operation.  For  the  same 
period  there  were  398,029  acres  of  sugar  beets 
harvested,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  was 
10.17  short  tons.  The  factories  of  the  United 


States  worked  4,047,292  short  tons  of  beets 
and  produced  1,020,344.000  pounds  or  510,172 
short  tons  of  sugar.  For  the  same  period  there 
were  696,640,000  pounds  of  cane  sugar  pro- 
duced and  44,538,760  gallons  of  molasses 


BEET. 


V     1  I    \K's    PRODUCTION. 

(In    Tons) 


CANE. 


WATER 


PROTEIDA 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRAT 

CELLULOSE 
M  I  N.  M 


Loss  of  Constituents  on  Boiling. 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  CABBAGE  AND  BREAD. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COT  TON  ACREAGE  AND  YIELD   PER  ACRE  IN  1911,  BY  STATES. 


State. 

Area 
planted, 
1911, 
revised. 

Area 
picked, 
1911. 

Yield 
per  acre, 
1911. 

Virginia 

Acres. 
44  000 

Acres. 
43  000 

Pounds. 
330 

North  Carolina 

1  657  000 

1  624  000 

315 

South  Carolina 

2  800  000 

2  800  000 

280 

Georgia 

5  579  000 

5  504  000 

240 

Florida 

318  000 

308  000 

130 

Alabama          

4,043,000 

4  017  000 

204 

Mississippi              ... 

3,426,000 

3,340  000 

172 

Louisiana 

1,118,000 

1,075  000 

170 

Texas  .               

11,150,000 

10,943,000 

186 

Arkansas                                 .              .  . 

2,  470,  000 

2,363,000 

190 

Tennessee 

850,  000 

837,  000 

257 

Missouri 

132,  000 

129,000 

360 

Oklahoma    •                        .... 

3,081,000 

3,  050,  000 

160 

California                                

13,000 

12,000 

390 

United  States  

36,681,000 

30,045,000 

207.7 

For  the  year  1909  the  32,043,838  acres  of 
cotton  harvested  produced  a  total  of  10,- 
(>4!).2f>8  running  hales.  The  total  value  was 
$703,619,303,  making  the  average  value  per 


acre  $21.90,  and  the  average  value  per 
bale  #66.07.  The  average  yield  per  acre 
\v:i>  0.33  bales  for  the  whole  of  the  United 
States. 


•  400,000  acres. 

9  300,000  to  400,000  acres. 

3  200,000  to  300,000  acres. 

O  100,000  to  200,000  acres. 

O  Less  than  100,000  acres. 


COTTON:   ACREAGE   BY  STATE-.    1  <>()<>. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


53 


100,000  dairy  cow*.        ^ -«-/ 

HO,  000  to  200,000  dairy  Co  wa. 

3    100,000  to  150,000  dairy  cows. 
50,000  to  100,000  dairy  cows.. 

O    Leas  than  50.000  dairy 


DAIRY  TOWS  o.V   I-'A1MI<:     X TUBER  BY  STATES,   1910. 


For  the  year  1909  the  totil  cost  of  ma- 
terials used  in  the  production  of  butter,  cheese, 
and  condensed  milk  in  factoiies.  was  §235,- 
543,064.  The  9,888,727.303  pounds  of  milk 
consumed,  cost  $118,675,613;  the  1, 406,143, JM)S 
pounds  of  civum,  $95,026,50?;  the  56,974, 76!) 
pounds  of  skimmed  milk,  SI  10,469;  the  78,- 
457,978  pounds  of  sugar,  S3, 674, 174;  and  all 
other  materials  cost  $18,000,301. 

There  were  1,620,766,000  pounds  of  butter,  '• 
valued  at  1403,030,000  produced  on  farms  and  I 
in  factories  in  the  United  States  during  the  ; 
census  year  1909. 

Of  the  grand  total  reported,  the  quantity 
produced  on  farms  was  996,001,000  pounds, 
valued  at  §225, 544. 000.  Factories  produced 
(',24,705,030  pounds,  valued  at  §179,510,000.  • 
Butter  manufactured  by  farmers'  cooperative 
creameries  is  included  in  the  figures  for  fac- 
tories. 


^ 

823 
\    ( 

,••*.-.'., 

r^O'4-  5i.J-  PRO  TEID 

\ 

O-3 

ia-sy° 

*  .,      T^CARBQHYDRATE 
4  n  j^MIN  MAT 

V    /  %         , 

*—^ACID8 

The  624,764.653  pounds  of  butter  produced 
in  factories,  of  which  410,692,616  were  packed 
solid  and  214,072,037  were  in  prints  and  rolls, 
were  valued  at  $179,510,619;  the  311,126,317 
pounds  of  cheese,  with  a  value  of  $43,239,924, 
were  divided  in  the  following  proportion:  full 
cream  287,110,383  pounds,  value  $40,817,073; 
part  cream  10,803,392  pounds,  value  $1,188,- 
000;  skimmed  7,7/0,812  pounds,  value  S429,- 
519;  and  other  kinds  5,441,730  pounds,  value 
$305,332.  There  were  494,796,544  pounds  of 
condensed  milk  produced,  with  a  total  value 

-  ;  :. 563, 129,  of  which  amount  214,518,310 
pounds,  having  a  value  of  $17,345,278  were 
sweetened  and  280,278,234  pounds,  with  a 
value  of  §16,217,851  were  unsweetened.  Be- 
sides these  products  the  factories  sold  81,- 
211,374  pounds  of  cream,  having  a  value  of 
$9,828,972;  352,594,574  pounds  of  skimmed 
milk  with  a  value  of  $629,135;  casein  dried 
from  skimmed  milk,  valued  at  $795,544,  to  the 
amount  of  13,018,298  pounds,  and  all  other 
products  to  a  value  of  $6,990,395. 


:?'.LULOS£ 
PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  APPLE  AND  CUCUMBER. 


54 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


\ 

7, 

1 

J 

\ 

i 

-aM/A 

///////A 

' 

UNITED  STATES 
5.886,093,107 

INDIA 
1,600,340.000 


EGYPT 
716,593.964 


CHIMA 
225,000.000 


BRAZIL 
98.175,000 


A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION  OF  COTTON. 

(in    Ibs.) 


OLEOMARGARINE. 

During  the  year  1911  a  total  quantity  of 
117,600,953  pounds  of  oleomargarine  was  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  The  internal 
revenue  tax  paid  for  this  amount  was  $571,- 
158.75;  2,842,629  pounds  being  taxed  at  tin- 
rate  of  ten  cents  a  pound,  and  114,758,324 
pounds  at  one-fourth  of  one  cent  per 
pound. 

BEKS. 

According  to  the  Census  report  for  1910 
there  were  in  the  Tinted  States  3,445.000  col- 
onies of  bees,  with  a  value  of  $10,373,615,  or 
an  average  of  $.'{.01  per  colony.  Nine  ami 
two-tenths  per  cent,,  or  585,065  farms  in  the 
United  States,  reported  bee  colonies. 

FLORIST  AND  NURSERY  PRODUCTS. 

In  1909  there  were  10.614  florist  estab- 
lishments reporting  products  valued  at 
$34,872, 01  HI 

The  total  value  of  nursery  products  re- 
ported from  5,582  establishments  in  1909  was 
$21,051,000. 


UNITED  5TATE5 
56,08^,000 


RUSSIAM    EMP. 
12,734,000 


GERMANY 
£2,080,000 


/UJST-HUMq-ARY 
12,0)2,997 


UNITED  KINGDOM 
4,041,2*6 


RUSSIAN   EMP.       ARQEHTIMA 
43,204,000  25,844,000 


3^ 

y-n 

FRANCE 


(3ERMAMY 
20,589,856 


FRANCE 

2 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  FARM  ANIMALS  OF  THK  NVolJU). 


AU5T-HUN<jARY 
16,249,535 


UNITED  KirKjOOM 
4,041,245 


Figures  vary  somewhat  from  those  given  in  Tables. 


COTTONSEED  PRODUCTS:  PRODUCTION 
AND  MANUFACTURE,  1910. 

During  the  year  1910  there  were  5,175,000 
short  tons  of  cottonseed  produced  in  the 
United  States  and  of  this  amount  4,106,000 
short  tons  were  manufactured.  The  average 
value  per  ton  of  cottonseed  used  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  was  $27.40  per  short  ton. 
The  cottonseed  products,  having  a  total 
value  of  $142,710,000,  were  as  follows:  Oil, 
167  970  000  gallons  with  a  value  of 
$80,430,000;  cake  and  meal,  1,792,000  short 
tons,  with  a  value  of  $44,660,000;  hulls, 


1,375,000  short  tons, 
.SI  1,370,000;  [inters.  3' 
pounds  net,  with  a  valui 


with      a      value     of 

),')7(i     hales    of     .')()() 
of  $0.250,001). 


FLAXSEED  CROP:  1911. 

In  1911  the  2,757,000  acres  planted  to  flax- 
seed  produced  a  crop  of  19,370,000  bushels. 
The  total  farm  value  on  December  1,  of  that 
ye-.ir,  was  §35.272,000.  thus  making  the  aver- 
age price  paid  per  bushel  $1.82.  The  average 
yield  per  acre  amounted  to  7.0  bushels.  The 
average  farm  value  of  yield  per  acre  was 
$12,75, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


55 


I,     PERCEXTAGE  COMPO8I- 
£      TIOX  OF  B  AX  AX  A.  CAR- 
I     ROT,   ASPARAGUS.    LET- 
TUCE AXD  TOMATO. 


56 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE   HOOK. 


Nl'MBKR  AND  VALUE  OF  FARM  AXI.MALS,   !!)!(). 


AGE  AND  SEX  GROUP. 

FARMS  REPORTING. 

ANIMALS. 

Number. 

Per  cent 
of  all 
farms. 

Number. 

Value. 

Avorase 
value. 

Total  

6,017,142 

94.9 



$4,731,182,929  |  

CATTLE                             

5,205,772 
5,127,635 

1,440,383 
2,372,305 
2,647,484 
1,344,727 

857,564 
5,442 

83.0 
80.9 

22.7 
37.4 
41.8 
21.2 

13.5 
0.1 

61,225,791 
20,580,845 

11,788.473 
7,253,450 
7,757,935 
5,409,711 

7,447,502 
987,815 

1,484.889,647 
704,612,120 

263,123.294 
102,53:5,205 
51,999,020 

90,844.5^5 

251,490,377 
20,  680,  499 

Dairy  cows  (cows  and  heifers  kept  for 
milk  born  before  Jan  1,  1909) 

$34.21 

22.32 
14.11 
6.65 

10.  7  J 

33.77 
20.91 

Other  cows  (cows  and  heifers  not  kept 
for  milk,  born  before  Jan.  1,  1909).  .  .  . 
Heifers  born  in  1909  

Calves  born  after  Jan.  1,  1910  

Steers  and  bulls  born  in  1909,  .  . 

Steers  and  bulls  born  before  Jan.  1, 
1909 

Class  not  specified  

HORSES  AND  COLTS  .                .         . 

4,671,441  j          73.7 

4,047,632            73.3 
1,024,008             16.1 
439,254              6.9 
1,762          (') 

19,731,000 

17,344,910 
1,721.904 
607,937 
50,22:5 

2,076,297,828 

1,951,803,485 
101,501,987 
I'd,,  53.5.  259 
2,45'J,097 

Mares,  stallions,  and  geldings  born  be- 
fore Jan  1   1909 

112.53 
58.  «5 
33.  7^ 
43.61 

Colts  born  in  1909  . 

Colts  born  after  Jan.  1,  1910  

Class  not  specified  

MULES  AND  MULE  COLTS                  

1,861,474  !          29.4 
1,756,338      '     27.7 
107,012              2.6 
8(i,(i71               1.4 

4,183,572 
S,  764,842 

310,  869 
108,  301 

522.402,080 

495,15<S,2tW 
22,7H.H,7ys 
4,505,014 

Mules  born  before  Jan.  1,  1909 

131.54 
73.  15 
41.57 

Mule  colts  born  in  1909 

Mule  colts  born  after  Jan.  1,  1910  
*  SSES  AND  BURROS  (all  ages) 

43,233  |            0.7 

101,392  ;          13,092,867 

129.  13 

SWINE  

4,340,592            68.5 
4,082,000             04.  4 
1,803,051             29.4  | 

58,000,032  I        398,002,878 
35,015,408           350.981,488 
22,985,224            47,021,390 

Hogs  and  pigs  born  before  Jan.  1,  1910. 
Pigs  born  after  Jan.  1,  1910  

10.02 
2.05 

SlIEEP  AND  LAMBS 

609.323 
589,  415 

296,113 
409,  031 

9.6  ! 
9.3  | 

4.7 
7.4 

51,809,008 
31,582,097 

7,604,672 
12,622,299 

230,532,817 
103,421,183 

38,  198,  173 
28.913.401 

Ewes  born  before  Jan.  1,  1910  
Rams  and  wethers  born  before  Jan.  1, 
1910  

5.17 

5.02 
2.29 

Lambs  born  after  Jan.  1,  1910  

GOATS  AND  KIDS  (all  ages)            

83,445 

1.3        2,798,100              5,964.812              2.13 

VALUE  OF  FARM  AXIMALS  AND  POULTRY,  1910. 


KIND. 

1910  (Apr.  15). 

i 
1900  (June  1).                         INCREASE. 

Value. 

Per  cent 
distribu- 
tion. 

Value. 

|i 
Percent  i| 
distribu-         Amount, 
tion.     ;; 

Per  cent. 

Total  

$4,894,948,782 

100.0 

§3,075.132,200 

100.0   1  $1,819,816,516 

59.2 

Cattle 

1.484,889.047 
2,076,297,828 
522,  402,  080 
13,092,867 
398,  002,  878 
230,  532,  817 
5,964,812 
153,394,142 
10.371,711 

30.3 
42.4 
10.7 
0.3 
8.1 
4.7 
0.1 
3.1 
0.2 

1,  475.  204.  033 
890,513,217 
190,  222,  053 
5,811,184 
231.978,031 
170,203,119 
3,265,349 
85,756,593 
10,  178,  087 

48.0               9.085,014 
29.2        1,179,  784.  OJJ 
0.4           320,180,027 
0.2               7,281.083 
7.5            166,024,847 
$.5             60,329,698 
0.1               2,099,463 
2.8             67,637,549 
0.3  ||               193.624 

0.7 

in.  6 

166.2 
125.3 
71.6 
35.4 
82.7 
78.9 
1.9 

Horses  and  colts 

Mules  and  mule  colts..  . 
Asses  and  burros  

Swine 

Sheep  and  lambs  
Goats  and  kids  
Poultry  

Bees 

SC'IKNTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


57 


•  • 

*•"*. 
•9 


ft? 

•  • 


••£ 

0»EQ 


•  200,000  cattle. 

9  UO.OOO  to  200,000  cattle. 

9  100,000  to  150,000  cattle. 

O  60,000  to  100,000  cattle. 

O  Lew  than  50,000  cattle. 


The  heavy  lines  («)  show  geographic  divisions. 


\.  /• 


-7- — S'*W^ 

ip^i 

4 [••y»>L*J 


V 


ALL  CATTLK  OX  FA  1  J.MS:     M'MHKK  liY  STATI'OS,   1910. 


ALL  HORSES,   MULES  AXD  ASSES  AXD  BURROS  OX  FARMS: 
NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


r,s 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


200,000  swine. 
9  150,000  to  200,000  swine. 
3  100,000  to  150,000  swine, 
O  50,000  to  100,000  swine. 
O  Leas  than  50,000  swine. 


ALL  SWINE  ON  FARMS:     NUMBER  BY  STATUS,  1910. 


• 

S.  OAK. 

•  • 


'•?,•• /"v;rT.-;'!._..j 
"**-A-**-**J  *3' 


^ 

1 
•\ 


-'.".     X--- 
"  V,... 


•  200,000  sheep. 

9  150,000  to  200,000  sheep. 

9  100,000  to  150,000  sheep. 

O  50,000  to  100,000  sheep. 

O  Less  than  50,000  sheep. 


Theheavy  lines  (— )  show  geographic  divisions. 


ALL  SHEEP  ON  FARMS:    NUMBER  BY  STATES,  1910. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


59 


NUMBER  AND  VALUE  OF  POULTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1910. 


KIND. 

1910  (Apr.  15). 

1900  (June  1). 

Farms  reporting. 

Number  of 
fowls. 

Value. 

Number  of 
fowls. 

Number. 

Per  cent 
of  all 
farms. 

Total  

5,585,012 

88.1 

295,876,176 

$153,394,142  ! 

250,623,354 

233,566,021 
6,594,695 
4,785,850 
5,676,788 
0) 
(*) 
(*) 

Chickens 

5,577,218 
$:,2.  O7y 
503,673 
061,189 
339,922 
99,409 
2,005 

88.0 
13.4 
7.9 
10.4 
5.4 
1.6 
(J) 

280,340,643 
3,688,688 
2,904,359 
4,431,623 
1,765,033 
2,730,996 
14,834 

140,192,912 
6,605,640 
1,566,176 
3,192,86; 
613,282 
762,372 
460,899   | 

Turkeys 

Ducks  

Geese  

Guinea  fowls.  

Pigeons     . 

All  other*  

i  Included 


*  Not  reported. 


Less  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent. 


1,000,000  fowls. 
9    750,000  to  1,000,000  row 

500,000  to  750,000  fowls. 
0  250,000  to  500,000  lowls. 
O  Less  than  £50,000  fowia 


The  heavy  lines  (— )  show  geographic  divisions 


ALL  FOWLS  OX  FARMS:  NUMBER  BY  STATES,   1910. 


RICE  CROP,  1911. 

For  the  year  1911  the  total  696,300  acres 
planted  to  rice  in  the  United  State.s  produced 
a  total  of  22,934,000  bushels  of  rice.  The 
total  farm  value  on  December  1,  1911  was 
$18,274,000,  making  the  average  price  per 
bushel  79.7  cents.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  was  32.9  for  whole  of  the  United  States. 


HOPS:  1911. 

The  total  production  of  hops  in  the  United 
States  in  1911  amounted  to  40,000,000  Ibs., 
as  against  44,000,000  Ibs.  in  1910,  or  27.2 
per  cent,  of  the  world's  production.  During 
1910,  the  exports  amounted  to  12,748,017  Ibs, 
and  the  imports  to  5,823,520, 


CO 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


EGG  STATISTICS. 

According  to  a  recent  report  of  the  Census 
Bureau,  the  production  of  eggs  on  farms  of  the 
United  States  in  1909  was  1,591  million  dozen, 
valued  at  $306,689,000,  equivalent  to  19.3 
cents  per  dozen.  This  production  is  equiva- 
lent to  207  eggs  per  capita  of  population.  As 
less  than  1  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  produced  are 
exported  and  almost  none  imported,  produc- 
tion may  be  regarded  as  equivalent  to  domes- 
tic consumption.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1910,  the  exports  of  eggs  were 
5,326,000  dozen  and  imports  818,000  dozen. 
A  small  proportion  of  the  production  is  used 
for  manufacturing  purposes.  The  census  re- 
port does  not  include  the  production  of  egps 
in  cities,  towns,  or  villages.  According  to  an 
estimate  given  in  the  census  report  of  1900, 
the  production  of  eggs  off  1'arms  VMS  equal  to 
about  5  per  cent,  of- the  production  on  farms; 
on  this  basis,  about  SO  million  dozen  eggs 
would  have  been  produced  off  farms  in  1009. 

According  to  the  census  figures  the  produc- 
tion of  eggs  increased  23  per  cent,  from  1S99 
to  1909;  but  the  commercial  movement  shows 
a  much  greater  increase.  Seven  cities  com- 
bined (New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
Cincinnati,  Milwaukee,  and  San  Francisco) 
received  about  3o9  million  do/en  eggs  in  19(.'l), 
an  increase  of  70  per  cent,  over  their  receipts 
in  1X99.  Population  hud  increased  between 
WOO  and  1910  about  21  percent,  in  the  United 
States,  but  31  per  cent,  in  the  seven  cities 
named  above.  The  receipts  at  these  seven 
cities  in  1909  were  equivalent  to  about  23  pel- 
cent,  of  the  production  as  reported  by  the 
census,  as  compared  with  1(>  per  cent,  in  1S99. 

In  January,  1910,  and  again  in  June,  1910, 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  made  an  in- 
vestigation through  its  agents,  in  03  cities 
throughout  the  United  States,  concerning  the 
price  which  retail  dealers  were  paying  for  eggs 
and.  the  price  which  consumers  wr-rv  paving 
for  fresh  esgs;  at  the  same  time  inquiries  wen- 


made  through  correspondence  with  crop  re- 
porters of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  adjacent 
to  these  cities  concerning  the  prices  received 
by  producers.  From  the  reports  received  it 
appears  that  in  June,  1910,  consumers  paid 
an  average  of  24  cents  per  dozen;  retail  dealers 
paid  19.8  cents,  and  near-by  producers  re- 
ceived 18.7  cents;  in  January,  1910,  consumerr, 
paid  38.1  cents,  retailers  paid  32  cents,  and 
near-by  producers  received  30.4.  The  average 
price  to  producers  for  the  entire  United  States 
in  the  middle  of  June,  1910,  was  about  18.3 
cents,  and  in  the  last  week  of  January,  1910, 
about  29  cents. 


0. 5ft  tinny. 


COMPOSITION   OF  MTT.K. 


It  lui-:  been  estimated  that  the  average  man 
must  be  supplied  daily  with  an  amount  of 
energy  in  the  form  of  food  which  is  the  equiva- 
lent of  from  3,000  to  3,500  calories.  In  order 
to  obtain  fhis  energy  one  would  have  to  con- 
sume about  eight  pints  of  milk  daily,  or  about 
a  tumblerful  every  hour  of  the  working  day. 


ORCHARD  AND  YIXKYARD  PRODUCTS. 


Products. 

Trees  of  Bearing 
A*re:  1910. 

Products    of    1909. 

Trees 
Reported 
June  1. 
1900. 

Products 
of 
1899. 
Bushels. 

Farms 
reporting. 

Number. 

Bushels.            Value. 

Fruits: 
(orchard) 
Apples  
Cherries  
Peaches  
Pears  
Plums,  etc.  .  . 

Fruits: 
(vineyard) 
Grap^  

Fruits: 
(sub-tropi- 
cal) 
Oranges  

2.980,398 
i,  248,667 
1,843,610 
1,276,366 
1,120,130 

923,396 

151,323,000 
11,822,044 
94,507,000 
15,172,000 
23,445,009 

224,098,000 

9,367,047 
938.87C 

i 

1*7,522,000  $83.231.000 
4,126,099      7,231,160 
35,470,000    28,781.000 
8,841,000      7,911.000 
15,480,170    10.299.495 

2,570,996,000    22,025,000 

H9.289391    17,257,278 
2,728,341      2,939,512 

201.794.000 
11.943,287 
99.919.000 
17,716.000 
30780,892 

182,228,000 

175,397,000 
2,873,499 
15,434.000 
6.625,000 
8,764,032 

1,300,751,000 

JBoxes. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


61 


Copyright  Ull.  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

JAW  LEVERAGE  REQUIRED  FOR  VARIOUS  MEATS. 


CUTS    OF    MEAT. 


The  method  of  dividing  up  the  car- 
casses of  slaughtered  animals  varies 
considerably  in  different  localities.  In 
order  that  there  may  be  no  confusion 


on  this  account  the  character  of  the 
cuts  of  beef,  veal,  pork  and  mutton 
is  shown  in  the  diagrams  given  on 
page  62. 


THE  FUNCTIONS  AND  USES  OF  FOODS. 

BY    C.    F.    LANGWORTIIY,    PH.    D. 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


In  this  article  a  number  of  the 
terms  used  in  discussing  food  are  de- 
fined and  some  of  the  principles 
of  nutrition  are  briefly  stated. 
The  average  composition  of  a 
number  of  the  more  common 
American  foods  is  quoted  as  well  as 
Ihe  commonly  accepted  dietary  stand- 
ards. With  the  aid  of  such  data,  the 
nutritive  value  of  any  given  diet  may 
be  computed  and  its  comparative  value 
ascertained. 

Ordinary  food  materials,  such  as 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  potatoes,  wheat,  etc., 
consist  of: 

Refuse. — As  the  bones  of  meat  and 
fish,  shells  of  shellfish,  skins  of  pota- 
toes, bran  of  wheat,  etc. 

Edible    Portion. — As     the     flesh     of 


meat  and  fish,  the  white  and  yolk  of 
eggs,  wheat  flour,  etc.  The  edible  por- 
tion consists  of  water  and  nutritive 
ingredients,  or  nutrients.  The  nutri- 
tive ingredients  are  protein,  fats,  car- 
bohydrates and  mineral  matters. 

The  water,  refuse,  and  salt  of  salt- 
ed meat  and  fish  are  called  non-nutri- 
ents. In  comparing  the  values  of  dif- 
ferent food  materials  for  nourishment 
they  are  left  out  of  account. 

USE    OF    NUTRIENTS. 

Food  is  used  in  the  body  to  build 
and  repair  tissue  and  to  furnish  en- 
ergy. The  manner  in  which  the  valu- 
able constituents  are  utilized  in  .the 
body  may  be  expressed  in  tabular  form 
as  follows : 


Copyright,    Aiuuii    ^    Lo. 

THE  RACE  OF  FOODS  1OR  FllteT  ILACE  IX  THE  DIGESTION  RACE. 


62 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Protein  .........................  ,  ..... 

White  (albumen)  of  eggs,  curd  (casein) 

of  milk,  lean  meat,  gluten  of  wheat,  etc. 

Fats  ................................. 

Fat  of  meat,  butter,  olive  oil,  oils  of 

corn  and  wheat,  etc. 
Carbohydrates  .............  .  ........... 

Sugar,  starch,  etc. 
Mineral  matters  (ash) 
li 


Phosphates  of  lime,  potash,  soda,  etc. 


Forms  tissue  (muscles, 
tendon,  and  probably 
fat). 

Form  fatty  tissue. 


Transformed  into  fat. 

Aid     in     forming    bone, 
assist  in  digestion,  etc. 


All  serve  as  fuel  and 
yield  energy  in  form 
of  heat  and  muscular 
strength. 


The  Fuel  Value  of  Food.— Heat  and 
muscular  power  are  forms  of  force  or 
energy.  The  energy  is  developed  as 
the  food  is  consumed  in  the  body.  The 
unit  commonly  used  in  this  measure- 
ment is  the  calorie,  the  amount  of  heat 
which  would  raise  the  temperature  of 
a  pound  of  water  4  deg.  Fahrenheit. 

Instead  of  this  unit  some  unit  of 
mechanical  energy  might  be  used — for 


DIAGRAM   OF  CUTS  OF  MUTTON. 

instance,  the  foot-ton,  which  repre- 
sents the  force  required  to  raise  one 
ton  one  foot.  One  calorie  is  equal  to 
very  nearly  1.53  foot-tons. 

The  following  general  estimate  has 
been  made  for  the  average  amount  of 
potential  energy  in  1  pound  of  each  of 
the  classes  of  nutrients : 

Calories. 

In  1  pound  of  protein 1,860 

In  1  pound  of  fats 4,220 

In  1  pound  of  carbohydrates..   1,860 

In  other  words,  when  we  com- 
pare the  nutrients  in  respect  to 
their  fuel  values,  their  capacities  for 
yielding  heat  and  mechanical  power, 


DIAGRAM    OF    CUTS    OF   VEAL. 

a  pound  of  protein  of  lean  meat  or  al- 
bumen of  egg  is  just  about  equivalent 
to  a  pound  of  sugar  or  starch,  and  a 
little  over  two  pounds  of  either  would 


DIAGRAM   OF   CUTS   OF  PORK. 

be  required  to  equal  a  pound  of  the  fat 
of  meat  or  butter  or  the  body  fat. 

Within  recent  years  analyses  of  a 
large  number  of  samples  of  foods  have 
been  made  in  this  country.  In  the 
tables  on  pages  63—65  the  results  of 
a  number  of  these  analyses  are  given: 


DIAGRAM  OF  CUTS  OF  BEEF. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


63 


AVERAGE     COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN     FOOD     PRODUCTS. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 

K 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 
Beef,  fresh: 
Chuck,  including  shoulder  
Chuck  ribs  
Flank  
Loin.  . 

PerCt 
17.3 
19.1 
5.5 
13  3 

Per  Ct. 
54.0 
53.8 
56.1 
52  9 

Per  Ct. 
15.8 
15.3 
18.6 
16  4 

PerCt 
12.5 
11.1 
19.9 
16  9 

Per  Ct. 

PerCt 
0.7 
.8 
.8 
9 

Calo- 
ries. 
820 
755 
1,185 
1  020 

12  7 

52  4 

19  i 

17  9 

g 

1  110 

Sirloin  steak.  .  .  . 

12  8 

54.0 

16.5 

16  1 

9 

985 

Neck  . 

31  2 

45  3 

14  2 

9  2 

7 

650 

Ribs.  .  . 

20.1 

45.3 

14  4 

20  0 

7 

1  110 

Rib  rolls. 

64.8 

19  4 

15  5 

9 

1  015 

Round  . 

8  5 

62  5 

19  2 

9  2 

1  0 

745 

Rump  
Shank,  fore  
Shoulder  and  clod  
Fore  quarter  
Hind  quarter  . 

19.0 
38.3 
17.4 
20.6 
16  3 

46.9 
43.2 
57.0 
49.5 
52.0 

15.2 
13.2 
16.5 
14.4 
16  1 

18.6 
5  2 
8.4 
15.1 
15  4 

.8 
.6 
.9 
.7 
g 

1,065 
465 
660 
905 
950 

Beef,  corned,  canned,  pickled,  and  dried: 
Corned  beef.  ...          

8  4 

49.2 

14  3 

23  8 

4  6 

1  271 

Tongue,  p'ckled 

6  0 

58  9 

11   9 

19  2 

4  3 

1  030 

Dried,  salted,  and  smoked  

4  7 

53.7 

26  4 

6  9 

8  9 

'780 

Canned  boiled  beef  
Canned  corned  beef 

51  8 
51  8 

25.5 
26  3 

22.5 

18  7 

1.3 
4  0 

1,425 
1  280 

Veal: 

23  3 

52  5 

15  7 

8  2 

g 

635 

Lee 

11  7 

63  4 

18  3 

5  8 

1  0 

585 

Leg  cutlets          

3  4 

63.3 

20  1 

7  5 

10 

6% 

24  5 

54  2 

15  1 

6  0 

7 

535 

Hind  quarter  •  .    

20.7 

56.2 

16.2 

6.6 

.8 

580 

Mutton: 
Flank 

9  9 

39  0 

13  8 

36  9 

6 

1  815 

17  7 

51.9 

15  4 

14  5 

8 

'900 

Shoulder 

22  1 

46  8 

13  7 

17  1 

7 

975 

Fore  quarter  ... 
Kind  quarter,  without  tallow.  
Lamb: 
Breast                               

21.2 
19.3 

19  1 

41.6 
43  3 

45.5 

12.3 
13.0 

15  4 

24.5 
24.0 

19  1 

.7 

.7 

g 

1,265 
1,255 

1  090 

13  8 

50  3 

16  0 

19  7 

9 

1  130 

Pork,  fresh: 
Flank 

18  0 

48.5 

15  1 

18  6 

7 

1  065 

Ham  

10  3 

45.1 

14  3 

29  7 

g 

1  520 

Loin  chops  .......... 

19.3 
12  4 

40.8 
44  9 

13.2 
12  0 

26.0 
29  8 

.8 
7 

1,340 
1  480 

Tenderloin  
Pork,  salted,  cured,  and  pickled: 

12  2 

66.5 
35  8 

18.9 
14  5 

13.0 
33  2 

1.0 
4  2 

900 
1  670 

Shoulder,  smoked  
Salt  pork 

18.9 

30.7 
7  9 

12.6 
1  9 

33.0 

86  2 

5.0 
3  9 

1,625 
3  670 

8  7 

18  4 

9  5 

59  4 

4  5 

2  685 

Sausage  : 

3  3 

55  2 

18  2 

19  7 

3  8 

1  170 

Farmer                     

3  9 

22  2 

27  9 

40  4 

7  3 

2  225 

Frankfort 

57  2 

19  6 

18  6 

1   i 

3  4 

1  170 

Soups  : 
Celery   cream  of  . 

88  6 

2   1 

2  8 

5  0 

1  5 

250 

Beef 

92  9 

44' 

4 

I   i 

1  2 

120 

Meat  stew   

84  5 

4  6 

4  3 

5  5 

1  1 

370 

90  0 

1  8 

1   1 

5  6 

1  5 

185 

Poultry: 
Chicken   broilers.  .        

41  6 

43  7 

12  8 

1  4 

7 

295 

Fowls 

25  9 

47  1 

13  7 

12  3 

7 

775 

Goose  
Turkey 

17.6 

22  7 

38.5 
42  4 

13.4 
16  1 

29.8 
18  4 

.7 
g 

1,505 
1  075 

Fish: 
Cod,  dressed  

29.9 
17  7 

58.5 
61  9 

11.1 
15  3 

.2 
4  4 

.8 

215 

470 

Mackerel   whole  . 

44.7 

40.4 

10  2 

4  2 

365 

Perch,  yellow,  dressed  
Shad,  whole  
Shad   roe 

35.1 
50  1 

50.7 
35.2 
71   2 

12.8 
9.4 
20  9 

.7 
4.8 
3  8 

2  (> 

.9 
.7 
1  5 

265 
380 
600 

Fish,  salt:  Cod  

24.9 

40.2 

19.0 

.4 

18.5 

315 

64 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AVERAGE     COMPOSITION     OF     AMERICAN     FOOD     PRODUCTS— Continue 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
teiri. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fu-1 
Value 
per 
Lb. 

Fish,  canned: 
Salmon.  . 

Per  Ct. 
14.2 

Per  Ct. 

56.8 

Per  Ct. 
19  5 

Per  Ct. 

7  5 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 
2  0 

Calo- 
ries. 
680 

Sardines 

1  5  0 

53  6 

23  7 

12  1 

5  3 

950 

Shellfish: 
Oysters,  ''solids"   . 

88  3 

6  0 

1  3 

3  3 

1   1 

230 

Clams  
Crabs.  .  .                                            ... 

52  A' 

80.8 
36  7 

10.6 
7  9 

1.1 
9 

5.2 
.6 

2.3 
1.5 

340 
195 

Lobsters 

61  7 

30  7 

5  9 

7 

.2 

g 

140 

Eggs:  Hens'  eggs  •. 

211.2 

65.5 

11.9 

9.3 

9 

635 

Dairy  products,  etc.  : 
Butter  

11.0 

1.0 

85.0 

3.0 

3,605 

Whole  milk. 

87.0 

3  3 

4.0 

5.0 

7 

325 

90  5 

3  4 

3 

5   1 

7 

170 

Buttermilk  
Condensed  milk.  .  .  . 

91.0 
26  9 

3.0 

8  8 

.5 
8  3 

4.8 
54.1 

.7 
1  9 

165 
1  520 

74  0 

2  5 

18  5 

4.5 

5 

910 

Cheese,  Cheddar.  ...             

27.4 

27.7 

36.8 

4.1 

4  0 

2,145 

Cheese,  full  cream  . 

34.2 

25  9 

33  7 

2.4 

0      0 

1  950 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 
Flour,  meal,  etc.  : 
Entire-wheat  flour. 

11  4 

13  8 

1  9 

71.9 

1  0 

675 

Graham  flour 

11  3 

13  3 

2  2 

71.4 

1  8 

670 

Wheat  flour,  patent  roller  process  — 
High-grade  and  medium.  .  . 

12  0 

11  4 

o 

75.1 

5 

650 

Low  grade.  ... 

12  0 

14  0 

g 

71  2 

9 

665 

Macaroni  

78  4 

3  0 

5 

15.8 

1  3 

415 

Crushed  wheat.  .  . 

10  1 

11  1 

7 

75  5 

1  6 

685 

Buckwheat  flour  
Corn  meal.  ... 

13.6 
12  5 

8.4 
9  2 

.2 
9 

77.9 
75.4 

.9 
1  0 

,620 
655 

Oatmeal.    . 

7  3 

16  1 

7  2 

67  5 

1  9 

860 

Rice 

12  3 

8  0 

3 

79  0 

4 

630 

Tapioca  . 

11   4 

4 

88  0 

1 

650 

Starch  

90.0 

,675 

Bread,  pastry,  etc.: 
White  bread  

35.3 

9  2 

1  3 

53.1 

1   1 

,215 

Brown  bread  

43  6 

5  4 

1  8 

47.1 

2  1 

050 

Graham  bread  

35.7 

8.9 

1.8 

52.1 

5 

,210 

Whole-wheat  bread 

38  4 

9  7 

9 

49  7 

3 

140 

Rye  bread.  . 

35  7 

9  0 

6 

53  2 

5 

180 

Cake  

19  9 

6  3 

9  0 

63  3 

5 

675 

Cream  crackers.  

6  8 

9  7 

12  1 

69.7 

7 

L990 

Oyster  crackers. 

4  8 

11  3 

10  5- 

70  5 

2  9 

1  965 

Soda  crackers 

5  9 

9  8 

9  1 

73  i 

2   1 

1  925 

Sugars,  etc.: 
Molasses  

25.1 

2  4 

69.3 

3  2 

1  290 

Candy  

96  0 

1  ,785 

Honey  3.  .  .  . 

18  2 

4 

81   2 

2 

520 

Sugar,  granulated 

100  0 

1  800 

Maple  sirup  

71.4 

1,330 

Vegetables:4 
Beans,  dried  

12  6 

22  5 

1  8 

59.6 

3  5 

1,605 

Beans,  Lima,  shelled. 

68  5 

7  1 

7 

22  0 

1  7 

570 

Beans,  string  
Beets  

7.6 
20  0 

83.0 
70  0 

2.1 
1  3 

.3 
1 

6.9 

7  7 

.7 
9 

180 
170 

Cabbage  .  . 

15  0 

77  7 

1  4 

2 

4  8 

9 

125 

Celery  
Corn,  green  (sweet),  edible  portion  
Cucumbers 

20.0 
15  0 

75.6 
75.4 
81   1 

.9 
3.1 

7 

.1 
1.1 

2 

2.6 
19.7 
2  6 

.8 
.7 
4 

70 
470 
70 

Lettuce  
Mushrooms.  .  . 

15.0 

80.5 
88  1 

1.0 
3  5 

.2 
4 

2.5 
6  8 

.8 
1  2 

75 
210 

Onions.  . 

10  0 

78  9 

1  4 

3 

8  9 

5 

205 

Parsnips  
Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  dried      

20.0 

66.4 
9.5 

1.3 

24.6 

.4 
1.0 

10.8 
62.0 

1.1 

2.9 

240 
1,655 

1  Refuse,  oil.         2  Refuse,  shell. 

3  Contained  on  an  average  cane  sugar  2.8  and  reducing  sugar  71.1  per  cent.     The  reducing 
sugar  was  composed  of  about  equal  amounts  of  glucose  (dextrose)  and  fruit  sugar  (levulose). 

4  Such   vegetables   as   potatoes,   squash,  beets,  etc.,  have  a  certain  amount   of  inedible 
material,  skin,  seeds,  etc.     The  amount  varies  with  the  method  of  preparing  the  vegetables,  and 
cannot  be  accurately  estimated.     The  figures  given  for  refuse  of  vegetables,  fruits,  etc.,  are 
assumed  to  represent  approximately  the  amount  of  refuse  in  these  foods  as  ordinarily  prepared. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


65 


AVERAGE    COMPOSITION     OF    AMERICAN    FOOD    PRODUCTS— Continued. 


Food  Materials  (as  purchased). 

Ref- 
use. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Car- 
bohy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 
Value 

Rr. 

Vegetables  —  (Continued)  : 
Peas  (Pisum  sativum),  shelled               .  . 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

74.6 

PerCt. 
7.0 

Per  Ct. 
0.5 

Per  Ct. 
16.9 

Per  Ct. 
1.0 

Calo- 
ries.. 
465 

13.0 

21.4 

1.4 

60.8 

3.4 

1,590 

20.0 

62.6 

1.8 

.1 

14.7 

.8 

310 

Rhubarb 

40.0 

56.6 

.4 

.4 

2.2 

.4 

65 

Sweet  potatoe"  .                  

20.0 

55.2 

1.4 

.6 

21.9 

.9 

640 

92.3 

2.1 

.3 

3.2 

2.1 

110 

Squash  ...                      

50.0 

44.2 

.7 

.2 

4.5 

.4 

105 

94.3 

.9 

.4 

3.9 

.5 

105 

30.0 

62.7 

.9 

.1 

5.7 

.6 

125 

Vegetables,  canned: 

85.3 

3.6 

.2 

9.8 

1.1 

255 

76.1 

2.8 

1.2 

19.0 

.9 

455 

94.0 

1.2 

.2 

4.0 

.6 

105 

Fruits,  berries,  etc.,  fresh:1 

25.0 

63.3 

.3 

.3 

10.8 

.3 

220 

35.0 

48.9 

.8 

.4 

14.3 

.6 

300 

Grapes   .                           

25.0 

58.0 

1.0 

1.2 

14.4 

.4 

335 

30.0 

62.5 

.7 

.5 

5.9 

A 

145 

50.0 

44.8 

.3 

4.6 

.3 

90 

Oranges   .                                         

27.0 

63.4 

.6 

.1 

8.5 

.4 

170- 

Pears 

10.0 

76.0 

.5 

.4 

12.7 

.4 

260 

66  1 

.8 

.7 

31.5 

.9 

630 

85.8 

1.0 

12.6 

.6 

255 

5  6 

85.9 

.9 

.6 

7.0 

.6 

175 

Watermelons  
Fruits,  dried: 

59.4 

37.5 
28  1 

.2 
1.6 

.1 
2.2 

2.7 
66.1 

.1 
2.0 

60 
1,350 

81.4 

.9 

17.3 

.4 

340 

Dates  

10.0 

13.8 

1.9 

2.5 

70.6 

1.2 

1,450 

Figs                      

18.8 

4.3 

.3 

74.2 

2.4 

1,475 

Nuts: 
Almonds  .             

45.0 

2.7 

11.5 

30.2 

9.5 

1.1 

1,660 

Beechnuts  
Brazil  nuts  

40.8 
49.6 

2.3 

2.6 

13.0 

8.6 

34.0 
33.7 

7.8 
3.5 

2.1 
2.0 

1,820 
1,655 

Butternuts  
Chestnuts,  fresh.  .. 

86.4 
16.0 

.6 
37.8 

3.8 
5.2 

8.3 
4.5 

.5 
35.4 

.4 

1.1 

430 
945 

24  0 

4  5 

8  1 

5  3 

56.4 

1.7 

,425 

Cocoanuts  

2  48.  8 

7.2 
3  5 

2.9 
6.3 

25.9 
57.4 

14.3 
31.5 

.9 
1.3 

,413 
,125 

Filberts 

52  1 

1  8 

7  5 

31  3 

6.2 

1.1 

,575 

62.2 

1.4 

5.8 

25.5 

4.3 

.8 

,265 

53.2 

1  4 

5  2 

33.3 

6.2 

.7 

,620 

Peanuts  
Pinon  (Pinus  edulis)  
Walnuts,  California,  black  
•  Walnuts,  California,  soft-shell  

24.5 
40.6 
74.1 
58.1 
10.0 

6.9 
2.0 
.6 
1.0 
13.1 

19.5 
8.7  . 
7.2 
6.9 
2.3 

29.1 
36.8 
14.6 
26.6 
3.0 

18.5 
10.2 
3.0 

6.8 
68.5 

1.5 
1.7 
.5 

.6 
3.1 

,935 
,905 
805 
1,375 
1,455 

Miscellaneous: 
Chocolate                                   

5.9 

12.9 

48.7 

30.3 

2.2 

2,860 

4.6 

21.6 

28.9 

37.7 

7.2 

2,320 

Cereal  coffee,  infusion  (1  part  boiled  in 
20  parts  water)  3  

98.2 

.2 

1.4 

.2 

30 

1  Fruits  contain  a  certain  proportion  of  inedible  materials,  as  skin,  seeds,  etc.,  which  are 
properly  classed  as  refuse.     In  some  fruits,  as  oranges  and  prunes,  the  amount  rejected  in 
eating  is  practically  the  same  as  refuse.^    In  others,  as  apples  and  pears,  more  or  less  of  the 
edible  material  is  ordinarily  rejected  with  the  skin  and  seeds  and  other  inedible  portions. 
The  edible  material  which  is  thus  thrown  away,  and  should  properly  be  classed  with  the  waste, 
is  here  classed  with  the  refuse.     The  figures  for  refuse  here  given  represent,  as  nearly  as  can 
be  ascertained,  the  quantities  ordinarily  rejected. 

2  Milk  and  shell. 

3 The  average  of  five  analyses  of  cereal  coffee  grain  is:  Water  6.2,  protein  13.3,  fat  3.4, 
carbohydrates  72.6,  and  ash  4.5  per  cent.  Only  a  portion  of  the  nutrients,  however,  enter  into 
the  infusion.  The  average  in  the  table  represents  the  available  nutrients  in  the  beverage  In- 
fusions of  genuine  coffee  and  of  tea  like  the  above  contain  practically  no  nutrients. 


66 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  FISHERIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  1908. 


Species. 


Pounds. 


Alewives 89,978,000 

Black  bass 3,313,000 

Bluefish 7,647,000 

Bream  or  Sunfish 4,738,000 

Buffalo  fish 16,729,000 

Butterfish 6.855,000 

Carp,  German 42,763,000 

Catfish 17,817,000 

Cod...                           109,453,000 

Croaker 8,143,000 

Cusk 6,344,000 

Drum,  fresh-water 6,532,000 

Drum,  salt-water 4,576,000 

Eels 3,358,000 

Flounders. . .                23,346,000 

Haddock 59,987,000 

Hake 34,340,000 

Halibut 34,441,000 

Herring 125,050,000 

Herring  (lake) 41,118,000 

Mackerel / 12,103,000 

Menhaden 394,776,000 

Mullet :  33,703,000 

Perch,  white 2,412,000 

Perch,  yellow 7,898,000 

Pike  and  Pickerel 2,959,000 

Pike  perch 15,247,000 

Pollock 29,462,000 

Pompano 570,000 

Rockfish 2,454,000 

Salmon 90,417,000 

Scup 8,414,000 

Sea  bass 6,352,000 

Shad 27,641,000 

Smelt 4,340,000 

Snapper,  red 13,498,000 

Spanish  mackerel 3,806,000 

Squeteague 49,869,000 

Striped  bass 3,657,000 

Sturgeon 2,072,000 

Suckers 8,555,000 

Swordfish 2,714,000 

Trout 12,024,000 

Whitefish 7,722,000 

Lobsters 15,279,000 

Shrimp 14,374,000 

Clams,  hard 7,805,000 

Clams,  soft 8,654,000 

Oysters 233,309,000 

Mussel  shells 81,869,000 

Pearls  and  slugs 

Terrapin 268,000 

Turtles 1,088,000 

Sponges...  622,000 

Alligator  hides 372,000 

Mink  skins 22,000 

Muskrat  skins 149,000 

Otter  skins 7,600 

Whalebone 63,000 

Scallops 2,414,000 

Oil,  sperm 3,391,000 

Oil,  whale 573,000 

Irish  moss 772,000 


Dollars. 


The  total  quantity  and  value  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States  including 
the  items  mentioned  above  and  all  other  fish  products  was  1,893,454,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$54,031,000.  No  later  figures  are  available  at  time  of  publication.  In  many  cases  there 
was  an  increase,  in  other  cases  a  decrease. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


67 


68 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ESTIMATED  AREA  OF  EXISTING  NATIONAL  FORESTS  JUNE  30,  1911. 


(Revised  to  conform  to  recent  surveys  and  computations.] 


Acres. 

Alaska 26,748,850 

Arizona 14, 898, 000 

Arkansas 2,225,890 

California 27,  735, 455 

Colorado 14,761,900 

Florida 674,  970 

Idaho 19,643,355 

Kansas 303, 937 

Michigan 163,  77 1 

Minnesota 1, 204,  750 

Montana 19,305,100 

Nebraska 556,700 


Acres. 


Nevada 5, 650, 347 

New  Mexico 11,  111,  300 

North  Dakota 13,920 

Oklahoma 61,640 

Oregon 16, 148,  900 

Porto  Rico 65,950 

South  Dakota 1, 287,  700 

Utah 7, 667,  585 

Washington 11, 684,  680 

Wyoming 8, 693, 543 

Totalarea 190,608,243 

Acres. 

Area  embraced  in  additions  to  national  forests  during  year 2,  806,  267 

Area  embraced  in  eliminations  from  national  forests  during  year 4, 598,  705 

Area  embraced  in  temporary  forest  withdrawals  June  30,  1911 3,  319, 495 

Area  embraced  in  existing  national  forests  June  30,  1910 192,  931, 197 

Area  embraced  in  existing  national  forests  June  30,  1911 190, 608,  243 

Area  decreased  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  .1911,  of  which 
decrease  there  is  530,516  acres  due  to  revision  of  areas  to  conform  to 

recent  surveys  and  computations 2,  322, 954 


NATIONAL  MONUMENTS. 


States  and  names. 

Date  created. 

Area. 

States  and  names. 

Date  created. 

Area. 

Alaska:- 
Sitka 

Mar    23  1Q10 

Acres, 
i  57  oo 

New  Mexico: 
Chaco  Canyon 

Mar    11  1907 

A  ores. 
20  629  40 

Arizona: 

El  Morro 

Dec.     8,  1906 

160.00 

Grand  Canyon  2.  . 
Montezuma  Castle 

Jan.    11,1908 
Dec.     8,  1906 

»806,400.00 
160.00 

Gila  Cliff  Dwell- 
ings*   

Nov.  16,1907 

160.00 

Navajo 

Mar    20  1909 

3  600  00 

Gran  Quivira 

Nov     1  1909 

i  160  00 

Tonto  * 

Dec    19  1907 

i  g4o  00 

Tumacacori  

Sept.  15,1908 

10.00 

Oregon  Caves  * 

July   12,1909 

i  480.00 

Petrified  Forest... 
California: 
Cinder  Cone  2  
Lassen  Peak*  
Muir  Woods  
Pinnacles    . 

July  31,1911 

May     6,  1907 
do  

Jan.     9,1908 
Jan     16  1908 

<  25,  625.  60 

15,120.00 
i  1,280.00 
295.00 
i  2  080  00 

South  Dakota: 
Jewel  Cave*  
Utah: 
Mukuntuweap  — 
Natural  Bridges.. 
Rainbow  Bridge 

Feb.     7,1908 

July  31,1909 
Sept.  25,  1909 
May  30  1910 

M,280.00 

i  15,840.00 
«  2,  740.  00 
160.00 

Devil  Postpile2... 
Colorado: 
Wheeler  *     . 

July     6,1911 
Dec    17  1908 

1800.00 

>            300  00 

Washington: 
Mount  Olympus  2 

Mar.     2,  1909 

1608,640.00 

Colorado  

May  24,1911 

13,883  06 

Devils  Tower  .... 

Sept.  24,  1906 

1,  152.  91 

Montana: 
Big  Hole 

Shoshone  Cavern. 

Sept.  21,  1909 

210.00 

Lewis  and  Clark 

Total 

11,509,027.97 

Cavern 

May   16  1911 

*  160  00 

1  Estimated  area. 

2  Under  jurisdiction  of  Department  of  Agriculture". 

3  Based  on  15  known  ruins;  within  Indian  reservation. 
«  According  to  second  proclamation. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


69 


LUMBER  AND  TIMBER  PRODUCTS  STATISTICS. 


In  1909  there  were  in  the  United  States 
40,671  establishments;  784,989  persons  en- 
gaged in  the  industry,  of  which  number. 
48,825  were  proprietors  and  firm  members, 
19,840  were  salaried  officers,  superintendents 
and  managers;  18,088  were  male,  and  3,717 
female  clerks.  The  average  number  of  wage 
earners  was  695.019:  the  number  in  the 
maximum  month,  November,  was  739,160, 
and  in  the  minimum  month,  January, 
649,239.  The  total  number  of  wage  earners 
on  December  15,  1909,  or  the  nearest  re- 
presentative day,  was  838,160,  of  which 
number,  826,978  were  males,  and  4,027 
females,  all  being  16  years  of  age  and  over; 


while  6,886  males,  and  269  females,  were 
under  16.  The  capital  invested  was  $1,176,- 
675,407.  The  total  expenses  were  $995,- 
622,839,  of  which  the  officials  received 
$22,448,332,  clerks  $17,979,364,  wage  earners 
$318,739,207,  fuel  and  rent  of  power  $3,- 
082,387,  other  materials  $503,035,292,  rent  of 
factory  or  works  $2,623,146,  taxes  including 
internal  revenue  $9.863,384,  contract  work 
$32,491,242,  and  other  miscellaneous  work 
S76.360.585.  The  primary  horse-power  was 
2,840,082.  The  value  of  products  $1,156,- 
128,747.  The  value  added  by  manufacture, 
which  is  the  difference  between  cost  of  materi- 
als and  value  of  products,  was  $648,^11,168. 


LUMBER  AND  TIMBER  PRODUCTS. 

The  total  value  of  the  lumber  and  timber  products  of  the  United  States,  in  1909,  was 
$724,705,760.  The  total  quantity  of  lumber  made  was  44,509,761  M.  feet,  board  measure, 
valued  at  $684,479,859:  Of  this  amount  the  softwoods  comprised  33,896,959  M.  feet, 
board  measure,  valued  at  $477,345,046.  They  were  subdivided  as  follow: 

16,277,185  M.  ft.  yellow  pine,  valued  at $206,505,297 

1,499,985  "  western    "                    " 23,077,854 

3,900,034  "  white       "                    " 70,830,131 

4,856,378  "  Douglas  fir                  " 60,435,793 

3  051,399  "  hemlock                       " 42,580,800 

1,748,547  "  spruce                           " 29,561,315 

955,635  "  cypress                         " 19,549,741 

521,630  "  redwood                       " 7,720,124 

346,008  "  cedar                             " 6,901,948 

740,158  "  all  other  kinds            " 10,182,043 

Of  the  total  quantity  of  lumber,  the  output  of  hardwoods  was  10,612,802  M.  feet,  board 
measure,  valued  at  $207,134,813.  They  \\ere  divided  as  follows: 


4,414,457  A 
1,106,604 
706,945 
663,891 
452,370 
399,151 
347,456 
265,600 
291,209 
333,929 
46,108 
56,511 
1.528.571 

!.  f 

4 
I 
4 

.  oak,  valued  a 
maple,  valuec 
red  gum,  val 
chestnut, 
birch, 
basswood, 
elm, 
cotton  wood, 
ash, 
hickory, 
'    walnut, 
'   svcamore, 
'   all  other  kind 

t  

$90,512,069 

1  at  

17,447.814 
9  334  268 

10,703,130 
7  666  186 

" 

7,781,563 
6  088  098 

I:::::;::::;:;::::::::: 

4,794,424 
7  116  089 

10  283  776 

"  

1,972,835 
834  612 

s.  valued  at.  .  . 

32.599.949 

SHINGLES. 

During  the  year  1910  there  were  12,976,362 
thousand  shingles  produced  in  the  United 
States.  They  were  cut  from  the  following 
woods  in  the  following  quantities:  Cedar 
10,108,643  thousand;  cypress  1,180,217; 
yellow  pine  863,149;  redwood  437,701;  white 
pine  146,555;  spruce  68,745;  chestnut 
52.091;  hemlock  42,447;  western  pine 
27.277;  and  of  all  other  woods  49,537  thou- 
sand. Washington  produced  64.2  per  cent, 
of  all  the  shingles  used  and  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
California.  Florida.  Georgia.  Louisiana.  Maine. 
-Michigan,  North  Carolina,  Oregon,  Wisconsin 
and  other  states  produced  from  one  per  cent, 
to  three  per  cent,  of  the  total  production. 


TIES:  1911. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were  148,231,- 
000  ties  used  by  the  railroads  of  the  United 
States.  Of  this  number  68,382,000  were  oak; 
26,264,000  southern  pines;  7,305,000  cedar; 
7,760,000  chestnut;  11,629,000  Douglas  fir; 
5,163,000  tamarack;  5,396,000  cypress; 
3,468,000  hemlock;  4,612,000  western  "yellow 
pine;  2,165,000  redwood;  1,621,000  gum; 
and  4,466,000  of  all  other  kinds.  During 
the  sime  period  there  were  3,870.694  poles 
purchased  for  electric  wires  of  all  kinds. 
They  were  of  the  following  woods :  Cedar 
2,431,567:  chestnut  677,517;  onk  265,290; 
pine  184.677;  cypress  75,459;  and  all  other 
kinds  236,184. 


70 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATE                              BILLIONS  BOARD  F 

EET 

4 

PRODUCTION   OF  TURPENTINE  AND 
K,ESHV  *   OTJAJNTITY  AND  VALTJE 

TEXAS                                        mm—m—mm, 

1908-1910. 

MISSISSIPPI                                      •BUBMBBBJBBBV* 

WISCONSIN                                  •HCBHMMM 

ARKANSAS                                              MHMH^MB 
MICHIGAN                                          mHrmmmmm 

During  the  year  1910  there  were  27,750,000 
gallons  of  turpentine  produced,  having  a  total 
value     of     $17,680,000,     against     36,589,000 

PENNSYLVANIA 
MINNESOTA 

— 

-— 

mmm 

gallons  and  a  value  of  $14,112,400  in   1908. 
The   total   production   of   re.sin   in    1910   was 

OREGON 
NORTH  CAROLINA 

mmmm 
mmmm 

MM 

mm 

3,404,000    barrels    of    280    pounds    and  was 
valued   at   $18,255,000.     For  the   vear   1908 

VIRGINIA 
WEST  VIRGINIA 

BHHK 
•MM 

•a 
m 

there  were  4,288,283  barrels  produced  having 
a  total  value  of  $17,783,550. 

CALIFORNIA 

HMMM 

• 

ALABAMA 

UMM 

• 

MAINE 
KENTUCKY 

mamemm 

i 

SPECIES 

BILLIONS 

JO/ 

kRD  F 

EF 

' 

5 

tan 

TENNESSEE 
GEORGIA 

YELLOW    PINE 
DOWLAS   FIR. 

• 

•i 

•i 

BB 

• 

NEW  YORK 

i^^^g 

WHfTE   PINE 

• 

• 

• 

• 

FLORIDA 

^^^^_ 

OAK 

• 

• 

• 

• 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

n^D 

HEMLOCK 

• 

• 

• 

1 

SOUTH  CAROLINA 

^HH 

3PRUCC. 

• 

• 

MISSOURI 
OHIO 

™ 

WESTERN  P1NC 
MAPLE 
POPLAR 

• 

IDAHO 

mm 

CYPRESS 

• 

INDIANA 

HH 

KID  GUM 

• 

VERMONT 

fg 

CHESTNUT 

• 

MASSACHUSETTS 

ff 

REDWOOD 

MONTANA 

m 

BEECH 

MARYLAND 

M 

BIRCH 

IOWA 

| 

BASSWOOO 

ILLINOIS 

| 

COTTONWOOO 

OKLAHOMA 

1 

ELM 

CONNECTICUT 

| 

ASH 

COLORADO 

CEDAR 

1 

NEW  MEXICO 

LARCH 

ARIZONA 

HICKORY 

DELAWARE. 
NEW  JERSEY 

WHITE  FIR 
SUGAR  PINE 
TAMARACK 

SOUTH  DAKOTA 

TUPELO 

RHODE  ISLAND 

SYCAMORE 

WYOMING 

WALNUT 

UTAH 

ALL   OTHERS 

•j 

LUMBER  CUTS  BY  STATES,  1907 


RELATIVE  CUTS  FOR  1907. 


THE  COMING  OF  THE  OIL  DRIVEN  STEAMER  WILL  CONSERVE  BOTH 
FORESTS  AND  COAL  FIELDS 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


71 


PULP  WOOD:  1911. 

The  total  consumption  of  pulp  wood  in  the 
United  States  in  1911  amounted  to  4,328,052 
cords,  with  268  active  mills.  The  kinds  of 
wood  consumed  follows:  Spruce,  domestic, 
1,612,355  cords;  spruce,  imported,  903,375 
cords;  hemlock,  616,663  cords;  poplar, 
domestic  and  imported,  368,224  cords; 
bal-am  fir,  191,779  cords;  pine,  124,019  cords; 


beech,  44,320  cords;    slabwood,  etc.,  280,534 
cords;   all  other.  186.783  cords. 

The  production  of  air-dry  pulp  in  1911 
amounted  to  2,686,134  tons,  exceeding  the 
output  in  1910  by  152  158  tons,  or  6  per  $ent. 
The  method  of  manufacture  was  distributed 
as  follows:  Mechanical,  1,229,719  tons; 
sulphite,  1,126,496  tons;  soda,  317,764  tons; 
sulphate,  12,155  tons. 


LEGEND 

jte  Forest  Land. 


Jinu 
26*  ^H  Grazing  Land 
2*CZ!BarrenLand 
"00*  Total 


jdiate  between  Agriculture 

id  forest  Land 


termediate 
and  forest 
AgriculturaJ  Land 


PROBABLE  FUTURE  LAND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


72 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


II 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


73 


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74 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


t  Len 
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CHAPTER  III. 


MINES  AND   QUARRIES, 


-•.  <«>.".-•  --"wit* 

Copyright  1900,  by  Munn  &  <  o 

CLAY  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1907. 
A  pyramid  of  burned  ciay  would  be  4,294  feet  high  and  represents  a  value  of  $158,942,369. 

75 


76 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUBDIVISIONS  OF  GEOLOGIC  TIME  AND  STRATA. 

(Prepared  Expressly  for  the  American  Almanac  by  Professor  Wlllard  C.   Hayes,  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey.) 

The  rocks  forming  the  earth's  crest  arc  divided  into  three  classes:  (a)  Sedimentary,  including  all  rocks 
formed  by  aqueous,  organic,  glacial  and  eoliaii  agencies;  (b)  Igneous,  including  all  rocks  that  have  been 
solidified  from  a  molten  condition,  both  volcanic  and  plutonic;  (el  Metamorphic,  including  altered  rocks  of 
either  sedimentary  or  igneous  origin,  in  which  the  acquired  are  more  prominent  than  the  original  character- 
istics, together  with  the  ancient  crystalline  schists  of  uncertain  origin. 

The  sedimentary  rocks  are  subdivided  into  formations,  which  are  groups  of  strata  of  similar  composition 
or  containing  the  same  fossils.  The  formations  are  grouped  into  larger  aggregates  called  systems,  which 
correspond  to  divisions  of  the  time  scale  called  period*.  The  systems  and  their  corresponding  periods  are 
of  world-wide  occurrence,  and  standard  terms  are  employed  throughout  the  world.  Formations,  however, 
are  local,  and  cannot  generally  be  identified  in  more  than  a  single  geologic  province.  The  following  standard 
column  is  applicable  only  to  the  United  States.  It  represents  the  most  recent  usage  as  adopted  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey. 


Subdivisions  of  Geologic 

Subdivisions   of   Rock   Strata. 

Eras. 

Systems. 

Series. 

Groupa  and  Formations. 

•Quaternary     
Tertiary 

Recent    Pleistocene     .  . 
fPliocene     

South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal 
Plain. 

Columbia   loam    and   gravel. 

•j  Shell  Creek   limestone. 
LCaloosahatchee   limestone. 
Chesapeake  sands. 
fOak  Grove  beds. 
J  Chipola  group. 
]  Chattahoochee  beds. 
Vicksburg  limestone. 
(Jackson  clays. 
Claiborn  limestone. 
Hatchetigbee  clays. 
Midway  limestone. 

Texas  Great  Plains  Region. 

fMontana  sandstone, 
-f  Colorado  shales. 
(.Dakota  sandstone. 

•j  Fredericksburg  group. 
(.Trinity  sands. 

North  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain. 

J  Arundel  sands. 
J  Patuxent  clays. 

("Brunswick  sandstone, 
•j  Lackatong   shale. 
LStockton  sandstone  and  shale. 

New  York-Pennsylvania  Region. 
Dunkard  sandstone. 

TMonongehelasandslone  and  shale. 
I  Conemaugb  sandstone  and  shale. 
1  Allegheny  sandstone  and  shale. 
-1  Pottsville  —  conglomerate. 

[  Manch  Chunk  shale. 
I  Pocono  sandstone. 
{  Chemung  sandstone. 
I  Portage  sandstone. 
$  Hamilton  shale. 
?  Marcellus  limestone. 
fCorniferous  limestone, 
-j  Schoharie   grits. 
LOreskony   sandstone. 

Lower  Heldenberg  limestone. 
Salina  sandstone, 
"j  Niagara   limestone. 
Clinton    sandstone. 
^Medina  sandstone. 

Hudson   slate. 
Utica  shale, 
•j  Trenton   limestone. 
Chozy  limestone. 
Calciferous   limestone. 

Potsdam    sandstone. 
Acadia    limestone. 
Georgia  slate. 

Lake  Superior  Region. 

Keweenaw    slate. 

S  Hanbiiry  slate. 
I  Vulcan  slate. 
[  Negaunee    formation. 
4  Randville  dolomite. 
LSturgeon  quartzite. 

Age  of  mammals  

Miocene 

Oligocene     

rCretaceous  

•Eocene    

r  Upper  Cretaceous  

Jurassic  

^Affc  oi  reDtiies 

Age  of  acrogens  
Age    of    fishes  

Palezoic    

Triassic 

Newark 

'Carboniferous     

Permian    
-   Pennsylvanian     

Mississippian     
(Neodevonian     
Mesodevonian     

Ichamplanian    
f  Potsdamian     

Age  of  invertebrates... 
Azoic     

'  Cambrian    

lAlgonklan    

1  Georgian     

Upper    Hurouian     .  .  . 
Lower  Huronian    .... 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


77 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Product. 

1910. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

METALS. 

long  tons 

27,303,567 
57,137,900 
4,65^,018 
1,080,159,509 
372,227 
252,479 
20,601 
47,734,000 
14,069 

$425,115,235 
30,854,500 
96,  269,  100 
137,180,257 
32,755,976 
27,267,732 
958,153 
8,955,700 
1,338,090 
23,447 
25,277 

Silver,  commercial  value       

.  .  .troy  ounces.  . 

Gold,  coining  value                           

do.. 

Copper,  value  at  New  York  City                         .  .  . 

pounds.. 

Lead  value  at  New  York  City  " 

short  tons 

do 

Quicksilver,  value  at  San  Francisco    

Qasks.. 

Aluminum 

pounds.. 

Antimonial  lead 

short  tons., 
pounds 

Tin 

Platinum  value  at  New  York  City 

troy  ounces 

773 

760,743,467 

NONMETALS  (SPOT  VALUE). 

Bituminous  coal 

.  .short  tons.  . 

417",  111,  142 
75,433,246 

469,281,719 
160,275,302 
70,750,158 
127,896,328 
140,209 
170,115,974 
68,752,092 
13,894,962 
19,520,919 
1,169,153 
6,236,759 
7C,520,5S4 
15,077 
113,574 
796,294 
130,006 
28,217 
22S.694 
94,943 
52,305 
1,201,842 
41,684 
430,  196 
6,523,029 

10,917,000 
958,608 
4,605,112 
7,900,344 
121,746 
2,174,735 
5,325,t,36 
68,357 
3,080,067 
716,258 
2,729 
502,452 
293,709 
295,797 
1,516,711 
295,733 
81,443 
74,658 
22,892 
186,765 
283,832 
53,265 
6,357,590 
193,757 
864,213 
728,180 
12,006 
44,480 
807,307 
<<•> 

long  tons 

barrels 

209,556,048 

Cement 

barrel* 

77,785,141 

Lime  ,  

short  tons.. 

3,481,780 
66,949,347 

Sand  (molding,  building,  etc.)  and  gravel         

do.... 

Slate 

Stone 

Corundum  and  emery              

short  tons  .  . 

1,028 
3,814 

Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes                                           

do.... 

Infusorial  earth  and  tripoli 

short  tons 

Oilstones,  etc     

Pumice 

short  tons  . 

23,271 
2,994,000 
42,357 
245,  437 
69.  427 
2  379  057' 

pounds.. 

Bromine    

pounds.  . 

Fluorspar                              .          

short  tons'.  . 

do 

do 

2,654,988 
238,154 
255,534 
30,305,656 
42,975 
85,685 
59,333 
3,693 
260,080 
148,932 
205 
81,102 
32,822 

""i,"  461,"  089 
5,590,592 
35,945 
12,443 
2,258 
Cl,101 
2,476,190 
4,065 
62,030,125 
63,577 
79,006 
71,710 
99,301 
566 
1,821 

Pyrite  

do  

Sulphur                 

do.... 

Salt                              .                                     .          

barrels 

short  tons 

do 

Zinc  oxide 

do 

Asbestos  

....do.    .. 

Asphalt                     

do 

long  tons 

do 

Feldspar  

short  tons.  . 

Fuller's  earth  

do  . 

Gems  and  precious  stones  

short  tons.. 

Glass  sand  
Graphite  (crystalline) 

short  tons.  . 
do.... 
long  tons.. 
do.... 
pounds.  . 
short  tons.  . 

Manganese  ore  

Manganiferous  ore  
Mica  (sheet)  
Mica  (scrap)  
Mineral  waters 

Quartz  

.  .  .short  tons.. 

Talc  and  soapstone  
Talc,  fibrous    

do.... 
do.... 
pounds 

Thorium  minerals  (monazite)  ami  zircon 

Titanium  ore  (rutile) 

do 

Tungsten  ore 

Uranium  and  vanadium  minerals 

do 

Total  value  of  nonmetals  

1  242,701,402 
760,743,467 
300,000 

Total  value  of  metals 

Estimated  valueof  mineral  products  unspecified/ 

Grand  total 

2.003,744,869 

Included  under  unspecified. 


78 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK- 


VALUE    OF    IMPORTS    FOR    CONSUMPTION    AND  OF    EXPORTS 
MINERAL  PRODUCTS  IN  THE  CALENDAR  YEAR  1910. 


OF 


The  imports  of  mineral  products  into  the 
United  States  may  be  divided  into  metals  and 
non-metals,  the  imports  of  the  former  amount- 
ing in  1910  to  $104,994,227  and  of  the  latter 
to  $119,635,764,  a  total  of  $224,629,991 
worth  of  mineral  products  imported  into  the 
United  States  in  1910.  The  imports  of  metals 
during  the  year  were  as  follows:  Aluminum 
salts,  $53,671;  antimony  (metal,  regulus, 
and  ore),  $539,755;  antimony  salts,  $14,201; 
bauxite,  $65,743;  bismuth,  $332,668;  cad- 
mium, $2,295;  chromic  iron  ore,  $415,768; 
chromium  salts,  $21,204;  cobalt  (oxide,  ore 
and  zaffer),  $6,352;  copper,  in  ore,  matte, 
ingots,  bars,  manufactures,  etc.,  $40,849,239; 
iron  ore,  $7,832,225;  lead  in  ore,  base,  bullion, 
pigs,  sheets,  manufactures,  etc.,  $755,092; 
manganese  ore,  $1,711,131;  molybdenum, 
$14,402;  nickel,  in  ore,  matte,  oxide,  etc., 
$4,227,838;  platinum,  $3,654,664;  quick- 
silver, $381;  tin,  $33,913,255;  titanium,  alloy, 
$767;  tungsten  ore,  $344,979;  type  metal, 
$485,493;  uranium  salts  and  oxide,  $10,176; 
zinc,  in  ore,  pigs,  sheets,  dust,  manufactures, 
etc.,  $1,027,941;  iridium,  osmium,  palladium, 
and  rhodium,  $180,805.  The  imports  9f  non- 
metals  for  the  same  period  may  be  divided  in 
similar  fashion  into:  Alizarin,  $430,393; 
aniline  salts,  $501,369;  arsenic  sulphides,  etc., 
$314,306;  asbestos,  $1,543,249;  asphalt, 
$785,963;  barytes,  $78,239;  barium  com- 
pounds, $470,449;  borax,  $12,397;  burrstones 
and  millstones,  $34,763;  cement,  hydraulic, 
$395,526;  clay,  $320,891;  clay  products, 
brick  and  tile,  etc.,  $206,613,  and  pottery,  etc., 
$11,127,405;  coal,  anthracite,  $42,244  and 
bituminous,  $3,975,561;  coal-tar  products, 
$7,423,815;  coke,  $625,130;  corundum  and 
emery,  $816,167;  cryolite,  $2,343;  fertilizers, 
$8,351,697  and  phosphates,  crude,  $235,040 
and  guano,  $667,870;  flint  and  flint  pebbles, 
$307,286;  fluorspar,  $135,152;  Fuller's  earth, 
$132,545;  gems  and  precious  stones,  $40,704,- 
487;  granite,  $176,912;  graphite,  $1,872,592; 
grindstones,  $106,596;  gypsum,  $502,111; 


hones,  oilstones,  whetstones,  $45,819;  in- 
fusorial earth  and  rotten  stone,  $116,057; 
kaolin  or  china  clay,  $1,593,472;  lead  paints — 
litharge,  orange  mineral,  red  lead,  white  lead, 
$106,118;  lime,  $63,791;  magnesite  and 
magnesia,  $1,578,683;.  marble  and  stone, 
$1,392,231;  mica,  $724,525;  mineral  waters, 
$983,136;  monaxite  and  thorium  oxide, 
$16,824;  ocher,  $131,846;  peat,  $41,938; 
petroleum,  $136,292;  ozokerite  and  paraffin, 
$1,025,701;  potassium  salts,  $7,986,480; 
pumice,  $104,425;  pyrite,  $2,748,647;  salt, 
$370,922;  sand  and  gravel,  $133,757;  sienna 
and  umber,  $76,872;  slate,  $4,127;  sodium 
nitrate,  $16,652,117;  strontium  oxide,  $23; 
sulphur,  $558,611;  talc,  $106,460;  thorium 
nitrate,  $219,615;  Venetian  red,  $21,591; 
zinc  oxide,  $396,573. 

The  exports  of  mineral  products  from  the 
United  States  again  may  be  divided  into 
metals  and  non-metals,  the  exports  of  the 
former  amounting  to  $109,034,851,  and  of  the 
latter  to  $164,503,755,  or  a  total  of  $273, 
538,606  worth  of  mineral  products  exported 
from  the  United  States  during  the  year  1910. 
The  exports  of  metals  for  the  year  were  as 
follows:  Aluminum  and  manufactures,  etc., 
$949,215;  copper,  in  ore,  matte,  ingots,  bars, 
manufactures,  etc.,  $96,554,432;  iron  ore, 
$2,074,164;  pig  iron  (including  scrap), 
$2,489,446;  lead,  in  ore,  base  bullion,  pigs, 
sheets,  manufactures,  etc.,  $614,158;  nickel, 
in  ore,  matte,  oxide,  etc.,  $4,704,088;  quick- 
silver, $91,077;  zinc,  in  ore,  pigs,  sheets,  dust, 
manufactures,  etc.,  $1,558,271.  The  exports 
of  non-metallic  products  were  a§  follows: 
Asphalt,  $702,520 ;  cement,  hydraulic, 
$3,477,981;  clay  products,  brick  and  tile,  etc., 
$1,602,913  and  pottery,  etc.,  $1,041,689; 
coal,  anthracite,  $14,785,387,  and  bituminous, 
$26,685,405;  coke,  $3,053,293;  fertilizers, 
phosphates,  crude,  $8,234,276;  lime,  $127,- 
952;  marble  and  stone,  $1,538,339;  petroleum, 
$94,107,022;  paraffin  and  paraffin  wax, 
$7,329,143;  salt,  $320,926;  sulphur,  $552,941; 
zinc  oxide,  $943,  968. 


CALENDAR    OF    EVENTS    AND    DISCOVERIES    RELATIVE    TO    THE 
PRECIOUS  METALS. 


1530-1540.     Pillage  of  Peru. 
1547-1548.     Discovery  of  Guanajuato  silver 
mines  in  Mexico. 

1577.     Discovery  of  gold  in  Brazil. 

1670.     Discovery  of  placers  of  Garazua. 

1680.     Discovery  of    placers  of  Minas- 

Geraes. 
1704-1728.     Silver  mines  opened  in  Russia. 

1743.     Discovery  of  gold  in  the  Ural. 

1 848.     Discovery  of  Placers  in  California . 

1848.  Introduction  of  Plattner's  chlori- 
nation  process  at  Reichenstein 
in  Silesia. 

1851.      Discovery  of  placers  in  Australia. 

1853.  Introduction  of  hydraulic  mining 
in  California. 

1853.  Maximum  annual  production  of 
gold  in  California,  amounting 
to  $65,000,000  for  the  year. 

1858.  Introduction  of  chlorinotion  pro- 
cess at  Grass  Valley,  California. 


1866. 

1886. 


1889. 


1890. 
1897. 


Invention  of  dynamite. 

Opening  of  the  "banket"  reef  of 
the  Rand,  South  Africa. 

Development  of  Manke's  method 
of  bessemerizing  copper  mattes 
and  the  successful  refining  of 
this  impure  copper  by  electri- 
city. 

Introduction  of  the  cyanide  pro- 
cess in  the  Rand,  South  Africa. 

Discovery  of  placers  in  the 
Yukon. 


The  price  per  unit  of  the  production  (gold 
excepted,  which  is  fixed  by  law)  is  based 
upon  the  average  for  the  year  1910  of  daily 
New  York  prices  for  the  metals,  as  follows: 
Gold  per  fine  ounce,  $20.6718346255323; 
silver  per  fine  ounce,  $0.54;  copper  per  pound, 
$0.127;  lead  per  pound,  $0.044;  and  zinc  per 
pound,  $0.054. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


79 


TRANSVAAL 
£29.973,115 


MEXICO          RHODESIA  INDIA 

13, 80$,  71 8     *2, 1 76, 886      i2,l  33,691 


NEW  ZEALAND       CANADA        QOLD  COA5T 
•£2,027:490      5,1,698,868  1|,|30,975 


A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD 

(in  pounds  sterling) 


GOLD  AND  SILVER. 

During  the  year  1880  there  were  1,741,500 
fine  ounces  of  gold  produced  with  a  value  of 
$36,000,000  and  30,318,700  fine  ounces  of 
silver,  having  a  value  of  834,717,000  In 
1890  the  1,588,877  ounces  of  gold  were  valued 
at  $32,845,000  and  the  54,516,300  fine  ounces 
of  silver  §57,242,000.  For  the  year  190.0  the 
3,829,897  ounces  of  fine  gold  produced  had  a 
value  of  879,171,000  and  the  57,647,000 
ounces  of  silver  a  value  of  $35,741,000. 
During  the  year  1910  there  were  4,657,018 
fine  ounces  of  gold  produced  with  a  total 
value  of  $96,269,100  and  57,137,900  fine 
ounces  of  silver  with  a  value  of  $30,854,500. 


PLATINUM. 

In  1910  the  production  of  refined  platinum 
from  domestic  ore  was  773  troy  ounces,  valued 
at  $25,277,  and  from  imported  crude  platinum 
and  from  imported  matte  and  bullion  was 
4,800  ounces,  valued  at  $156,960.  The 
largest  part  of  this  is  derived  from  crude 
platinum  sand  imported  from  Colombia  and 
Russia.  The  total  output  of  refined  platinum 
in  the  United  States  from  ores  of  domestic 
and  foreign  origin  is  then  about  5,573  fine 
ounces,  valued  at  $182,237.  The  total 
world's  production  of  crude  platinum  is 
286,952  troy  ounces. 


A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION  OF  SILVER 

(in  pounds  sterling) 


80 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LEAD. 

The  production  of  lead  in  1910  was  372,227 
short  tons,  valued  at  $32,755,976,  as  com- 
pared with  354, 188  tons,  valued  at  $30,460,168 
in  1909.  The  imports  of  lead  were  valued  at 
$755,092  in  1910  against  $861,506  in  1909. 
The  exports  were  valued  at  $614,158  against 
$509,542  in  1900.  The  imports  of  type  metal 
were  valued  at  $485,493  in  1910  against 
$532,108  in  1909.  The  United  States  ranks 
first  in  the  production  and  consumption  of 
lead;  with  a  production  of  372,227  short  tons; 
Spain  ranks  second  with  a  production  of 
211,201  tons;  Germany  third  with  174,053 
tons;  Mexico  fourth  with  138,890  tons;  and 
Australia  fifth  with  108,907  tons. 

QUICKSILVER. 

The  production  of  quicksilver  in  1910 
amounted  to  20,601  flasks,  valued  at  $958,153. 
California  reported  17,211  flasks  in  1910; 
Texas,  3,320  flasks;  Nevada,  70  flasks.  The 
imports  were  valued  at  $381  in  1910,  and  the 
exports  at  $91,077. 

IRON. 

The  production  of  iron  ore  in  1910  amounted 
to  56,889,734  long  tons,  valued  at  the  mines 
at  $140,735,607,  as  compared  with  51,155,437 
long  tons,  valued  at  $109,964,903,  in  1909,  and 
with  41,113,116  long  tons,  valued  at  $86,511,- 
485,  the  average  yearly  production  for  the  five 
years,  1904  to  1908,  inclusive.  This  total  pro- 
dufction  of  56,889,734  long  tons,  for  the  year 
1910,  consisted  of  the  following  ores:  Hema- 
tite, 51,367,007  long  tons;  Brown  ore,  2,868,- 
572  long  tons;  Magnetite,  2,631,835  long  tons; 
and  Carbonate,  22,320  long  tons.  The  rank 
of  the  principal  iron-ore  producing  States  with 
regard  to  both  the  quantity  and  the  percent- 
age of  the  total  production  follows:  Minnesota, 


31,966,769  long  tons;  or  56.19%;  Michigan, 
13,303,906  long  tons,  or  23.39%;  Alabama, 
4,801,275  long  tons,  or  8.44%;  New  York, 
1,287,209  long  tons,  or  2.26%;  Wisconsin,  1,- 
149,551  long  tons,  or  2.02%;  Virginia,  903,377 
long  tons,  or  1.59%;  California,  Colorado,  New 
Mexico,  Washington  and  WTyoming,  861,850 
long  tons,  or  1.52%;  Pennsylvania,  739,799 
long  tons,  or  1.30%;  Tennessee,  732,247  long 
tons,  or  1.29%.  The  principal  iron-ore  pro- 
ducing region  is  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
which  alone  in  1910  produced  46,328,743  long 
tons.  The  Lake  Superior  district  includes  the 
Vermilion,  Mesabi,  Cuyuna,  Penokee-Gogebic, 
Marquette,  and  Menqminee  ranges  in  the 
States  of  Minnesota,  Michigan  and  Wisconsin. 
The  production  of  these  ranges  for  the  year 
1910  in  long  tons  was  for  the  Marquette  range, 
4,631,427  tons,  for  the  Menominee  4,983,729 
tons,  for  the  Gogebic  4,746,818  tons,  Vermilion 
1,390,360  tons,  and  for  the  Mesabi  30,576,409 
tons. 

The  apparent  consumption  of  iron-ore  for 
intervals  of  ten  years  was  as  follows:  1890, 
16,302,025  long  tons;  1900,  26.722,583  long 
tons;  1910,  56,161,091  long  tons. 

The  imports  of  iron-ore  in  1910  were  valued 
at  $7,832,225  against  $4,579,078  in  1909,  and 
against  $2,458,542,  the  average  annual  value 
for  the  five  years  from  1904  to  1908.  The  ex- 
ports in  1910  were  valued  at  $2,074,164,  as 
against  $1,365,325  in  1909,  $1,012,924  in  1908, 
and  $763,422  in  1907.  As  in  the  11  preceding 
years,  the  production  of  iron-ore  in  the  United 
States  in  1910  was  never  equaled  by  that  of 
any  other  country. 


Recent  investigation  by  the  House  Steel 
Investigating  Committee  shows  that  in  the 
Lake  Superior  region  about  1,400,000,000  tons 
of  iron  ore  are  still  available. 


WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  ORE  IN  1908  AND  1909, 
BY  COUNTRIES. 


Country. 

1908. 

1909. 

United  States.                                                              

Tons. 
35,924,771 
24,278,151 
15,031,025 
9,271,592 
10,057,145 
(«) 
4,713,160 
4,718,700 
c  212,  573 
935,154 
930,440 
943,424 
148,000 
515,368 
539,120 
188,780 
133,458 
72,300 
(°) 
119,656 
55,  194 

Tons. 
51,155,437 
25,500.000 
14,979,979 

11,890,000 

i 

(b) 
c  239,  324 
c991,115 
1,417,914 
891,000 
218,000 
(«) 
531,000 
200,000 

(°) 
83,456 

S°) 
M 
o) 

Germany  and  Ij|ntfymV»urg                                                                           .   ...    -,    ...   -- 

United  Kingdom              .„                                                                                            . 

Spain 

France 

Russia...  .                                              

Sweden. 

Austria-Hungary 

Canada 

Newfoundland 

Cuba.  

Algeria  .. 

Tunis 

Greece 

Italy  

Belgium.   ... 

China*  . 

India  

Japan  

Australia. 

a  Not  available. 

b  Austria  produced  2,490,000  tons.    Figures  for  Hungary  not  available 


c  Shipments. 
d  Exports. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


81 


UMTFO  STATES 


UNITED    KINGDOM 

10, 114,  281 


JL       A. 


AUSTRIA -HUNGARY 
993,892- 

IRON. 
A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION 

(in  tons.) 


CANADA 
676, 031 


SWEDEN 
615,778 


COPPER 


k  i 


The  production  of  copper  in  Hi  10  ua> 
080,159,509  pounds,  valued  at  §137,180,257 
as  against  1,092,951,624  pounds,  valued  at 
§142,083,711,  in  1909,  and  against  sss,763,603 
pounds,  valued  at  >'144. 248.017,  the  average 
production  for  tht-  Hve-year  period  ending 
1908.  The  in<-rea>e  by  decades  in  the  produc- 
tion of  copper  is  >hm\n  aa  follows:  1*4.-,.  224. 
00!)  pound-:  IWi.  f..~2(i.(ii>0  pounds;  1865, 
19.O40.DOO  pounds  is7o.  4(t,:-!20,000  pounds; 
1885,  165,875,766  pounds:  1S95.  380.613,404 
pounds;  1905,  901,907,843  pounds;  1910, 
1,080, 159, 509  pounds.  Considerable  copper  was 
reported  by  the  mines,  from  ores  mined  pri- 
marily for  other  metals,  and  in  all  264,680.08 
fine  ounces  of  gold  and  16,024,424  fine  ounces 
of  silver  were  obtained  from  ores  in  which 
copper  was  the  principal  constituent. 

Forms  in  which  copper  was  cast  in  1910  in- 
cluded wire  bars,  720,505,724  pounds,  or  50  cc  ', 
ingots  and  ingot  bars,  441,302,990  pounds,  or 
31r;  ;  cakes,  142,660,100  pounds,  or  10';; 
cathodes,  99,500,146  pounds,  or  7C7 :  other 
forms,  26,620,036  pounds,  or  2%,  giving  the 
total  of  1,430,588,996  pounds. 

The  imports  in  1910  were  valued  at  840,- 
849,239,  as  against  §38,762,951,  in  1909;  $29,- 
664,129  in  1908  and  846,912,347,  in  1907.  The 
exports  in  1910  were  valued  at  $96,554,432, 
as  against  §93,919,956,  in  1909,  $91,809,675, 
in  1908,  and  $103,252,917,  in  1907. 

The  smelter  production  of  copper  in  the 
world  was  1,903,297,003  pounds  in  1910  as 
compared  with  1,873,404,407  pounds  in  1909. 
In  1910  the  smelter  output  of  the  United 
States  was  56.75  per  cent,  of  the  world's  pro- 
duction as  compared  with  58.22  per  cent,  in 
1909  and  with  56.54  per  cent,  in  1908.  The 


following  shows  the  principal  copper  produc- 
ing countries  of  the  world,  for  the  year  1910. 
Germany,  55,335,460  pounds;  Italy,  7,275,180 
pounds;  Norway,  23,368,760  pounds;  Russia, 
50,044,420  pounds;  Spain  and  Portugal.  112.- 
655,060  pounds;  Hungary,  11,023,000  pounds; 
Canada,  56,598,074  pounds;  Mexico,  131,614,- 
620  pounds;  Cnited  States,  1,080,159,509 
pounds;  Chile,  78,924,680  pounds;  Peru,  41,- 
005,560  pounds,,  and  Japan,  102,954,820 
pounds. 


UNireo  STATED 

493,476 


CHILE        AUSTRALIA    <JFR/*IAMT    CAM  ADA 
42,043       34,339       32,298 
COPPER. 

YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 
(in  tons.) 


The  first  illumination  by  gas  in  the  United 
States  was  in  the  streets  of  Boston  in  1823. 


82 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TIN. 

In  1910  nominal  outputs  of  tin  as  ore,  con- 
centrates and  metal,  were  reported,  valued  at 
$203,447,  and  coming  from  Alaska,  North 
Carolina,  South  Dakota  and  Texas.  A  small 
production  of  metallic  tin  was  reported  from 
South  Dakota,  in  1909,  valued  at  $4,832.  A 
few  tons  of  stream  tin  were  produced  from 
Buck  Creek,  Alaska,  and  were  shipped  to  Pen- 
znnce,  England — as  to  Hamburg,  Germany,  in 
1908.  The  imports  of  tin  in  1910  were  valued 
at  $33,913,255. 


TIN. 

A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 
(in  tons.) 

COAL  MINE  ACCIDENTS  IN 

The  loss  of  life  in  the  production  of  anthra- 
cite and  bituminous  coal  during  1910  involved 
the  loss  of  3,051  lives  in  21  States  and  Provin- 
ces of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  as  com- 
pared with  2,417  fatalities  for  the  correspond- 
ing period  in  1909,  an  increase  of  C34,  or  26.23 
per  cent.  The  fatality  rate  for  1910  was  4.18 
per  1,000  persons  employed,  as  against  3.39 
for  1909,  an  increase  of  0.79  per  1,000,  or  23.3 
per  cent.  The  rate  for  1910  was  the  highest 
on  record  for  the  last  decade,  the  nearest  ap 
proach  thereto  having  been  in  1907,  when  the 
rate  was  4.15  per  1,000. 

The  loss  of  life  based  on  actual  numbers  was 
greatest  in  the  Pennsylvania  anthracite  region, 
where  601  deaths  occurred,  followed  by  the 
bituminous  region  of  Pennsylvania  with  539, 
Illinois  with  406,  West  Virginia  with  320,  and 
Colorado  with  319.  During  1910  the  highest 
rate  prevailed  in  Colorado,  where  it  was  21.6 
per  1,000.  The  only  higher  rates  reported  for 
any  one  state  and  year  of  the  decade  ending 
1910,  were  for  British  Columbia.  25.67  for  1901 
and  34.65  for  1902;  and  for  Tennessee,  258 
for  1902.  Next  to  the  State  of  Colorado  the 
highest  rate  during  1910  is  reported  for  Ala- 
bama, where  it  attained  10.81  per  1.000.  Other 
states  with  rates  above  the  average  for  the 
year  were:  Illinois,  with  5.44;  New  Mexico, 
with  4.89;  Oklahoma,  with  5.43;  Utah,  with 
4.38;  Washington,  with  7.15;  and  West  Vir- 
ginia, with  5  per  1,000.  The  states  with  the 
next  lowest  rates  were:  Iowa,  where  the  rate 


THE  PERMANENT  COURT  OF  ARBITRA- 
TION. 

This  court,  more  popularly  known  as  The 
Hague  Tribunal,  was  constituted  by  virtue 
of  the  convention  for  the  pacific  regulation  of 
international  questions,  concluded  at  The 
Hague,  July  29,  1899.  (Office,  Prinsegracht 
71,  The  Hague.) 

Administrative  Council. — President:  The 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  for  ^lland. 
Members:  The  diplomatic  representatives  of 
all  the  signatory  powers  accredited  to  The 
Hague. 

Members  of  the  Permanent  Court  of 
Arbitration. — Since  the  individuals  themselves 
are  constantly  changing  by  ill  health  or  death, 
we  shall  content  ourselves  by  giving  the 
signatory  powers  alone,  letting  it  suffice  to  say 
that  these  powers  appoint  their  most  dis- 
tinguished men,  preferably  lawyers,  to  the 
position.  They  are:  Austria  -  Hungary, 
Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Denmark,  France,  Ger- 
many.  Great  Britain,  Greece,  Holland,  Italy, 
Japan,  Luxemburg,  Mexico,  Portugal,  Rou- 
mania,  Russia,  Servia,  Spain,  S\yeden,  and 
Norway,  Switzerland,  and  the  United  States. 

CARNEGIE  PEACE  FUND. 

On  December  14,  1910,  Andrew  Carnegie 
transferred  to  27  trustees  a  fund  of  $10,000,- 
000  in  5  per  cent,  first  mortgage  bonds,  the 
revenue  of  which  will  be  used  to  "hasten  the 
abolition  of  international  war"  and  to 
establish  lasting  world  peace.  The  founda- 
tion is  to  be  perpetual,  and  when  the  estab- 
lishment of  universal  peace  is  attained  the 
donor  provides  that  the  revenue  shall  be 
devoted  to  the  banishment  of  the  "next 
most  degrading  evil  or  evils." 

NORTH  AMERICAN  MINES. 

was  2.17;  Kansas,  with  2.26;  Indiana,  with 
2.41;  and  Michigan,  with  2.43.  The  highest 
average  fatality  rate  for  the  decade  ending 
with  1910  was  for  the  Province  of  British 
Columbia,  or  9.21  per  1,000,  followed  by  the 
State  of  Colorado,  with  an  average  of  8.39. 
The  lowest  averages  were  reported  for  Mis- 
souri, where  the  rate  was  only  1.48  per  1,000; 
followed  by  Iowa,  with  a  rate  of  2.09. 

The  accompanying  profile  shows  graphic- 
ally the  fluctuations  in  and  gradual  increase 
of  the  death  rate  during  the  period  1886  to 
1910.  The  lowest  rate  of  2.23  per  1,000  in  1887 
has  never  since  been  approached,  with  the 
exception  of  1S97,  when  it  dropped  to  2.33. 
Since  1900,  the  rate  has  never  been  below  3 
per  1,000,  and  from  this  point  on  there  has 
been  a  rapid  and  uniform  increase. 


1885        1890 


1905         1910 


1995         1900 
YEARS 

INCREASE  IN  FATALITY  RATE 

1886-1910 
F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Coal  Age 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


S3 


COAL. 


During  the  year  1909  there  were  309,618,885 
short  tons  of  bituminous  coal  and  70,221,195 
short  tons  of  Pennsylvania  anthracite  or  a 
total  of  379,840,080  short  tons  of  coal  loaded 
at  the  mines  for  shipment;  11,959,722  short 
tons  of  bituminous,  and  2,201,997  short  tons 
or  14,161,719  short  tons  in  all  sold  to  local 
trade  and  used  by  employees;  9,488,039 
short  tons  of  bituminous  and  8,647,167  short 
tons  of  bituminous  anthracite  or  a  total  of 
18,135,206  short  tons  used  at  the  mines  for 
steam  and  heat.  There  were  48,677,611  short 
tons  of  coal  made  into  coke  during  the  year. 
Thus  a  total  quantity  of  379,744,257  tons  of 
bituminous  coal  and  81,070,359  tons  of 
anthracite  or  a  total  of  460,814,616  tons  of 
coal  were  produced  during  the  year.  The 
total  value  of  the  coal  produced  was  ?554,- 
668,364,  of  which  §405,486,777  was  for  the 
bituminous  coal  and  $149,181,587  for  the 
Pennsylvania  anthracite.  The  average  price 
per  ton  of  bituminous  coal  at  the  mines  was 
SI. 07  and  for  Pennsylvania  anthracite  $1.84. 
The  average  number  of  men  employed  in  the 
mines  was  666,555. 

In  1910  there  were  416,592,447  tons  of  coal 
loaded  at  the  mines  for  shipment;  14,307.423 
tons  sold  to  local  trade  and  used  by  employees; 
18,509,058  tons  used  at  the  mines  for  steam 
and  heat;  and  52,187,450  tons  made  into 
coke;  thus  making  the  total  production  of 
coal  for  the  year  1910  501.506,578  short  tons, 
of  which  amount  84,485.236  were  Pennsyl- 
vania anthracite  and  417.111,142  bituminous. 
The  total  value,  at  an  average  price  of  SI. 25 
per  ton,  was  $629,557,021.  The  average 
number  of  days  the  mines  were  active  was 
220  and  the  average  number  of  employees 
725,030. 


During  the  year  1910  there  were  169,497 
men  employed  in  the  anthracite  coal  mines 
of  the  United  States.  They  worked  on  an 
average  229  days  out  of  the  year.  The 
average  production  per  man  in  1910  was  498 
short  tons  and  the  average  daily  tonnage  per 
man  was  2.17  tons.  In  the  bituminous  fields 
there  were  555,533  men  employed  during  the 
year  1910  and  they  worked  on  an  average 
217  days  a  year.  The  average  production 
per  man  hi  the  bituminous  mines  was  751 
tons  and  the  average  daily  tonnage  per  man 
was  3.46  tons. 

During  the  year  1910,  there  were  3,021,627 
tons  of  anthracite  coal  with  a  value  of 
$14,785,387,  and  10,784,239  tons  of  bitumin- 
ous and  shale,  with  a  value  of  $26,685,405. 
exported  from  the  United  States.  The 
anthracite  imports,  valued  at  $42,244, 
amounted  to  8,195  tons,  and  the  bituminous 
and  shale  imports,  valued  at  $3,975,561, 
1,497,709  tons 

Since  1899,  the  United  States  has  ranked 
first  in  the  coal-producing  nations  of  the 
world  and  Great  Britain  has  ranked  second. 
In  1910,  the  United  States  produced  501,- 
596,378  tons  of  coal;  Great  Britain,  296,- 
007.699  tons;  Germany,  245,043,120  tons; 
Austria-Hungary,  54,573,788  tons;  France, 
42,516,232  tons;  Belgium,  26,374,986  tons; 
and  Russia  and  Finland,  24,967,095  tons. 
The  grand  total  production  of  coal  in  the 
world  amounts  to  1,278,577,812  tons. 

A  summary  of  the  strikes  in  the  coal  mines 
of  the  United  States  shows  that  there  were 
during  the  year  1910,  218,493  men  on  strike 
and  that  there  were  19,250,524  working  days 
lost  or  an  average  of  88  wrorking  days  per  man. 


PER    CENT.  OF    FATAL    ACCIDENTS    IN    COAL    MINES    OF    NORTH 
AMERICA  DUE  TO  EACH  CAUSE  DURING  A  TEN-YEAR  PERIOD. 


Cause. 

Number. 

Per  cent 
of  total. 

Fall  of  coal            

2  72° 

14  8 

Fall  of  roof,  slate,  etc  

5  S2-S 

31  8 

Falling  into  shafts  

369 

2  0 

Falling  into  slopes,  man  ways,  etc  

125 

7 

Mine  cars 

2  204 

12  0 

Outside  cars 

4fO 

f>  6 

Motors  

30 

2 

Explosions: 
Dust  or  gas  

2  571 

14  0 

Powder  or  dynamite  

%S 

5  3 

Blast 

703 

4  3 

Other,  not  specified 

292 

1  G 

Mining  machinery 

33° 

1  3 

Mules  

73 

.4 

Asphyxiation  

271 

1  5 

Electrocution  

193 

1.0 

Miscellaneous 

1  105 

G  0 

Total  

13  34G 

100  0 

. 

Fatal  accidents. 


F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor. 


84 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  KEFERENCE  BOOK. 


ACCIDENTS  IN  TRANSPORTATION  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


HIGH    EXPLOSIVES. 

BLACK    POWDER. 

OTHER   EXPLOSIVES. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

1908  
1909 

5 

7 

*  24 

6 
2 

20 

3 

0 

7 
.  .  „  . 

61 
4 

2 

1910 

1911  
Totals  

3 

6 

10 

32 

23 

8 

68 

RECAPITULATION. 


Total  Killed. 

Total  Injured. 

1908 

36 

88 

1909.  .  . 
1910 

6 
2 

7 

1911  

1 

5 

45 

101 

ACCIDENTS  IN  MANUFACTURE,  STORAGE  OR  USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES. 


HIGH    EXPLOSIVES. 

BLACK      POWDER.        1     OTHER  EXPLOSIVES. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

1908 

82 
122 
80 
53 

65 
84 
110 
25 

23 
17 
13 
40 

23 
25 

7 
31 

20 
10 
3 
3 

91 
41 
24 

1909  
1910 

1911 

Totals  '.  .  .  .  . 

337 

284 

93 

86                 36 

163 

RECAPITULATION. 


Total  Killed. 

Total  Injured. 

1908 

125 

170 

1909 

149 

150 

1910  
1911 

96 
96 

141 
63 

466 

533 

CENTRAL  BUREAU  OF  INTERNATIONAL 

GEODESY    ESTABLISHED    UPON    THE 

TELEGRAPHBERG,  NEAR  POTSDAM. 

This  central  bureau  has  existed  since  1866. 
After  the  creation  of  the  Prussian  Geodetic 
Institute  it  was  united  with  the  latter  in  1869. 
The  object  of  the  Geodetic  Institute  is  to 
cultivate  geodesy  by  scientific  researches, 
to  execute  the  astronomical  and  physical 
determinations  which,  joined  with  the 
geodetic  determinations,  may  serve  in  the 
exploration  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  more 
particularly  within  Prussian  territory. 

The  labors  of  the  institute  for  the  present 
bear  more  particularly  upon  the  astronomical 
determinations  of  the  vertical  in  longitude 
and  latitude,  as  well  as  upon  astronomical 
data  upon  as  many  points  of  the  geodetic 
system  as  possible;  moreover,  upon  the  de- 
termination of  zenithal  distances  for  con- 
venient points,  also  upon  the  determination  of 


the  density  and  force  of  gravitation;  it  de- 
votes its  attention,  furthermore,  to  researches 
upon  the  mean  level  and  variations  in  the  sea- 
level;  to  the  examining  into  the  refraction  of 
luminous  rays  by  the  atmosphere;  finally,  it 
is  occupied  with  all  theoretical  and  experi- 
mental researches  which  contribute  to  the 
examination  of  the  surface  and  the  geodesy 
of  the  country. 

The  Geodetic  Institute  Ls  placed  under  the 
immediate  supervision  of  the  Minister  of 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Public  Instruction,  and 
Medical  Affairs  of  Prussia. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  is  the  consulting 
organ  of  the  Minister  in  all  the  important 
affairs  of  the  Institute.  Conformably  to  the 
conventions  agreed  upon  between  the  con- 
tracting parties,  the  Institute  performs  the 
functions  of  a  Central  Bureau  for  interna- 
tional geodesy.  The  director  of  the  bureau  is 
at  the  sajne  time  director  of  the  Institute. — 
Almanach  de  Gotha. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FATAL-ACCIDENT   RATE  IN   THE    COAL   MINES   OF   NORTH  AMERICA  DURING 
A  TEN-YEAR  PERIOD,  BY  CAUSES. 


Cause. 

Fatal  accidents. 

Number. 

Rate  per 
10,000 
employ- 
ees. 

Fall  of  coal                                                                                         

2,722 
5,828 
369 
125 
2,204 
470 
30 

2,571 
968 
793 
292 
332 
73 
271 
193 
1,105 

4.99 
10.68 
.68 
.23 
4.04 
.86 
.05 

4.71 
1.77 
1.45 
.53 
.61 
.13 
.50 
.35 
2.02 

Fall  of  roof  slate  etc                                                                  

Falling  into  shalts                                                  -•-- 

Motors                                                                                                       ---  -!  

Explosions: 
Dust  or  gas                                                                             ... 

Powder  or  dynamite                         .                            .  

Blast              /                     -  

Mules         «         •                                                                                                 .... 

Miscellaneous                                   .  

Total 

18,346 

33.60 

FATAL- ACCIDENT  RATE  PER  1,000    EMPLOYEES  AND  NUMBER  OF  LIVES  LOST 

PER  MILLION  TONS  MINED  IN  NORTH  AMERICA,  BY  STATES 

AND  PROVINCES,  1866  TO  1908. 


State  or  Province. 

Years 
consid- 
ered. 

Tons  of  coal 
produced. 

Employees. 

Fatal  accidents. 

Lives  lost 
per  1,000,000 
tons  of  coal 
mined. 

7.27 
6.17 
9.13 
3.94 
3.73 
5.22 
4.82 
3.34 
1.96 
5.20 
4.27 
5.64 
11.02 
12.47 
3.95 
13.57 

8.21 
3.83 
9.04 
16.05 
12.14 
6.36 
12.97 

Number. 

Per  1,000 
em- 
ployees. 

Alabama  
Arkansas  

16 
6 
25 
26 
24 
21 
22 
22 
19 
10 
19 
18 
14 
1 
34 
15 

39 
32 
18 
16 
17 
25 
5 

142,592,400 
12,307.804 
117,663,271 
611,071,223 
146,490,472 
109,736,706 
86,096,265 
112,218,992 
84,322,336 
13.081,027 
61.065,829 
24,464,869 
19,243,519 
320,  742 
467,312,293 
33,906,783 

1,782,024,124 
1,806,371,376 
69,368,153 
17,754,456 
38,231,315 
453,581,594 
26.140,782 

227,828 
25,651 
188,054 
1,030,900 
245,115 
264,400 
184,895 
218,866 
93.269 
23,356 
151,444 
37,557 
29,325 
631 
863.812 
90,774 

4,344,074 
2,729.155 
143,029 
24,424 
68.645 
625,566 
29,227 

1,037 
76 
1,074 
2,407 
547 
573 
415 
375 
165 
68 
261 
138 
212 
4 
1,845 
460 

14,625 
6,919 
627 
285 
464 
2,887 
339 

4.55 
2.96 
5.71 
2.34 
2.23 
2.17 
2.24 
1.71 
1.77 
2.91 
1.72 
3.67 
7.23 
6.34 
2.14 
5.07 

3.37 
2.54 
4.38 
11.67 
6.76 
4.62 
11.60 

Colorado 

Illinois 

Indiana. 

Iowa             

Kansas   

Kentucky  .. 

Maryland... 

Michigan... 

Missouri 

Montana                .      .  . 

New  Mexico  
North  Dakota  
Ohio  

Oklahoma  

Pennsylvania: 
Anthracite 

RitliminoiiS. 

Tennessee.  . 

Utah  

Washington  

West  Virginia  

Wyoming 

Total  

6,235,366,431 

11,039,897 

35,803 

3.08 

5.74 

British  Columbia 

22,106,271 
90,512,879 

68.698 
236,998 

497 
720 

7.23 
3.04 

22.48 
7,95 

Nova  Scotia 

Total  ,..,. 

|        U2.619.15QJ           305,696 

1,217 

3.98 

10.81 

6,347,955,581 

11,045,593  1      37,020 

3.10 

&83 

f\  L.  Hoffman  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  o 


86 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  LIST  OF  PRINCIPAL  COAL  MINE  DISASTERS' 
IN  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Year. 

Date. 

Name  of  mine,  or  locality, 
and  State. 

Lives 
lost. 

Year. 

Date. 

Name  of  mine,  or  locality, 
and  State. 

Lives 

lost. 

1869 

Sept 

Avondale  Pa 

179 

1902 

July  10  . 

Johnstown  Pa 

112 

1873 

Drummond,  Nova  Scotia 

73 

1902 

July  16.... 

ParkCity,Utah  

34 

1880 
1880 

Mar.  29.... 

Richhill,  Mo  
Fort  Pitt,  Nova  Scotia 

23 
44 

1902 
1902 

Aug.  7  
Sept.  15... 

Bowen  No.  3  mine,  Colo. 
Algoma,  W.  Va  

16 
17 

1883 

Feb.  16.... 

Braid  wood,  111   . 

69 

1903 

Jan.  23.... 

Primero,  Colo  

24 

1883 

Nov.  23... 

Kettle  Creek,  Pa 

17 

1903 

July  1  

Hanna,  Wyo  

235 

1884 
1884 
1884 

Jan.  24.... 
Feb.  20.... 
Mar  13 

Crested  Butte,  Colo  
West  Leisenring,  Pa  
Pocahontas  mine  W  Va 

59 
19 
114 

1903 
1904 
1904 

Nov.  21... 
Jan.  25.... 
Apr.  3  .. 

Ferguson  mine,  Pa  
Harwickmine,  Pa... 
Zeigler,  111 

17 
179 
53 

1884 

Johnstown  mine,  Pa  

14 

1904 

Apr.  23.... 

Eleanora  shaft,  Pa  

13 

1885 

McBeam    mine     Nova 

1904 

Dec.  1  

Diamond  mine.  Mo  

18 

Scotia                 •  f 

13 

1905 

Jan.  4  

Bluefields,  W.  Va  ." 

22 

1890 

May  15.... 

Ashley  mine,  Pa  

26 

1905 

Jan.  18.... 

Panther  Cr^ek,  W.  Va.. 

18 

1890 

Hill  Farm  mine  Pa 

31 

1905 

Feb  20 

Virginia  City  Ala 

108 

1891 

Jan  27 

109 

1905 

Feb  27 

Welch  W  Va 

15 

1891 
1892 

Feb.  21.... 
July  ?3 

Spring  Hill,  Nova  Scotia 

125 
15 

1905 
1905 

Mar.  18-19. 
Apr.  3  . 

Rush  Run,  W.Va... 
Zei«lor  111 

24 
47 

1893 

Jan.  10  ".' 

Como,  Colo    .  . 

24 

1906 

Jan.  4  

Coaldale,  W.  Va  

22 

1894 
1896 
1896 

Feb.  13.... 
Feb.  18.... 
Mar.  23.... 

Gavland,  Pa  
Vulcan  mine,  Colo  
Berwind  mine,  Pa  

13 
49 
13 

1906 
1906 

Jan.  18.... 
Feb.  8... 

Detroit  and  Kanawha, 
W.  Va. 
Parrall  mine,  W.  Va..'.. 

18 
23 

1896 

June  28 

Twin  Shaft  mine  Pitts- 

1906 

Mar.  22... 

Century   W  Va... 

23 

ton   Pa 

58 

1C06 

Apr.  21.... 

Trinidad  Colo  .... 

23 

1S99 

June  16 

1907 

Jan.  23.. 

Primero  Colo 

20 

Scotia.           

11 

1907 

Jan.  26.... 

Penco,  mine,  W.  Va  

12 

1899 

Dec  10 

33 

1907 

Jan.  29.. 

Stuart,  W.  Va  

85 

1899 
1899 
1899 

Dec.  23.... 
Dec.  23.... 

Brazella  mine,  Pa  
Sumner  mine,  Pa  
North  Carolina  

20 
19 
22 

1907 
1907 
1907 

Feb.  4  
May  1  
Dec.  1  

Thomas  mine,  W.  Va... 
W  hippie  mine,  W.  Va... 
Naomi  mine.  Pa  

25 
16 
34 

1900 
1900 

Mar.  6.... 
May  1 

Red  Ash  mine,  W.Va.. 
Schofield.  Utah 

46 

200 

1907 

Dec.  6  

Monongah  No.  8  mine, 
W.  Va. 

359 

1900 

Nov  2 

Berryburg  W.Va 

15 

1907 

Dec.  19.. 

Darr  mine,  Pa  

239 

1901 
1901 

Feb.  15.... 
Mar  2 

Union     mine     No.     6, 
British  Columbia  

63 

28 

1908 
1908 
1908 

Jan.  12.... 
May  1  
Aug   26 

Lick  Branch,  W.  Va.... 
Mount  Lookout,  Pa  
Halleyville   Okla 

105 
12 
29 

1901 

May  15 

Chatham,  W.  Va  .    .'.. 

10 

1908 

Nov.  28... 

Mariana  mine,  Pa.  .  .  

154 

1901 
1901 

June  10  
Sept.  30... 

Port  Royal  mine,  Pa  
Extension  mine,  British 
Columbia  

20 
16 

1909 
1909 

Jan.  10.... 
Nov.  13... 

Lietcr  mine,  111  
St.  Paul  mine,  Cherry, 
111. 

26 
266 

1902 

Jan.  14.... 

Milby  and  Dowe  mine, 
Ind.T  

10 

1909 
1910 

Dec.  28... 
Jan.  31  

Lick  Branch,  W.Va.... 
Primero,  Colo  

51 
75 

1902 

Jan  25  . 

Lost  Creek  mine  Iowa 

22 

1910 

Feb  1 

Drakesburg  Ky 

30 

1902 

May  19  . 

Fraterville.  Tenn 

184 

1910 

Apr.  20    . 

Mulga,  Ala 

40 

3902 

May  22.... 

Fcrnio     mine,     British 
Columbia  

127 

1910 
1910 

Apr.  21.... 
May  5..   . 

Amsterdam  mine,  Ohio. 
Palos,  Ala...  

16 
83 

F.  L.  Hoffman  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor. 


UNITED  STATES 
492,544,358, 


UNITfD  MING  POM 
£67,830,562 


28.rio.ioz 


BELGIUM 
23.5S9.00O 


RUSSIA 

21,368,000 


JAPAN 
II,  709,346 


CANADA 
10,733.27 '5 


mfcr 


CHINA 
8,889,943 


COAL. 

A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 
(in  tons.) 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


S7 


PRICE  OF  COAL. 

[Sources  :  Anthracite,  for  shipment  beyond  the  Delaware  Capes,  American  Iron  and  Steel  Associa- 
tion ;  bituminous,  Sa ward's  Coal  Trade  Journal.] 


Calendar 
year. 

Anthra- 
cite. 

Bitumi- 
nous. 

Calendar 
yeai. 

Anthra- 
cite. 

Bitumi- 
nous. 

Calendar 
year. 

Anthra- 
cite. 

Bitumi- 
nous. 

1865 

Dollars. 
4  49 

Dollars. 
3  S9£ 

1874 

Dollars. 
4.55 

Dollarf. 
4  50 

1893... 

Dollars. 
3  90 

Dollars. 
12.40 

1856     . 

4.11 

3.75 

1875  

4.39 

4.35 

1894  

3  90 

12  25 

1857 

3  87 

4  28 

1876 

3  87 

3  87 

1895 

3  50 

1  2  00 

1858 

3  43 

3  70 

1877 

2.59 

3  15 

1896  . 

3  60 

*2  28 

1859 

3  25 

3  63 

1878 

3  22 

2  86 

1897  

3  50 

*1  80 

1860 

3  40 

3  49 

1879 

2  70 

2  79 

1898  . 

3  50 

*1  60 

1861 

3  39 

3  44 

1880  

4  53 

3.75 

1899  

3  75 

*2  00 

1862      ..  . 

4  14 

4.23 

1881  

4  53 

3.75 

1900  

3  47 

2  50 

1863 

6  06 

5  57 

1882 

4  61 

3  50 

1901 

3  80 

2  50 

1864 

8  39 

6  84 

1883 

4  54 

2  90 

1902s 

4  50 

2  50 

1865 

7  ge 

7  57 

1*^4 

4  42 

2  50 

1903 

4  50 

3  35 

1866 

5  80 

6  94 

1885. 

4.10 

2  25 

1904  

4  50 

2  25 

1867 

4  37 

4.97 

1886. 

4.00 

2  10 

1905..-  

4  50 

2  60 

1868  

3.86 

4.71 

1887  

4.05 

3.45 

1906  

4.50 

2  75 

1869 

6  31 

4  97 

1888 

4  21 

12  60 

1907 

<4  50 

2  80 

1889 

4  04 

12  60 

1908 

44  50 

go  7fj 

1871 

4  46 

4  72 

1890 

3  92J 

12  60 

1909 

44.50 

12.60 

1872 

3  74 

4  66 

1891 

3  85 

12  60 

1910 

44  50 

*2  60 

1873 

4  27 

4.84 

1892.. 

3  97£ 

12  50 

1911.  . 

4  4.  50 

62.60 

» The  price  on  board  fixed  at  Baltimore  by  the  Seaboard  Coal  Association. 

»  Price  of  soft-coal  pool. 

»  Owing  to  unusual  conditions  in  the  coal  market  the  association  price  for  1902  is  not  a  correct  guide 
as  to  the  actual  selling  price,  Clearfield  coal  selling  as  high  as  87  at  the  mines  and  as  high  as  89  in 
New  York  Harbor.  Unsettled  conditions  lasted  until  Mar.  1, 1903,  or  nearly  so;  then,  on  Apr.  1,  prices 
were  made  $3.30  at  Baltimore;  later  on  in  the  year  this  price  was  discounted  from  10  to  16  per  cent. 

4  Shipments  nominal.    No  sales  made  in  1909,  1910,  or  1911. 

'Cumberland  coal  now  includes  "thin  seam"  as  well  as  "big  vein"  coal,  the  former  selling  about 
25  cents  per  ton  lower  than  the  latter. 

« Freight  on  "big  vein"  coal  to  Baltimore  having  been  reduced  15  cents,  $2.60  in  1909  and  sub- 
sequent years  la  equivalent  to  82.75  in  1908  and  previous  years. 


MONTANA 

«7.ZOOsqmi 


*t  300  sq  mi 


ILLINOIS 
35.600  sq.ml. 


N.  DAKOTA 
JS.%00sq.mi 


MISSOURI 

Z3  000 


IOWA 
20. 000  sq\  mi 


KANSAS 
20.000  sq.mi. 


WYOMING 
19.900.  sq. mi 


W.VIRGINIA 
17.000  iq.mi. 


KENTUCKY 
16.670  sq.ml. 


IND.TERR. 

sq.mi 


PENNSYLVANIA 

I*. 680   sq  m>. 


NEW  HEX  ICO 
i»  SCO  sq.mi. 


OHIO 
12.6*0  sq.rm  i 

COLORADO 
u.600  sq.m% 


MICHIGAN. 
it.Xttsq.m.  . 

ALABAMA    . 
a. -oo  sq.mi. 


ALASKA 

8300  sq  ml. 

INDIANA 
7.Z3O  sq.mi. 

UTAH 
4,:580  sq.mi. 

TENNESSEE 
a.400  sq  m«. 

S.  DAKOTA 
2.4 OO  sq.mi. 

VIRGINIA 
Z.iZO  sq.mi. 

ARKANSAS 
1.730  sq.mi. 

WASHINGTON 
1. 100  sq.mi. 

N.CAROUNA 
600  sq.mi. 

MARYLAND. 
510  sq  mi: 

CALIFORNIA 
260  sq.mi. 

OREGON 
Z30sq-mi. 

GEORGIA 
170  sq.m« 

IDAHO 
1*0  sq.mi. 


COAL  RESERVES  BY  STATES. 


88 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COKE. 

The  production  of  coke  in  1910  amounted 
to  41,708,810  short  tons  (7,138,734  tons  from 
retort  ovens),  valued  at  $99,742,701,  and  the 
average  price  paid  per  ton  for  the  same  period 
was  $2.39.  The  average  output  from  the  by- 
product ovens  in  1910  was  1,762  short  tons 
per  oven.  The  average  output  from  beehive 
ovens  in  1910  was  376  tons  per  oven.  The 
imports  of  coke  were  valued  at  $625,130  in 
1910,  and  the  exports  at  $3,053,293. 

The  value  and  quantity  of  products  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  coke  in  retort 
ovens  were  as  follows:  gas,  27,692,858  thou- 
sand cubic  feet,  valued  at  $3,017,908;  tar, 
66,303,214  gallons,  valued  at  $1,599,453;  am- 
monia sulphate  or  reduced  to  equivalent  in 
sulphate,  70,247,543  pounds,  valued  at 
$1,841,062;  ammonia  hquor,  4,654,282  gal- 
lons, valued  at  $295,868;  anhydrous  ammonia 
20,229,421  pounds,  valued  at  $1,725,266; 
thus  making  the  total  value  of  the  by- 
products of  coke  $8,479,557.  The  value  of 
the  coke  manufactured  in  retort  ovens  was 
$24,793,016  and  the  total  value  of  all  the 
products  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  coke 
was  $33,272,573. 

NATURAL  GAS. 

The  value  of  natural  gas  produced  in  1910 
was  $70,756, 158,as  compared  with  $63,206,941 
in  1909.  No  imports  of  natural  gas  in  1910 
were  reported.  Pennsylvania  consumed  more 
natural  gas  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union, 
the  amount  being  168,875,559  thousand  cubic 
feet,  valued  at  $23,934,691;  Ohio  ranked  sec- 
ond with  108,074,660  thousand  cubic  feet, 
valued  at  $21,210,965;  Kansas  came  next  with 
81,929,740  thousand  cubic  feet,  with  a  value 
of  $9,163,863;  and  West  Virginia  fourth  with 
77,067,756  thousand  cubic  feet,  valued  at 
$5,617,910.  During  the  year  1910  there 
were  509,155,309  thousand  cubic  feet  of  natu- 
ral gas  consumed,  having  a  total  value  of 
$70,756,158.  The  value  of  all  the  natural  gas 
produced  in  the  United  States  for  the  year 
1910  was  $70,756,158  and  of  the  crude  petro- 
leum, $127,896,328;  thus  making  the  total 
value  of  natural  gas  and  crude  petroleum  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  $198,652,486. 


PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE  or  PETRO- 
LEUM.     WELL  RECORDS,   AND 
ACREAGE  FOR  THE  UNITED 
STATES  IN  1910. 

In  the  year  1910  the  total  production  of 
petroleum  in  the  United  States  amounted  to 
198,026,646  barrels;  173,545,058  of  which 
were  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  producer,  and 
24,481,588  to  the  land-owner.  The  total  value 
of  this  petroleum  was  $118,955,429,  and  the 
average  price  per  barrel  was  $0.601.  On 
January  1,  1910,  the  stock  at  the  wells 
amounted  to  9,014,441  barrels,  and  on  Decem- 
ber 31,  to  11,778,827  barrels.  On  January  1, 
1910,  there  were  147,118  productive  wells  in 
the  United  States;  and  on  December  31,  there 
were  148,440.  At  this  time  there  were  1,129 
wells  drilling.  The  average  production  per 
well  per  day  amounted  to  3.7  barrels.  The 
total  acreage  in  wells  in  the  United  States 
in  J9JQ  fvmpUBted.  to  9,280,568, 


PETROLEUM  REFINING. 

The  products  of  the  petroleum-refining  in- 
dustry, statistics  for  which  are  presented  be- 
low, aggregated  $236,997,659  in  value  in  1909 
as  compared  with  $123,929,384  in  1899,  the 
increase  during  the  decade  being  91.2  per 
cent.  This  conforms  closely  with  the  in- 
crease in  the  cost  of  crude  petroleum  used 
which  was  89.4  per  cent.  The  crude  petroleum 
used  increased  in  quantity  from  52,011005 
barrels  of  42  gallons  in  1899  to  120,775,439 
barrels  in  1909,  or  132.2  per  cent.,  and  the 
refined-oil  products  aggregated  40,290,985 
barrels  of  50  gallons  in  1899  and  89,082,810 
barrels  in  1909,  an  increase  of  136.2  per  cent, 
for  the  decade.  The  total  amount  of  crude 
petroleum  used  for  refining  purposes  was 
120,775,439  barrels  of  42  gallons  each,  valued 
at  $152,307,040.  The  products  of  the  refining 
process  were  as  follows:  Illuminating  oils, 
33,495,798  barrels  (50  gallons),  value, 
$94,547,010;  fuel  oils  (including  gas  oils), 
34,034,577  barrels,  value  $36,462,883;  lubri- 
cating oils,  10,745,885  barrels,  valued  at 
$38,884,236;  naphtha  and  gasoline  (including 
KUS  naphtha),  10,806,550  barrels,  value 
$39,771,959;  paraffin  wax,  946,830  barrels, 
value  $9,388,812;  oil  asphaltum,  233,328 
shart  tons,  value  $2,724,752;  residuum  or  tar, 
1,7X7,008  barrels,  value  $2,215,623;  greases 
(lubricating,  etc.),  138,302  barrels,  value 
$1,567,647;  coke  and  black  naphtha,  value 
$507,695;  sludge  acid,  133,215  short  tons, 
value  $402,295;  and  all  other  products,  value 
$10,524,747. 


a 


<0 


si 


-N 

I          I          I 


PETROLEUM. 

A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION 

(in  thousands  of  gallons.) 

ALUMINUM. 

The  consumption  of  aluminum  during  1910 
was  47,734,000  pounds,  valued  at  $8,955,700, 
against  7,150,000  pounds  in  1900,  61,281 
pounds  in  1890  and  83  pounds  in  1883.  The 
imports  of  aluminum  salts  in  1910  were  valued 
at  $53,671,  and  the  exports  of  manufactures) 

of  aluminum  at 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


89 


WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  CRUDE  PETROLEUM,  1906-1910,  BY 

COUNTRIES. 

[Barrels  of  42  gallons.) 


M 

10 

Country. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

"Metric* 

Per 
cent  of 

Rank. 

Barrels. 

Aieinc 

total 

tons. 

produc- 

tion. 

United  States. 

126,493,936 

166,095,335 

178,527,355 

183,170,874 

1 

209,556,048 

27,940,806 

63.99 

Russia  ". 
Galicia  

58,897,311 
5,467,967 

61,850,734 
8,455,841 

62,186,447 
12,612,295 

65,970,350 
14,932,799 

2 
3 

70,336,574 
12,673,688 

9,378,210 
1,762,560 

21.48 
3.87 

Dutch  East 

Indies  

8,180,657 

9,982,597 

10,283,357 

11.041,852 

4 

11,030,620 

1,495,715 

3.37 

Roumania  

6,378,184 

8,118,207 

8,252,157 

9,327,278 

5 

9,722,958 

1,352,289 

2.97 

India       ...     . 

4,015,803 

4,344,162 

5,047,038 

6,676,517 

6 

6,137,990 

818,400 

1.87 

Mexico 

1,000,000 

3,481,410 

2,488,742 

7 

3,332,807 

444,374 

1.02 

Japan 

1,710,768 

2,010,639 

2,070,145 

1,889,563 

g 

1,930,661 

257,421 

.59 

Peru  

536,294 

756,226 

1,011,180 

1,316,118 

9 

1,330,105 

177,347 

.40 

Germany  

578,610 

756,631 

1,009,278 

1,018,837 

10 

1,032.522 

145,  168 

.32 

Canada  

569,753 

788,872 

527,987 

420,755 

11 

315,895 

42,119 

.10 

Italy         

53,577 

59,875 

50,966 

42,388 

12 

42,388 

5,895 

I          no 

Other 

a  30,  000 

a  30,000 

o  30,000 

a  30,000 

13 

a  30,000 

4,000 

;     -02 

Total.... 

212,912,860 

264,249,119 

285,089,615 

298,326,073 



327,472,256 

43,824.304 

100.00 

a  Estimated. 


QUANTITY  OF  PETROLEUM  PRODUCED 
IN,    AND    QUANTITIES    AND    VALUE  , 
OF  PETROLEUM  PRODUCTS  EXPORT- 
ED FROM,  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  total  exports  of  petroleum  from  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1910  amounted 
to  1,502,491,933  gallons,  and  were  valued  at 
$94,107,022.  The  exports  of  mineral,  crude 
(including  all  natural  oils,  without  regard  to 
gravity)  oils,  was  180,111,166  gallons,  valued 
at  $5,404.253;  the  exports  of  mineral,  refined, 
or  manufactured  naphtha,  benzine,  gasoline, 
etc.,  totaling  100,695,382  gallons,  was  valued 
at  88,407,102;  the  exports  of  mineral,  refined, 
or  manufactured  illuminating  oils  was 
940,247,039  gallons,  valued  at  S55,642,268; 
the  export  of  mineral,  refined,  or  manufac- 
tured lubricating  (heavy  paraffine,  etc.),  oils 
amounting  to  163,832,544  gallons,  was  valued 
at  $20.921,103;  and  the  export  of  residuum 
(tar.  pitch,  and  all  other,  from  which  the  light 
bodies  have  been  distilled),  valued  at 
$3,732,196,  amounted  to  117,605,802  gallons. 

CEMENT. 

The  total  quantity  of  Portland,  natural, 
and  puzzolano  cement  produced  in  the  United 
States  during  1910  was  77,785,141  barrels, 
valued  at  §68,752,092.  As  compared  with 
1909,  when  the  production  was  66,689,715 
barrels,  valued  at  853,610,563,  the  year  1910 
showed  an  increase  of  11,095.426  barrels,  or 
16.6  per  cent,  in  ouantitv,  and  nn  increase  of 
$15.141.529,  or  28.2  per  rent,  in  value.  In 
1910  the  quantity  of  Portland  cement  pro- 


duced was  76,549,951  barrels,  valued  at 
$68,205,800;  the  production  of  natural  ce- 
ment amounted  to  1,139,239  barrels,  valued 
at  $483,006;  and  the  production  of  puzzolano 
cement  was  95,951  barrels,  valued  at  $63,286. 

From  1818  when  the  first  natural  cement 
was  used,  300,000  barrels,  up  to  the  year  1899, 
wKen  the  maximum  amount,  9,868,179  bar- 
rels, was  used,  the  consumption  of  natural 
cement  constantly  grew.  Since  1899,  however, 
the  consumption  has  graduallv  decreased,  un- 
til in  1910  the  production  only  amounted  to 
1,139,239  barrels.  The  future  of  natural  ce- 
ment depends  entirely  upon  means  of  improve- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  the  cement,  where- 
by it  may  be  brought  nearer  to  the  specifica- 
tions for  high-grade  Portland  cement.  The 
decline  in  the  use  of  natural  cement  has  been 
due  principally  to  the  greater  tensile  strength 
of  Portland  cement. 

During  the  year  1910  the  domestic  produc- 
tion of  cement  amounted  to  76,549,951  bar- 
rels, and  the  imports  to  306,863  barrels.  The 
total  available  supply  of  Portland  cement  for 
this  period  amounted  to  76.006,348  barrels. 
The  exports  of  Portland  cement  during  the 
year  amounted  to  2,475,957  barrels;  thus 
making  the  apparent  consumption  74,380,857 
barrels. 


The  total  production  of  pig-iron  for  the 
year  1911  was  23,649,547  tons  against 
27,303,567  tons  in  1910.  On  June  30,  1911, 
there  were  212  furnaces  in  blast  and  on 
December  31  there  were  231.  The  total 
number  of  furnaces  on  December  31,  1911. 
was  4.6J), 


90 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


91 


Copyright  by  Munu  A:  Co..  Inc.        1910-S0.75 


1900-S1.00 


1S80-S3.00 


CEMEXT  MARKET  AXD  ITS  GROWTH  IX  THE  PAST  30  YEARS. 

Portland  Cement  manufactured  in  1910  would  fill  a  barrel  980  feet  high — just  short  of 
the  Eiffel  Tower.  Note  the  enormous  increase  of  cement  production  by  decades  and  the 
corresponding  drop  in  price  per  barrel  at  the  mill. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CLAY  PRODUCTS. 

The  value  of  all  clay  products  in  1910  was 
$170,115,974;  the  pottery  products  being 
valued  at  $33,784,678  and  the  brick  and  tiles 
at  $136,331,296.  The  various  kinds  of  clay 
together  with  their  amount  and  value  were  as 
follows:  Kaolin,  34,221  short  tons,  valued  at 
$255,873;  paper  clay,  85,949  tons,  valued  at 
$420,476;  slip  clay,  17,696  tons,  valued  at 
$29,962;  ball  clay,  70,637  tons,  valued  at 
$257,265;  fire  clay,  1,638,931  tons,  valued  at 
$2,157,720;  stoneware  clay,  152,942  tons,  val- 
ued at  $153,044;  brick  clay,  173,625  tons, 
valued  at  $128,039;  miscellaneous,  215,228 
tons,  valued  at  $223,106. 

The  imports  of  pottery  in  1910  amounted 
to  $11,127,405;  the  imports  of  bricks  were 
valued  at  $206,613.  The  exports  of  brick  in 
1910  were  valued  at  $1,602,913,  and  the  ex- 
ports of  pottery  at  $1,041,689.  The  imports 
of  kaolin  or  china  clay  in  1910  were  valued  at 
$1,593,472,  and  the  imports  of  other  clays 
amounted  to  $320,891. 

SAND. 

During  the  year  1910  there  was  1,461,089 
short  tons  of  glass  sand,  valued  at  $1,516,711, 
produced  in  the  United  States;  3,636,167  tons 
of  molding  sand,  valued  at  $2,431,254;  25,- 
743,072  tons  of  building  sand,  valued  at  $7,- 
832,638;  175,081  tons  of  fire  sand,  valued  at 
$136,361;  878,411  tons  of  engine  sand,  valued 
at  $349,145;  493,566  tons  of  furnace  .sand, 
valued  at  $279,046;  other  sands  amounting  to 
4,438,428  tons,  valued  at  $1,240,365;  and 
32,584,622  tons  of  gravel,  valued  at  $7,252,110. 
Thus  the  total  quantity  of  sand  and  gravel 
produced  in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1910  amounted  to  69,410,436  short  tons,  and 
the  total  value  of  same  was  $21,037,630.  The 
imports  of  sand  for  the  same  year  amounted 
to  $133,757. 

SALT. 

The  total  value  of  the  salt  products  of  the 
United  States  for  the  year  1909,  amounted  to 
$11,327,834.  There  were  29,933.060  barrels 
of  salt  of  280  pounds  each  produced  during 
this  period  and  their  total  value  was$8,31 1,729 
— 728,875  pounds  of  bromine,  valued  at 
$92,735;  and  $2,923,370  .worth  of  all  other 
salt  products.  The  salt  may  be  classified  as 
table  and  dairy  salt,  3,042,824  barrels; 
common  fine,  7,745,204  barrels;  common 
coarse,  2,843,393  barrels;  packers,  385 
802;  coarse  solar,  1,109,396;  rock  salt 
mined,  5,938,721;  and  milling,  other  grades, 
and  brine,  8,867,720  barrels.  There  were  124 
establishments  producing  salt,  46  of  which 
used  the  solar  process  for  preparing  this  salt; 

I  the  kettle  process;  50  the  grainer  process; 

II  the  open  pan  process;  and  21  the  vacuum 
pan  process.       In   1910  the  total  production 
of  salt  in  the  United  States  and  Hawaii  and 
Porto  Rico,  amounted  to  30,305,656  barrels, 
valued    at  $7,900,344. 

SLATE. 

The  production  of  slate  in  1910  was  valued 
at  $6,236,759.  The  imports  of.  slate  for  the 
same  period  were  valued  at  $4,127,  and  the 
exports  of  roofing  slate  were,  not;  reported 
separately  in  1910, 


LIME. 

The  production  of  iiine  in  1910  was  3,481,- 
780  short  tons,  valued  at  $13,894,692,  and 
the  average  price  per  short  ton  was  $3.99  for 
the  same  period.  The  imports  in  1910  were 
6,498  short  tons,  valued  at  $63,791  and  the 
exports  reported  in  1910  were  164,602  barrels, 
valued  at  $127,952. 

STONE. 

The  value  of  all  kinds  of  stone  produced  m 
the  United  States  in  1910  amounted  to 
$76,520,584.  The  imports  of  marble  and 
stone  were  valued  at  $1,569,143,  and  the  ex- 
ports at  $1,538,339.  The  value  of  the  granite 
produced  in  the  United  States  during  1910, 
was  $20,541,967;  of  trap  rock,  $6,452,141; 
of  sandstone.  $6,394,832;  of  bluestone, 
$1,535,187:  of  marble,  $6,992,779;  and  of 
limestone,  $34,603,678. 

SULPHUR  AND  PYRITE. 

The  domestic  production  of  sulphur  in  1910 
was  255,5X4  long  tons,  valued  at  $4,605,112. 
The  production  of  pyrite  in  1910  was  238,154 
long  tons,  valued  at  ?<J5S,608.  The  imports 
of  sulphur  rose  to  $558,611  in  1910.  The 
exports  in  1910  amounted  to  30,742  lon^  tons, 
valued  at  $552,941.  The  imports  of  pyrite 
were  valued  at  $2,748,647  in  1910. 


PIGMENTS. 

Barytes.  —  The  production  of  crude  barytes 
in  1910  was  42,975  short  tons,  valued  at 
$121,746.  The  imports  of  barytes  rose  to 
$78,239  in  1910,  and  the  imports  of  barium 
compounds  to  $470,449. 

Mineral  paints.  —  The  commercial  produc- 
tion of  mineral  paints  in  1910  amounted  to 
85,685  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,  194,  735. 

Zinc  oxide.  —  The  production  of  zinc  oxide 
in  1910  amounted  to  59,333  short  tons,  valued 
at  $5,325,636.  The  imports  of  zinc  oxide  in 
1910  were  valued  at  $396,573  and  the  exports 
at  $934,968. 

ASPHALT. 

During  the  year  1909  the  total  production 
of  asphalt  and  bituminous  rock  amounted  to 
228,655  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,138,273,  and 
was  divided  into  the  following  varieties: 
Bituminous  rock.  55,376  short  tons;  valued 
at  $205,756;  refined  bitumen,  733  short  tons, 
valued  at  $6,964;  gum,  10,220  tons,  valued 
at  $105,220;  maltha,  652  tons,  valued  at 
$8,047;  wurtzilite,  220  tons,  valued  at 
$1,400;  gilsonite,  28,669  tons,  valued  at 
$218,186;  grahamite,  3,894  tons,  valued  at 
$32,737;  ozokerite  and  tabbyite,  30  tons, 
valued  at  $1,500;  and  oil  asphalt,  128,861 
tons,  valued  at  $1,558,463.  The  great  in- 
crease in  the  use  of  asphalt  during  the  last 
year  has  been  due  to  the  impetus  given  to  the 
building  of  better  roads. 

NICKEL. 

The  production  of  nickel  in  1910  was  very 
small.  The  imports  of  nickel  in  1910  were 
valued  at  $4.227,a38,  and  ths  exports, 
Valued  at  $4,704,08,8, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


93 


Copyright  1908  by  Munn  &  Co. 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  SALT  INDUSTRY. 

Salt  in  sea  and  on  land.— Yearly  production  in    the    United    States.    157,267,544    tons    of 
sodium    are    annually    poured    into    the    sea.       Of  this  amount,  771  Per  cent,  is  common  salt. 


94 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


GEMS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 
Production  of  precious  stones  in  the  United  States  in  1907,  1908,  1909,  and  1910. 


Value. 

Remarks. 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

Agates,  chalcedony,  etc., 
moonstones,  etc.,  onyx. 
Amethyst 

$650 

850 
250 
1.500 
6,435 

a  25,  000 
25 
20 

$1,  125 

210 
5,450 
3,638 
7,485 

$750 

190 
2,000 
500 
1,660) 

ol8,000 

$2,268 

About  1,150  pounds;  California,  Col- 
orado. Montana,  and  Wyoming. 
No  production  reported. 
475  pounds;  Arizona  and  Nevada. 
No  production  reported. 
About  30  pounds  rough  and  selected. 

1,500  pounds;  California;  not  sold. 
No  production  reported. 

1,250  pounds;  Michigan. 
No  production  reported. 
1,700  pounds;  California. 
No  production  reported. 
208  stones;  Arkansas  and  California. 
No  production  reported. 
North  Carolina. 
No  production  reported. 
4,128  pounds;  Colorado  and  Califor- 
nia. 
151  pounds;  California,  Arizona,  and 
Colorado. 
Colorado  and  California. 
500  pounds;  Colorado  and  California. 
Nevada. 
No  production  reported. 

Colorado. 
50  pounds;  Oregon. 
No  production  reported. 
1,753  pounds;  Colorado,  Maine,  Ver- 
mont, California,  and  Texas. 
25,025  pounds;  South  Dakota  and 
California. 
No  production  reported. 
3,200  pounds;  Montana  and  Califor- 
nia. 
No  production  reported. 
Do. 
1,062,000  carats;  Montana  and  Indi- 
ana. 
No  production  reported. 
120  pounds;  California. 

About  50  pounds;  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, and  New  Jersey. 
75  pounds;  California,  Colorado,  and 
Texas. 
1,548  pounds;  California  and  Maine. 
16,886  pounds;  Nevada,  New  Mex- 
ico, Arizona,  and  Colorado. 
5,377  pounds;  Utah  and  Nevada. 
Datohte,  obsidian,  fossil  coral,  and 
ornamental    stones    with    trade 
names. 

Azurmalachite,  malachite,  etc. 
Benitoite.  ... 

550 

Beryl,  aquamarine,  blue, 
pink,  etc. 
Californite  

Catlinite 

5,545 
o8,000 

Chiastolite 

Chlorastrolite  

25 
600 
048,225 

2.400 
300 
o84,800 

o2,666 

Chrysocolla  

150 
046,500 
100 
o2,800 

Chryso  prase  

09,666 

Cyanite 

Diamond 

o2,100 
120 

2,033 

al,400 

Diopside  

Emerald 

ol,320 
60 
1,110 

6,460 

1,000 
675 
180 
1,300 
325 

o300 
15 
o2,700 

1,650 

0700 

Epidote    ...              .... 

Feldspar,  sunstone,  amazon 
stone,  etc. 
Garnet,    hyacinth,    pyrope, 
ahnandine,  rhodolite. 
Gold  quartz 

2,850 
13,100 
1,010 

2,510 
3,100 

1,000 
475 
270 

Jasper  

100 
200 
300 

Opal        

50 
1,300 

Peridot 

Petrified  wood 

Phenacite 

25 

95 

50 

50 
100 

Prase 

Pyrite 

400 
2,580 

6,375 
150 

Quartz,  rock  crystal,  smoky 
quartz,  rutilated,  etc. 
Rose  quartz      .              

3,595 

5G8 

2,689 
'  2,970 

I,3t5 
2,537 

Rhodocrosite                 .  . 

Rhodonite 

1,250 

125 

o6,200 

Rubv  

2,000 

Rutile            

200 
a229,800 

800 
14,500 

25 
044,998 

300 

15,  150 

100 
512 

al33,192 
al79;273 

35,938 
1,060 

Sapphire 

o58,397 

ol,200 
06,000 

35 
4,435 

090,000 
al47,950 

14,250 

52,983 

"33,"  666' 
610 
884 

046,500 
085,900 

026,125 
2,755 

Smithsonite                  

Spodumene,    kunzite,    hid- 
denite. 
Thorn  psonite 

Topaz  

2,300 

a  84,  120 
23,840 

7,500 

Tourmaline 

Turquoise  and  matrix  

Variscite,  amatrice,  utahlite.  . 
Miscellaneous  gems  

Total. 

471,300 

415,063 

534,380 

295,797 

o  Estimated  or  partly  so. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


95 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Asbestos. — The  asbestos  commercially  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  in  1910  was 
obtained  from  deposits  in  Georgia  and 
Vermont,  with  small  quantities  from  Idaho 
and  Wyoming.  The  total  commercial  pro- 
duction in  1910  was  3,693  short  tons,  valued 
at  $68,357.  The  imports  for  consumption 
were  valued  at  $1,543,249  in  1910. 

Graphite. — The  commercial  production  of 
crystalline  graphite  during  1910  amounted 
to  5,590,592  pounds,  valued  at  $295,733. 
The  production  of  amorphous  graphite  in 
1910  was  35,945  short  tons,  valued  at  $81,443. 
The  production  of  artificial  graphite  in  1910 
was  13,149,100  pounds,  valued  at  $945,000, 
the  average  price  being  7.2  cents  per  pound. 
The  imports  of  graphite  in  1910  were  valued 
at  $1,872,592. 

Mica. — The  total  production  of  mica  in 
1910  was  2,476,190  pounds  of  sheet  mica, 
valued  at  $283,832,  and  4,065. short  tons  of 
scrap  mica,  valued  at  $53,265.  The  imports 
of  mica  in  1910  were  valued  at  $724,525. 

Mineral  waters. — The  total  production  of 
mineral  walers  in  1910  was  62,030,125  gallons, 
valued  at  $6,357,590.  The  imports  of  mineral 
waters  in  1910  were  valued  at  $983,136. 

During  the  year  1910  there  were  709  springs 
in  the  United  States  reporting  sales  of  mineral 
waters.  They  sold  62,030,125  gallons  of 
mineral  waters  valued  at  $6,357,590.  Each 
year  has  shown  a  growth  in  the  production  of 
what  is  known  as  "soft  drinks."  In  all 
6,403,913  gallons  of  mineral  spring  water 
were  used  for  this  purpose.  Wisconsin  leads 


all  the  states  in  the  amount  of  water  used, 
•she  requiring  2,151,783,  or  about  one-third 
of  all  the  mineral  water  used,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  her  soft  drinks. 


The  total  imports  of  iron  ore  into  the 
United  States  in  1910  anumnted  to  2,591,031 
long  tons  and  the  quantity  of  iron  ore  ex- 
ported from  the  United  States  in  the  same 
year  amounted  to  644,875  long  tons. 


CAPE  OF  QOOD  HOPE         TRANSVAAL       OflANSf  f  STATE 
JM,  137,166  Xl.7S3.M9  1 1. 148,258 


SW.AFR/CA    BRAZIL     5  RHOOfSM 
i  1, 058.437      £100.000      £lO,J50        £6.103 

DIAMOND    PRODUCTION. 
(in  Pounds  Sterling.) 


THE  XATIOXAL  BUREAU  OF  MINES. 


The  National  Bureau  of  Mines  for  the 
United  States  was  created  by  act  of  Congress 
approved  May  10,  and  effective  July  1,  1910. 
The  chief  purpose  of  the  bureau  is  to  carry  on 
inquiries  and  investigations  with  the  view  of 
lessening  loss  of  life  and  waste  of  resources  in 
mining  and  metallurgical  operations.  It  is 
to  make  investigations  of  the  methods  of 
mining,  especially  in  relation  to  the  safety 
of  miners,  the  appliances  best  adapted  to  the 
prevention  of  mine  accidents,  the  improve- 
ment of  mining  conditions,  the  treatment  of 
ores  and  other  mineral  substances,  as  to  the 
use  of  explosives  and  electricity  in  mining, 
and  other  inquiries  and  technologic  in- 
vestigations pertaining  to  mining,  metal- 
lurgical and  quarry  industries.  The  act 
establishing  the  bureau  provides  that  no 
officer  or  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
shall  exercise  any  right  or  authority  in  con- 
nection with  the  inspection  or  supervision 
of  mines  and  metallurgical  plants  in  any 
state;  under  the  Constitution  such  in- 
spection and  supervision  Ls  within  the  province 
of  the  State  and  is  not  germane  to  the  duties 
of  the  Federal  Government. 

The  scope  of  the  fuel  investigations  of  this 
bureau  conforms  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
of  Congress  which  provides  for  the  analyzing 
and  testing  of  coals,  lignites,  and  other 
mineral  fuel  substances  belonging  to  or  for 
the  use  of  the  United  States.  Several  lines 
of  inquiry  are  embodied  in  this  plan,  which 
however,  are  too  numerous  to  be  men- 
tioned here. 


The  act  also  transferred  to  the  new  Bureau 
of  Mines  the  personnel  and  equipment  of  the 
technologic  branch  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  This  personnel  and 
equipment  were  developed  during  the  preced- 
ing five  years  in  connection  with  the  investiga- 
tion of  fuels  and  mine  accidents,  and  the 
new  bureau 'is  to  continue  similar  investiga- 
tions. 

Its  chief  Experimental  Station  is  located  at 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  where  the  work  in  the  labora- 
tories is  supplemented  by  experiments  con- 
(iur-ted  in  a  small  coal  mine  under  the  con- 
ditions of  actual  mining.  At  this  station  it 
also  is  conducting  a  number  of  investigations 
in  connection  with  the  use  of  explosives  and 
electricity,  and  other  mining  problems. 

As  a  means  of  carrving  on  an  educational 
campaign  in  behalf  of  mine  rescue  and  first 
aid  to  the  injured  work,  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
has  purchased  and  equipped  \yith  rescue 
apparatus,  first  aid  and  fire  fighting  devices, 
seven  cars  of  standard  Pullman  size,  each 
completely  fitted  with  modern  appliances. 
These  cars,  one  stationed  in  each  of  the  im- 
portant coal  fields  or  coal  mining  regions  of  the 
country,  will  visit  all  the  important  groups  of 
coal  mines  where  demonstrations  and  illustra- 
tions of  this  work  will  be  given. 

The  law  establishing  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
became  effective  on  July  1,  1910.  On 
September  1st,  Dr.  J.  A.  Holmes,  formerly 
Chief  of  the  Technologic  Branch  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  was  appointed  Director  of 
the  new  Bureau. 


96 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 


GRAPHIC    REPRESENTATION    OF    THE    ENORMOUS    ENERGY 
PENDED  IN  MANUFACTURES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


EX- 


The  total  steam  power  employed  in  manufactures  in  the  United  States  in  1905  was  10,664,560. 
A  single  steam  engine  of  this  power  would  measure  400  feet  by  255  feet  on  the  base,  and 
would  extend  735  feet  into  the  air,  or  123  feet  above  the  Singer  building.  To  develop  the 
total  electric  horse-power  of  1,138,208  would  call  for  a  generator  with  a  134-foot  base,  and 
126  feet  high.  The  total  of  298,514  gas  engine  power  would  require  an  engine  350  feet  long 
by  80  feet  high.  Now  the  Woolworth  Building  could  be  substituted  for  the  Singer  Building. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


MANUFACTURES. 


MANUFACTURES  :   A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  NON-CONTIGUOUS  TERRITORY,  1909. 


ra. 

K  OK  AMOUNT. 

Total. 

Continental  L'nitfd 
Sl«tes. 

AJ»sk». 

M 

Porto  Rico. 

270  082 

268  491 

152 

500 

039 

Persona  engaged  in  manufactures  -. 
Proprietors  and  firm  members  
Salaried  employees  
Wage  earners  (average  number)  
Primary  horsepower  

7,  707,  751 
275,962    ! 
792,  168 
6,  639,  931 
18,  760,  686 
$18  490  749  000 

7,  678,  578 
273,265 
790,  267 
6,615,046 
18,  680,  776 
$18  428  270  000 

3,479 
135 
245 
3,099 
3,975 
$13  060  000 

7,572 
1,074 
594 
5,904 
41,930 

18,122 
1,478 
1,062 
15,582 
34,005 
$25  544  000 

Expenses  

18  525  426,000 

18  453  080  000 

9  454  000 

3l'  753'  000 

3l'  139*  000 

Services  
Salaries 

4,375,634,000     i 
940  900  000    l 

4,365,613,000 
938  575  000 

2,328,000 
380  000 

2,  795,  000 
686  000 

4,  898,  000 
1  259  000 

Wagee  

3,  434,  734,  000 

3  427*  038*  000 

1  948  000 

2  109  000 

3'  639*  000 

Materials  

12,  194  019  000    ' 

12  141  791  000 

5  1^  000 

25  6°9  000 

21  479  000 

1  955  773  000 

1  945  676  000 

2  006  000 

3  329  000 

4  762  000 

20  767  546  000    | 

20  672  052  000 

11  340  000 

47  404  000 

36  750  000 

Value  added   by  manufacture  {value  of 
products  less  cost  of  materials)  ....   .    ... 

8,573,527,000 

8,530,261,000 

8,220,000 

21,  775,  000 

15,271,000 

A  SUMMARY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  ESTABLISHMENTS    OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

FOR  SPECIFIED  YEARS :  1909,   1904,  1889 ;  AND  THE  PER  CENT. 

OF   INCREASE. 


K-WBER  OK  AMOUNT. 

PER  CENT  OF  DTCBJUaC. 

t*w 

ittt 

taw 

1MH-1M9 

18W-19M 

Number  of  establishment* 

268,  491 
7,  678,  578 
273,265 
790,  267 
6,  615,  046 
18,  680,  776 
$18,428,270,000 
18,  453,  080,  000 
4,365,613,000 
938,  575,  000 
3,427,038,000 
12,141,791,000 
1,945,676,000 
20,672,052,000 

8,  530,  261,  000 

216,  180 
6,  213,  612 
225,  673 
519,  556 
5,468,383 
13,  487,  707 
$12,  675,  581,  000 
13,  138,  260,  000 
3,184,884,000 
574,  439,  000 
2,  610,  445,  000 
8,  500,  208,  000 
1,  453,  168,  000 
14,793,903,000 

6.293,695,000 

207,514 

364,120 
4,  712,  763 
10,097,893 
$8,  975,  256,  000 
9,  870,  425,  000 
2,389,132,000 
380,771,000 
2,008,361,000 
6,575,851,000 
905,  442,  000 
11,  406,  927,  000 

4,831,076,000 

24.2 
23.6 
2L1 
52.1 
2LO 
38.5 
45.4 
40.5 
37.1 
63.4 
31.3 
42.8 
33.9 
39.7 

35.5 

*f 

42.7 
16.0 
33.6 
4L2 
33.1 
33.3 
50.9 
30.0 
29.3 
60.5 
29.7 

30.3 

Persons  engaged  in  manufactures 

Proprietors  and  firm  members  
Salaried  employees 

Wage  earners  (average  number)  
Primary  horsepower 

Capital 

Expenses. 

Services  

Salaries 

Wages.... 

Materials 

Miscellaneous 

Value  of  products  

Value  added  by  manufacture  (value  of  prod- 
ucts less  cost  of  materials) 

98 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


II 


5  CO 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


99 


LEADING  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

1909. 


WAGE  E 

ARN 

ERS. 

VALUE  OF 

PROD 

UCT8. 

INDTTSTBY. 

Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Average 
number. 

PS 

Per 
cent 
dis- 
tribu- 
tion. 

Amount 
(expressed 
in  thou- 
sands). 

X 
tf 

Per 
cent 

dis- 
tribu- 
tion. 

All  industries  ,           ,      .     ,  , 

268,491 

6,615,046 

100.0 

$20,672,052 

100.0 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing                  .  .   . 

1  641 

89,728 

16 

1.4 

1,370,568 

1 

6.6 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products  
Lumber  and  timber  products 

13,253 
40  671 

531,011 
695,  019 

2 
1 

8.0 
10.5 

1,228,475 
1  156,129 

2 
3 

5.9 
5  6 

Iron  and  steel,  steel  works  and  rolling  mills.... 
Floiir-ni'H  and  gristmill  products  >  

446 
'11,691 

240,076 
39,453 

6 
30 

3.6 
0.6 

985,723 
883,584 

4 

| 

4.8 
4.3 

Printing  and  publishing  

31  445 

258,434 

5 

3.9 

737,876 

6 

3.6 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares  
Clothing,  men's,  inohi  ding  shirts 

1,324 
6  354 

378,880 
239,696 

3 

7 

5.7 
3  6 

628,392 
568  077 

7 
g 

3.0 
2  7 

Boots  and  shoes,  including  cut  stock  and  find- 
ings   

1,918 

198,297 

8 

3.0 

512,798 

9 

2.5 

Woolen,  worsted,  and  felt  goods,  and  wool  hats  . 
Tobacco  rnaivufactvires.  .  .  . 

985 
15  822 

168,722 
166,810 

9 

10 

2.6 
2.5 

435,979 
416,  695 

10 
11 

2.1 
2.0 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs 
by  steam-railroad  companies  

1,145 

282,174 

4 

4.3 

405,601 

1? 

2.0 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products  

23,926 

100,216 

14 

1.5 

396,865 

13 

1.9 

Iron  and  steel,  blast  furnaces  

208 

38,429 

31 

0.6 

391,429 

14 

1.9 

Clothing,  women's  

4,558 

153,743 

11 

2.3 

384,752 

15 

1.9 

Smelting  and  refining,  copper.  .  .    . 

38 

15,628 

38 

0.2 

378,806 

16 

1.8 

Tjfflliorj?,  jnaJt              " 

1  414 

54,579 

?S 

0.8 

374,  730 

17 

1.8 

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and  finished  

919 

62.202 

23 

0.9 

327,  874 

18 

1.6 

Sugar  and  molasses,  not  including  beet  sugar.  . 
Butter,  cheese,  and  condensed  milk  

233 
8,479 

13,526 
i8,431 

41 
36 

!0.2 
-0.3 

279,249 
274,558 

19 
7f\ 

1.4 
1.3 

Paper  and  wood  pulp  

777 

75.978 

17 

*i, 

267,657 

"X  - 

?1 

1.3 

Automobiles,  including  bodies  and  parts  
Furniture  and  refrigerators 

743 
3  155 

75,721 
128  452 

19 
13 

1.1 
1  9 

249,202 

22 
'23 

1.2 

1  2 

Petroleum,  refining  

147 

13,929 

40 

0.2 

236,998 

24 

1.1 

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus,  and  supplies. 
Liquors,  distilled  

1,009 
613 

87,256 
6,430 

18 
43 

1.3 
0.1 

221,309 
204,699 

25 

?6 

1.1 
1.0 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods 

1  374 

129,275 

12 

2  0 

200  144 

27 

1.0 

Copper,  tin,  and  sheet-iron  products 

4  228 

73  615 

20 

199  824 

28 

1  0 

Silkland.  silk  goods,  including  throwsters  
Smelting  and  refining  lead 

'SI 
28 

99,037 
7  424 

15 

42 

1.5 
0  1 

196,912 
167  406 

29 
30 

1.0 
0  8 

fiw,  'llun">inating  and  heating 

1  296 

37  215 

32 

0  6 

166  814 

31 

0  8 

Carriages  and  wagons  and  materials  

5,492 

69,928 

?1 

1.1 

159,  893 

1? 

0.8 

Canning  and  preserving  

3,767 

59,963 

?4 

0.9 

157,  101 

PI 

0.8 

Brass  and  bronze  products  

1,021 

40,618 

?Q 

0.6 

149,  989 

14 

0.7 

Oil,  rnt.tnnseed,  and  cake.  .  .  .  .  *  * 

817 

17,071 

37 

0.3 

147,868 

IS 

0.7 

Agricultural  implements 

640 

50  551 

26 

0  8' 

146  329 

36 

0  7 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  and  drug- 
gists' preparations  

3  642 

22  895 

IS 

0.3 

141,942 

17 

0.7 

Confectionery  

1  944 

44  638 

77 

0  7 

134,  796 

18 

0.7 

Paint  and  varnish 

791 

14  240 

39 

0  2 

124  889 

19 

0.6 

Care,  steam-railroad,  not  including  operations 
of  railroad  fxvTOpanies 

110 

43  086 

28 

0  7 

123,730 

40 

0.6 

Chemicals  .... 

349 

23  714 

34 

0  4 

117  689 

41 

0.6 

Marble  and  stone  work 

4  964 

65  603 

22 

1  0 

113  093 

42 

0.5 

Leather  goods 

2  375 

34  907 

33 

0  5 

104  719 

43 

0  5 

All  other  industries 

61  887 

1  648  441 

24  9 

4  561  002 

22  0 

100 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  INDUSTRIES,  BY  STATES  AND  WAGE  EARNERS:  1909. 


WAGE  EJ 

IRNl 

:RS. 

VALUE  OF 

PEOD 

UCTS. 

STATE. 

Population. 

Number 
of  estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

Average 
number. 

M 

Per 
cent 
dis- 
tribu- 
tion. 

Amount 
(expressed 
in  thou- 
sands). 

1 

X 

Per 
cent 
dis- 
tribu- 
tion. 

United  States  

91,972,266 

268,491 

6,615,046 

100.0 

120,672,052 

100.0 

New  York               

9,113.614 

44,935 

1,003,981 

1 

15.2 

3,369,490 

1 

16.3 

Pennsylvania  » 

7  665,111 

27,563 

877,543 

? 

13.3 

2  626,742 

? 

12  7 

Illinois 

5  638  591 

18,026 

465,764 

4 

7.0 

1  919  277 

3 

9  3 

Massachusetts 

3  366  416 

11  684 

584  559 

3 

8.8 

1  490  529 

4 

7  2 

Ohio  

4,  767,  121 

15,138 

446,934 

5 

6.8 

1,437,936 

5 

7.0 

New  Jersey    

2,537,167 

8,817 

326,223 

6 

4.9 

1,145,529 

6 

5  5 

Michigan... 

2,810,173 

9,159 

231,499 

7 

3.5 

685,109 

7 

3.3 

Wisconsin 

2  333  860 

9  721 

182  583 

10 

2.8 

590  306 

• 

2  9 

Indiana 

2  700  876 

7  969 

186  984 

q 

2  8 

579  075 

q 

2  8 

Missouri  

3,  293,  335 

8,375 

152,993 

11 

2.3 

574,  J11 

10 

2.8 

California  

2,377,549 

7,659 

115,296 

13 

1.7 

529,761 

11 

2.6 

Connect  ic'it  . 

1  114,756 

4,251 

210  792 

8 

3.2 

490  272 

1? 

2  4 

Minnesota 

2  075  708 

5  561 

84  767 

18 

1  3 

409  420 

n 

2  0 

Kansas  

1,690,949 

3,435 

44,215- 

33 

0.7 

325,  104 

14 

.6 

Maryland  

1,295,346 

4,837 

107,  921 

15 

1.6 

315,  669 

15 

.5 

Rhode  Island  .. 

542,610 

1,951 

113,538 

14 

1.7 

280,344 

16 

.4 

Texas  . 

3  896,542 

4  588 

70  230 

?5 

1.1 

272  896 

17 

3 

Iowa 

2  224  771 

5  528 

61  635 

?9 

0  9 

259  238 

18 

2 

Louisiana 

1  656  388 

2  516 

76  165 

?1 

1  2 

223  949 

19 

1 

Kentucky.., 

2,  289,  905 

4,776 

65,400 

?7 

1.0 

223,754 

?0 

.1 

Washington. 

1,141,990 

3  674 

69  120 

?fi 

1.0 

220,746 

?1 

1 

Virginia* 

2  061  612 

5  685 

105  676 

hi 

1  6 

219  794 

w 

j 

North  Carolina 

2  206  287 

4  931 

121  473 

1? 

1  8 

216  656 

23 

o 

Georgia 

2  609  121 

4  792 

104  588 

17 

1  6 

202  863 

24 

o 

Nebraska 

1  192  214 

2  500 

24  336 

37 

0  4 

199  019 

25 

o 

Tennessee  

2,  184,  789 

4  609 

73,840 

?? 

1.1 

180,217 

">6 

0  9 

Maine  

742  371 

3  546 

79  955 

19 

1  2 

176  029 

27 

0  8 

New  Hampshire 

430  572 

1  961 

78  658 

•>n 

1  2 

164  581 

28 

0  8 

West  Virginia 

1  221  119 

2  586 

63  893 

?H 

1  0 

161  950 

29 

0  8 

Alabama" 

2  138  093 

3  398 

72  148 

24 

1  i 

145  962 

30 

0  7 

Colorado 

799  024 

2  034 

28  067 

36 

0  4 

130  044 

31 

0  6 

South  Carolina.  ... 

1,515,400 

1,854 

73,046 

?3 

1.1 

113  236 

?? 

0  5 

Oregon  

672,  765 

2,246 

28,750 

1*1 

0  4 

93  005 

W 

0  4  | 

Mississippi  

1,797  114 

2  598 

50  384 

•*! 

0  8 

80  555 

34 

0  4 

Arkansas  

1  574  449 

2  925 

44  982 

32 

'0  7 

74  916 

35 

0  4 

Montana  

376  053 

677 

11  655 

41 

0  2 

73  272 

36 

0  4 

Florida    . 

752  619 

'2  159 

57  473 

30 

0  9 

72  890 

37 

0  4 

Vermont 

355  956 

1  958 

33  788 

34 

0  5 

68  310 

38 

0  3 

Utah 

373  351 

749 

11  785 

40 

0  2 

61  989 

39 

0  3 

Oklahoma... 

1,657,155 

2,310 

13  143 

?<) 

0  2 

53,682 

40 

0  3 

Delaware 

202  322 

726 

21  238 

38 

0  3 

52  840 

41 

0  3 

Arizona  

204,354 

311 

6  441 

44 

0  1 

50  257 

42 

0  2 

331  069 

518 

7  707 

43 

0  1 

25  289 

43 

o 

Idaho 

325  594 

725 

8  220 

42 

0  1 

22  400 

44 

o 

North  Dakota 

577  056 

752 

2  789 

48 

(2) 

19  138 

45 

o 

South  Dakota 

583  888 

1  020 

3  602 

46 

0  1 

17  870 

46 

o 

Nevada 

81  875 

177 

2  257 

49 

m 

11  887 

47 

f) 

New  Mexico  

327,301 

313 

4*143 

45 

0  1 

7  898 

48 

(S) 

Wyoming...  

145,965 

268 

2  867 

47 

m 

6  24Q 

49 

(') 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK 


101 


SFMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES,  BY  PRINCIPAL  CITIES  BY   RANK: 

1909. 


OTT. 

Population. 

Number 
of 
estab- 
lish- 
ments. 

WAGE 
EARNERS. 

VALUE  or 

PRODUCTS. 

Average 
number. 

, 

Amount 
(expressed 
in  thou- 
sands). 

, 

New  York  N  Y 

4,  766,  883 
2,  185,  283 
1,549,008 
687,029 
560,663 

465,766 
533,905 
670,585 
423,715 
373,857 

347,  469 
363,  591 
558,485 
301,408 
82,331 

416,912 
267,  779 
233,650 
224,326 
218,  149 

223,928 
26,259 
79,066 
85.892 
339,075 

145,986 
55,545 
69.067 
32,  121 
89,336 

125,600 
319.  198 
102,054 
119,295 
66,950 

168;  497 
124.096 
116,577 
106,294 
79,803 

214,744 
248.381 
96,652 
213,  381 
96,071 

133,605 
237,  194 
73.  141 
137,  249 
94,538 

25,938 
9,656 
8,379 
2,667 
2.148 

2,036 
1,659 
3,155 
1,753 
1,764 

1,858 
2,184 
2,502 
1,102 
165. 

1,796 
745 
855 
1,080 
1,203 

903 
71 
115 
162 
848 

580 
97 
246 
80 
431 

702 
1,325 
367 
288 
283 

760 
432 
513 
320 
158 

719 
902 
207 
766 
482 

590 
751 
169 
738 
365 

554,002 
293,977 
251,884 
87,371 
84,728 

81,011 
67,474 
69,637 
51,412 
59,502 

59,955 
60,192 
71,444 
26,962 
12,294 

28,244 
25,454 
31,815 
46,381 
39,108 

27,023 
6,306 
10,498 
30,542 
17,186 

28,221 
7,'519 
15,831 
5,866 
27,368 

32,004 
17,327 
25,775 
37,  139 
5,981 

18,  878 
8,023 
21,549 
32.575 
12,711 

19,  339 
14,643 
26,566 
12,058 
24,145 

23.547 
11,331 
20.170 
18,  148 
16,527 

I 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 
9 
8 
13 
12 

n 

10 
7 
25 
42 

21 
28 
19 
14 
15 

24 
48 
45 
20 
37 

22 
47 
39 
50 
23 

18 
36 
27 
16 
49 

34 
46 
31 
17 
41 

33 
40 
26 
43  i 

29 

30 
44 

32  ' 
35 
38 

$2,029,693 
1,281,171 
746,076 
328,495 
271,961 

252,992 
243,454 
237,457 
*i8,«04 
208,324 

202,511 
194,516 
186,  978 
165,405 
164,081 

133,041 
128,775 
126,522 
120,241 
112,676 

101,284 
92,436 
81,271 
79,993 
78,794 

77,148 
73,641 
73,158 
73,093 
71,503 

69,584 
68,586 
65,609 
64,146 
63,061 

61,230 
60,854 
60.378 
60;271 
59,334 

58,990 
54,  704 
53,238 
51,538 
51,135 

51,071 
50,  569 
50,350 
49,435 
49,  138 

1 

j 

5 
6 

8 
9 
10 

ii 

12 

a 

15 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

Chicago.  III... 

Philadelphia,  Pa  

St.  Louis.  Mo  

Cleveland,  Ohio  

Detroit,  Mich... 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.  .    . 

Boston,  Mass 

Buffalo',  N.  Y 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Newark,  N.  J... 

Cincinnati,  Ohio  

Baltimore,  Md  

Minneapolis,  Minn... 

Kansas  City,  Kans 

San  Francisco.  Cal 

Jersey  City,  N.  J 

Indianapolis  Ind 

Providence,  R.  I... 

Rochester,  N.  Y  

Louisville,  Ky  

South  Omaha,  Nebr 

Youngstown.  Ohio.  . 

Lawrence,  Mass.  .  . 

New  Orleans,  La 

Worcester,  Mass 

Baynnne,  'N,  J 

Akron,  Ohio 

Perth  Amboy,  N.  J  

Lynn,  Mass  

Paterson,  N.  J  

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Bridgeport,  Conn 

Fall  River,  Mass 

Peoria,  111 

Toledo  Ohio 

Omaha,  Nebr  

Dayton,  Ohio  

Lowell.  Mass.  . 

Yonkers,  N.  Y  

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

New  Bedford,  Mass 

Denver,  Colo 

Reading,  Pa 

New  Haven,  Conn 

Seattle,  Wash  

Waterburv,  Conn.  .  . 

Syracuse  ft  Y 

Camden  N  J 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  EXPENSES  IN  PERCENTAGES  FOR 
THE   LEADING  INDUSTRIES    1909. 


INDUSTRY. 

PER  CENT  OP  TOTAL  EXPENSES 
REPORTED. 

Sala- 
ries. 

Wages. 

Mate- 
rials. 

Mis- 
cellane- 
ous ex- 
penses. 

All  industries  

5.1 

8.6 
4.5 
3.9 
4.1 
4.0 

1.4 

5.6 
5.7 

4.3 
4.3 

6.5 
5.2 
6.0 

7.6 
5.8 

2.6 
10.0 
1.5 
8.7 
7.3 

10.9 
4.4 

1.8 
2.9 

7.2 

2.2 
1.0 
7.6 
4.8 
6.7 

3.1 
9.3 
4.0 

14.9 
1.8 

16.7 
4.2 
1.5 
0.7 
0.9 

0.9 
4.6 
2.6 
6.4 

18.6 

24.3 
23.1 
20.6 
17.3 
17.4 

4.3 
13.5 
.27.0 

44.7 
23.0 

15.0 
20.7 
23.0 
13.1 
22.4 

24.0 
24.5 
2.6 
29.8 
30.8 

18.4 
25.5 
6.8 
18.3 
19.3 

10.5 
1.6 
13.7 
32.0 
44.8 

4.3 
7.4 
17.2 

8.7 
4.4 

26.6 
21.8 
3.9 
3.8 
3.4 

2.8 
19.0 
18.7 
2-1.1 

65.8 

51.1 
62.5 
09.6 
72.6 
69.9 

91.0 
72.0 
58.9 

49.2 
66.7 

68.2 
57.9 
61.1 
67.9 
63.7 

66.9 
53.8 
92.8 
50.1 
51.0 

46.2 
62.7 
88.4 
73.9 
64.6 

81.2 
18.4 
32.2 
51.0 
39.4 

87.7 
71.1 
69.7 

44.1 
89.6 

32.6 
60.8 
91.3 
94.4 
94.8 

92.6 

48.4 
72.9 
62.1 

10.5 

16.0 
9.9 
5.9 
6.0 
8.6 

3.3 
9.0 

8.4 

1.8 
6.0 

10.3 
16.2 
9.9 
11.4 
8.1 

6.5 
11.7 
3.1 
11.4 
10.9 

24.5 
7.4 
3.0 

4.8 
8.9 

6.1 
79.0 
46.5 
12.2 
9.1 

4.9 
12.2 
9.1 

32.4 
4.2 

24.1 
13.2 
3.3 
1.1 
0.9 

3.7 
28.0 
5.8 
10.5 

Agricultural  implements  

Automobiles,  including  bodies  and  parts. 

Boots  and  shoes,  including  cut  stock  and  findings. 
Brass  and  bronze  products 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products  

Canning  and  preserving  ,  

Carriages  and  wagons  and  materials 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
steam-railroad  companies  

Cars,  steam-railroad,  not  including  operations  of 
railroad  companies  »  

Chemicals 

Clothing,  men's,  including  shirts 

Clothing,  women's 

Confectionery  

Copper,  tin,  and  sheet-iron  products 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares  

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus,  and  supplies.  .  . 
Flour-mill  and  gristmill  products  

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products 

Furniture  and  refrigerators  

Gas,  illuminating  and  heating  

Hosiery  and  knit  goods.. 

Iron  and  steel,  blast  furnaces  
Iron  and  steel,  steel  works  and  rolling  mills 

Leather  goods  

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and  finished.. 

Liquors,  distilled 

Liquors,  malt  

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Marble  and  stone  work  

Oil,  cottonseed,  and  cake  

Paint  and  varnish  

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  and  druggists' 
preparations            .  .        

Petroleum  refining 

Printing  and  publishing 

Silk  and  silk  goods,  including  throwsters  
Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  

Smelting  and  refining  copper 

Smelting  and  refining,  lead  

Sugar  and  molasses,  not  including  beet  sugar  
Tobacco  manufactures  

Woolen,  worsted,  and  felt  goods,  and  wool  hats.  . 
All  other  industries  .'  

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


105 


I.     ENGINES  AND  POWER. 


In  1909  408,472  engines  or  motors,  having 
a  total  horse-power  of  18,680,776,  used  pri- 
mary power  in  the  United  States.  Of  this 
number  209,163  were  owned  and  199,309  were 
rented.  The  owned  engines  or  motors  were 
divided  according  to  power,  as  follows:  Steam, 
153,482  with  total  horse-power  of  14,202,137; 
gas,  34,352,  total  horse-power  754,083;  water 
wheels,  20,126,  total  horse-power  1,807,144; 
water  motors,  1,203,  total  horse-power  15,449; 
all  other  owned  engines  or  motors  having  a 
horse-power  of  29,293.  The  rented  engines 
were  divided  as  follows:  Electric,  199,309, 


total  horse-power  1,749,031;  all  other 
rented  engines  or  motors  ha  ing  a  total  horse- 
power of  123,639.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1909 
there  were  388,854  electric  motors  in  the 
United  States,  having  a  total  horse-power  of 
4,817,140.  Of  these  189,545,  having  a  horse- 
power of  3,068,109,  were  run  by  current  gen- 
erated by  establishment;  and  199,309,  having 
a  total  horse-power  of  1,749,031,  were  run  by 
rented  power.  Our  comparison  would  be  even 
more  spectacular  if  figures  for  the  year  1912 
could  be  obtained. 


IT.  MANUFACTURED  FOOD  PRODUCTS. 


SLAUGHTERING  AND   MEAT  PACKING. 

The  total  cost  of  all  the  material  used  in  the 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing  business 
during  the  year  1909,  amounted  to  $1,201,- 
827,784.  The  cost  of  all  the  animals  slaugh- 
tered was  8960,725,581.  The  total  number 
of  beeves  killed  was  8,114,860  and  they  were 
valued  at  §392,127,010;  the  total  number  of 
calves  slaughtered  was  2,504,728  and  they 
were  valued  at  $25,030,014;  the  number  of 
sheep  slaughtered  was  12,255,501,  and  their 
value  was  859,924,931;  the  number  of  hogs 
slaughtered  amounted  to  33,870,616  and  their 
value  was  $483.383,848;  the  goats  slaughtered 
numbered  33,224  and  were  valued  at  8121,230; 
and  the  cost  of  all  other  animals  slaugh- 
tered was  $138,548.  The  dressed  meat  pur- 
chased during  the  year  1909  was  valued  at 
893,409,286,  and  all  the  other  materials;  pur- 
chased at  8147,692,917.  The  products  of  the 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing  business  for 
the  year  were  valued  at  $1,370,568,101  and 
were  divided  as  follows:  Beef,  4,335,674,330 
pounds,  value,  $339,742,608;  of  which 
4,209,196,668  pounds,  valued  at  $327,583,456, 
were  fresh,  and  126,477,662  '  pounds 
valued  at  812,159,152,  were  salted  or  dried; 
veal,  252,997,078  pounds,  value,  $25,058,886; 
fresh  mutton,  495,457.894,  value,  S50,735,116; 
pork,  4,377,127,187,  value,  8486.845,161,  of 
which  1,547,494,184  pounds,  valued  at 
8158,714,862,  were  fresh;  952,130,557  pounds, 
valued  at  •  $95,959,048,  were  salted; 
789,861,744  pounds,  valued  at  $101,089,390. 
were  hams;  346,294,769  pounds,  valued  at 
$33,225,458,  were  shoulders;  and  741,345,933 
pounds,  valued  at-  $97,856,403,  were  bacons 
and  sides;  sausage,  fresh  or  cured,  value 
$59,564,582;  all  other  fresh  meat,  257,809,083 
pounds,  value,  $16,392,768;  canned  goods, 
121,376,837  pounds,  value,  $15,345,543;  lard, 
1,243.567,604  pounds,  value,  $134,396,587; 
tallow  or  oleo  stock,  202,844,139  pounds, 
value,  $13,499,659;  oleo  oil,  19,692,172 
gallons,  value,  $16,475,726;  other  oils, 
11,343,186  gallons,  value,  $6,350,745;  oleo- 
margarine, 42,912,466  pounds,  value, 
$5,963,981;  stearin,  54,957,997  pounds,  value, 
$6,871,935;  glue  and  gelatine,  27,936,035 
pounds,  .  value,  $1,944,338;  fertilizers  and 
fertilizer  materials,  362,136  tons,  value, 
$8,726,818;  hides,  9,560,138,  value,  $68,- 
401,515;  sheep  pelts,  11,691,308,  value, 
$11,404,556;  goat  and  kid  skins,  33,359, 
value,  $20,679;  wool,  21,858,926  pounds, 


value,  $8,327,095;  amount  received  for 
custom  or  contract  work,  $1,329,739;  and  all 
other  products,  value,  $93,170,064. 

CANNING  AND  PRESERVING. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1909  there  were 
3,767  canning  and  preserving  establishments 
in  the  United  States,  having  a  total  capital 
of  $119,207,000.  The  total  cost  of  all  ma- 
terials used  in  the  establishments  was  $101,- 
823,000;  the  amount  spent  in  these  factories 
for  wages  was  $19,082,000;  the  amount  spen" 
for  salaries  $7,864,000;  and  the  miscellaneous 
expenses  were  $12,718,000.  The  total  value 
of  the  products  was  $157,101,000,  and  the 
value  added  by  manufacture  (products  less 
cost  of  materials)  was  $55,278,000.  The  total 
number  of  salaried  officials  and  clerks  em- 
ployed in  the  establishments  numbered  7,760; 
and  the  average  number  of  wage  earners  em- 
ployed during  the  year  was  59,968.  The  pri- 
mary horse-power  of  the  establishments  was 
81,179. 

There  were  32,834,820  cases  of  vegetables, 
having  a  value  of  $51,568,914,  canned  during 
the  year.  The  total  value  of  the  tomatoes 
canned  during  the  year  was  $18,747,941;  the 
value  of  the  corn,  $10,332,136;  of  peas,  $10,- 
247,363;  of  beans,  $6,013,098;  of  asparagus, 
$1.975,775.  There  were  5,461,233  cases  of 
fruits  canned  during  the  year  1909,  and  their 
total  value  was  $12,938,474.  The  total  value 
of  the  peaches  canned  during  the  year  was 
§3,753,698;  of  the  apples,  $1,898,720;  of  the 
apricots,  $1,825,311;  of  the  pears,  $1,833,214; 
of  the  berries,  $1,7 ^3. 026;  of  the  cherries, 
8990,914.  During  the  same  year  there  were 
484,328,767  pounds  of  fruits,  with  a  total 
value  of  $21.914,995,  dried  in  the  United 
States.  Of  this  total  $6,912,533  represented 
the  value  of  the  raisins  dried;  $5,130,412  that 
of  the  prunes;  $3,098,095  that  of  the  apples; 
82.423,083  that  of  the  peaches;  $2,277,177 
that  of  the  apricots. 

During  the  year  1909  there  vere  235,418,713 
pounds  of  fisn  and  oysters,  with  a  value  of 
$17,573,311,  canned  in  the  United  States. 
There  were  99,831.528  pounds  of  salmon,  with 
a  value  of  $8,723,565,  canned  during  the  year: 
90,694,284  pounds  of  sardines,  with  a  value  of 
$4,931,831;  28,192,392  pounds  of  oysters,  with 
a  value  of  $2,443,101.  There  were  39,814,989 
pounds  of  fish,  having  a  value  of  $2,900,417, 
smoked  during  the  year  1909;  and  128,539,299 
pounds  of  fish,  having  a  value  of  $7,174,561. 


106 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


salted  during  the  year.  49,494,338  pounds  of 
cod,  with  a  value  of  $3,077,612,  were  salted 
during  this  period;  and  9,045,469  pounds  of 
mackerel,  with  a  value  of  $740,513. 

RICE,  CLEANING  AND  POLISHING. 

In  1909  there  were  974,747,475  pounds  of 
rice  treated,  970,873,740  of  which  were 
domestic  and  3,873,735  of  which  were  of 
foreign  growth.  The  total  value  of  the 
products  derived  therefrom  amounted  to 


$22,371,457.  There  were  626,089,489  pounds 
of  rice,  valued  at  $20,685,982,  produced  in 
the  United  States,  477,589,004  of  which, 
valued  at  $17,398,736,  were  whole  and 
148,500,485  pounds  of  which,  valued  at 
$3,287,  246,  were  broken.  There  was  29,821,- 
813  pounds  of  polish,  valued  at  $362,052, 
produced  from  rice  during  the  year;  91,208,- 
529  pounds  of  bran,  valued  at  $736,215; 
$166,147  worth  of  hulls  and  waste;  and 
$421,061  worth  of  all  other  rice  products. 


Copyright,    Munn   &  Co. 


THE  MEATS  WE  EAT. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


107 


FLOUR  AND  GRIST  MILL  PRODUCTS. 


1909 

1904 

1899 

MATERIALS. 

Total  cost 

$767,576,479 

$619  971  161 

$428  116  757 

Grain  ground  or  milled,  bushels  

806,  247,  961 

754  945  729 

729  061  820 

496,480,314 

494  095  083 

471  306  986 

Corn                    .  . 

209  281  237 

178  217  321 

180  573  076 

Rye 

11  503  969 

11  480*370 

10  088  381 

Buckwheat  

7  156'  062 

6  531  305 

5  490  156 

Barley 

24  509  770 

18  628  552 

10  067*348 

Oats  

50,241  598 

45  381  009 

47  175  766 

Other            w 

7  075  oil 

612  089 

4  360  107 

PRODUCTS. 

Total  value  

1  $883,584,405 

i  $713,033  395 

$501  396  304 

Wheat  flour: 
Barrels 

105  756  645 

104  013  278 

99  763  777 

Value  

$550  116,254 

$480  258  514 

$333  997  686 

White- 
Barrels 

105  321  969 

103  608  350 

m 

Value     

$548  017  654 

$478  484  601 

') 

Graham- 
Barrels  

434,  676 

404  928 

(i) 

Value 

$2  098  600 

$1  773  913 

(») 

Rye  flour: 
Barrels       

1,532,139 

1  503  100 

1  443  339 

Value                    ? 

$6  383  538 

$5  892  108 

$4  145  565 

Buckwheat  flour: 
Pounds            .      ... 

176  081  891 

175  354  062 

143  190  724 

Value 

$4  663  561 

$4  379  359 

$3  190  152 

Barley  meal: 
Pounds 

28  550  952 

68  508  655 

91  275  646 

Value 

$486  000 

$922  884 

$963  710 

Corn  meal  and  corn  flour: 
Barrels 

21  552  737 

23  624  693 

27  838  811 

Value            

$66,  941,  095 

$56'  368  '  556 

$52  167  739 

Hominy  and  grits: 
Pounds 

827  987  702 

756  861  398 

291  726  145 

Value 

$12,  509,  493 

$8  455  420 

$2  567  084 

Feed: 
Tons  (2,000  pounds)  

5,  132,  369 

3,456  786 

3  993'080 

Value     

$140  541  915 

$76  096  127 

$63  Oil  421 

Offal: 
Tons  (2,000  pounds)  

4,104,042 

4  468  626 

3  164  408 

Value 

$89  814  427 

$76  105  532 

$36  679  196 

All  other  cereal  products—"  breakfast 
foods,"  oatmeal,  rolled  oats,  etc., 
value 

$4  720  106 

Ml 

(t) 

All  other  products,  value  

$7,  408,  016 

$4  554  895 

$4  673  751 

EQUIPMENT. 

Pairs  of  rolls 

76  866 

80  822 

67  141 

Runs  of  stone  

11,185 

10  609 

10  939 

Attrition  mills                          

981 

ft) 

ft) 

i  In  addition,  merchant-ground  products,  valued  at  $1,637,228,  were  made  by 
establishments  engaged  primarily  in  the  manufacture  of  products  other  than  those 
covered  by  the  industry  designation.  The  items  covered  by  this  amount  were 
wheat  flour,  105,477  barrels,  valued  at  $614,952;  com  meal,  32,804  barrels,  valued  at 
$87,507;  rye  flour,  2,620  barrels,  valued  at  $12,330;  feed,  33,765  tons,  valued  at  $907,165; 
and  offal,  627  tons,  valued  at  $15,274;  and  in  addition,  "breakfast  foods."  to  the 
value  of  $36,978,613,  were  made  by  establishments  engaged  primarily  in  the  manu- 
facture of  food  preparations.  See  note  to  table  on  page  73,  for  custom  ground 
by-products. 

»Inaddition,  "breakfast  foods,"  to  the  value  of  $23,904,952,  were  made  by  estab- 
lishments engaged  primarily  in  the  manufacture  of  food  preparations. 

s  Not  reported  separately. 

*  Not  reported. 


108 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUGAR. 


The  total  acreage  of  sugar  beets  planted  iri 
the  United  States  amounted  to  413,964.  Of 
these  29,459  were  planted  directly  by  the 
factory;  18,166  by  tenants  of  the  factory; 
368,339  on  contract  by  others  than  tenants 
of  the  factory.  There  were  3,965,356  tons  of 
beets  used  in  the  industry.  Of  these  266,768 
were  grown  directly  by  the  factory;  163,843 
tons  by  tenants  of  the  factory;  and  3,534,745 
tons  on  contract  by  others  than  the  tenants 
of  the  factory.  The  total  value  of  the  pro- 
ducts derived  from  the  beets  was  $48,122,383. 
Of  this  496,807  tons  of  granulated  sugar  were 
valued  at  $45,645,810;  4,875;  tons  of  raw 
sugar  were  valued  at  $291,819;  20,812,747 
gallons  of  molasses  or  syrup  were  valued  at 


$1,129,905;  beet  pulp  was  valued  at  $795,900; 
and  all  other  products  were  valued  at 
$258,949. 

The  total  value  of  all  the  sugar  produced  in 
the  United  States  during  the  year  1909  was 
$77,991,683,  and  of  this  $48,122,3*3  was 
derived  from  the  sugar-beet  industry,  and 
$29,869,300  from  the  cane-sugar  industry. 
There  were  828,540  tons  of  sugar  produced, 
the  total  value  of  which  was  $72,033,302,  of 
which  amount  501,862  pounds,  valued  at 
$45,937,629,  were  beet  sugar,  and  326,858 
pounds,  valued  at  $26,095,673,  were  cane 
sugar.  The  total  value  of  molasses,  syrup, 
and  all  other  products  produced  of  either 
cane  or  beet  was  $3,838,381. 


III.     TEXTILES. 


RUGS  AND  CARPETS. 

During  the  year  1909  there  were  57,176,729 
square  yards  of  carpets,  with  a  value  of 
$48,475,889,  manufactured  in  the  United 
States.  During  the  same  period  there  were 
24,042,152  square  yards'  of  rugs,  valued  at 
$18,490,449,  woven  in  the  United  States. 

CORDAGE  AND  TWINE  AND  JUTE  AND 
LINEN  GOODS. 

The  total  value  of  the  cordage  and  twine 
and  jute  and  linen  goods  produced  in  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1909  was 
$61,019,986.  The  total  value  of  the  rope 
and  binder  twine  for  the  same  year  was 
$33,930,306;  of  the  twine  not  including 
binder,  $8,934,352;  of  the  yarns  for  sale, 
$5,434,037;  of  the  6,530,503  pounds  of  linen 
thread  used,  $3,407,008;  of.  the  69,311,288 
square  yards  of  gunny-bagging,  $3,507,482; 
and  of  the  2,206,114  square  yards  of  jute 
carpets  and  rugs,  $549,221. 

FELT  GOODS. 

The  aggregate  cost  of  the  material  required 
in  the  production  of  the  felt  goods  of  the 
United  States  during  the  year  1909  was 
$6,967,206,  and  the  total  value  of  these 
products  for  the  same  period  was  $11,852,626. 
There  were  3,764,468  square  yards  of  felt 
cloths,  valued  at  $1,381,854,  produced  in  that 
year. 

HATS,  FUR-FELT  AND  WOOL-FELT. 

The  value  of  the  2,989,252  dozens  of  fur- 
felt  hats  produced  during  the  year  1909  was 
$43,442,466,  and  the  value  of  the  366,370 
dozen  of  fur-felt  hat  bodies  and  hats  in  the 
rough  for  the  same  period  was  $2,703,738. 

The  total  value  of  the  590,957  dozen  wool- 
felt  hats  produced  in  the  United  States  during 
the  year  1909  was  $3,646,787. 

HOSIERY  AND  KNIT  GOODS. 

There  were,  during  the  year  1909,  62,825,- 
069  dozen  pair  of  hosiery  produced  in  the 
United  States  and  they  were  valued  at 
$68,721,825.  During  the  same  period  there 
were  25,337,779  dozen  shirts  and  drawers 
produced,  with  a  total  value  of  $69,592,817; 


2,473,103  dozen  combinations,  with  a  value 
of  $14,853,536;  sweaters,  cardigan  jackets, 
etc.,  to  the  value  of  $22,430,817;  and  gloves 
and  mittens  to  the  value  of  $7,296,887.  In 
the  production  of  the  hosiery  and  knit  goods 
of  the  United  States  there  were  2,681  sets  of 
cards  used;  736,774  spindles;  112,206  knitting 
machines  of  all  classes,  and  43,885  sewing 
machines  of  all  classes. 

COTTON  GOODS. 

The  total  cost  of  the  2,335,344,906  pounds 
of  cotton  material  consumed  in  the  production 
of  cotton  goods  during  the  year  1909  was 
$274,724,210.  The  total  value  of  the  cotton 
goods  produced  from  these  materials  was 
$628,391,813,  divided  as  follows:  6,348,568,593 
square  yards  of  woven  goods,  valued  at 
$456,089,401;  23,700,957  pounds  of  thread, 
valued  at  $20,516,269;  and  13,715,771  pounds 
of  twine,  valued  at  $2,417,391.  There  were 
27,425,608  producing  spindles  used  during  the 
year,  and  665,049  looms  of  all  classes. 


UNITED  KINGDOM 
54,000,000 


U.S. A  QERMANY 

24,000,000      9.000.000 


RUSSIA 
8,000,000 


FRANCE: 

6,000,000 


*  WDIA 

5,800,000 


CHIEF  MANUFACTURING  COUNTRIES. 
(Number  of  Spindles). 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


109 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 


THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  COTTON  INDUSTRY,  FROM  COTTON  BOLL 
TO  FINISHED  PRODUCT. 


110 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


OILCLOTH  AND  LINOLEUM. 

The  total  value  of  the  oilcloth  and  linoleum 
produced  in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1909  was  $26,253,796.  The  oilcloth,  valued 
at  $11,681,012,  was  divided  as  follows: 
18,354,851  square  yards  of  floor  oilcloth, 
valued  at  $3,776,660;  17,338,440  square 
yards  of  enameled  oilcloth,  valued  at  $2,265,- 
146;  61,168,777  square  yards  of  table  oil- 
cloth, valued  at  $5,639,206.  The  total  value 
ol  the  linoleum  produced  in  the  United  States 
during  the  same  period  was  $10,844,928. 
The 'value  of  the  artificial  leather  produced 
in  the  United  States  *jfcuring  the  same  period 
was  $3,448,617. 

SILK  AND  SILK  GOODS. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
production  of  the  silk  products  of  the  United 
States  was  $107,766,916.  There  were  17,- 
472,204  pounds  of  raw  silk,  valued  at  $67,- 
787,037,  required;  2,212,972  pounds  of  spun 
silk,  valued  at  $4,848,789,  used;  914,494 
pounds  of  artificial  silk,  valued  at  $1,926,894; 
3,377,972  pounds  of  organzine  and  tram, 
valued  at  $14,679,719,  purchased;  $1,637,187 
dollars  worth  of  fringe  and  floss,  including 
waste,  noils,  etc.;  14,111,878  pounds  of  cotton 
and  mercerized  yarn,  valued  at  $5,811,582; 
610,588  pounds  of  woolen  or  worsted  yarns, 
valued  at  $765,989;  710,108  pounds  of 
mohair  yarn  valued  at  $640,529;  and  353,780 
pounds  of  all  other  kinds  of  yarn,  valued  at 
$456,597.  Chemicals  and  dyestuffs,  cost 
$1,062,313;  and  all  other  materials  used  in 
the  production  of  silk  and  silk  goods  cost 
$8,150,280. 


I 


CHINA 
13.545,000 


JAPAN 
12,725.000 


A5IA  MINOR         INDIA 
3.051,000      2,630.000  (?) 


TONKIN6 
1,651.161 


SILK. 
A  TEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 


The  products  of  the  silk  and  silk  goods 
industry  in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1909  were  valued  at  $1^6,911,667.  Of  this 
amount  $107,881,146  were  derived  from  the 
manufacture  of  185,707,316  yards  of  broad 
silk,  as  follows:  $53,282,704  from  the  manu- 
facture of  81,934,158  yards  of  all  silk,  plain 
and  fancies;  $14,207,861  from  the  24,742,556 
yards  of  silk  mixed,  plain  and  fancies;  $9,835,- 
345  from  the  13,249,090  yards  of  all  silk  jac- 
quard;  $3,473,799  from  the  6,043,686  yards  of 


silk  mixed  jacquard;  $11,353,242  from  the 
19,693.393  yards  of  all  piece-dyed  broad  silk, 
and  $11,728,195  from  the  40,044,433  yards  of 
mixed  piece-dyed  broad  silk;  $4,767,990 
from  the  10,093,583  yards  of  velvet;  $2,104,- 
768  from  the  2,759,411  yards  of  plushes; 
$382,820  from  the  226,717  yards  of  tapestries 
and  upholstery;  $32,744,873  from  ribbons; 
$1,350,850  'laces,  nets,  veils,  veiling,  etc.; 
$485,322  from  embroideries;  $824,527  from 
fringes  and  gimps;  $4,483,248  from  braids 
and  bindings;  $3,850,448  from  trimmings; 
$6,341,719  from  the  1,088,780  pounds  of 
machinist  twine;  $4,179,355  from  the 
747,246  pounds  of  sewing,  embroidery,  wash, 
fringe  and  floss  silks:  $12,550,510  from  the 
2,740,319  pounds  of  organzine  and  tram; 
and  $2,104,066  from  the  779,462  pounds  of 
spun  silk.  The  value  of  all  other  products  of 
the  silk  and  silk  goods  industries  amounted  to 
$4,495,675;  and  the  value  of  all  the  work 
done  on  materials  for  others  amounted  to 
$8,364,350. 

WOOLEN  AND  WOUSTED  GOODS. 

The  total  cost  of  all  the  materials  required 
in  the  manufacture  of  all  the  woolen  and 
worsted  goods  produced  in  the  United  States 
during  the  year  1909  amounted  to  $273,438,- 
570.  This  amount  was  divided  as  follows: 
474,755,366  pounds  of  wool  in  the  condition 
purchased,  value  $136,666,917,  of  which 
310,602,279  pounds  were  domestic  wool,  with 
a  value  of  $85,018,238,  and  164,153,087 
pounds  were  foreign  wool,  with  a  value  of 
$51,648,679;  mohair,  camel,  alpaca  and 
vicuna  hair,  7,805,422  pounds,  value 
$2,399,123;  cow  and  other  animal  hair, 
17,356,100  pounds,  value  $932,911;  cotton, 
20,024,061  pounds,  value  $2,515,409;  tailors' 
clippings,  rags,  etc.,  40,402,460  pounds,  value 
$2,856,966;  shoddy,  mungo  and  wool  extract 
purchased,  21,454,187  pounds,  value  $3,058,- 
214;  waste  and  noils  of  wool,  mohair,  camel 
hair,  etc.,  purchased,  26,473,311  pounds, 
value  $7,523,283;  tops  purchased,  20,828,245 
pounds,  value  $14,614,527;  woolen  yarns 
purchased,  931,222  pounds,  value  $558,270; 
worsted  yarns  purchased,  59, 148,771 -pounds, 
value  $56,033,701;  merino  yarns  purchased, 
1,971,709  pounds,  value  $318,456;  cotton 
yarns  purchased,  39,169,388  pounds,  value 
$10,492,185;  silk  and  spun  silk  yarns, 
282,536  pounds,  value  $1,142,663;  all  other 
yarns,  1,046,735  pounds,  value  $40,739; 
chemicals  and  dyestuffs, Ajalue  $8,820,928; 
and  all  other  materials,  value  $25,464,278. 

The  total  value  of  all  the  products  of  the 
woolen  and  worsted  goods  manufactories  was 
$419,743,521.  This  amount  was  derived  from' 
the  following  products:  All-wool  woven  goods, 
322,944,365  square  yards,  value  $219,853,767; 
wool  cloths,  doeskins,  cassimeres,  cheviots, 
etc.,  40,843,979  square  yards,  value  $29,'- 
291,059;  worsted  coatings,  serges  and  suitings, 
119,655,069  square  yards,  value  $101,903;153; 
woolen  overcoatings,  14,697,770  square  yards, 
value  $11,230,856;  worsted  overcoatings 
and  cloakings,  654,404  square  yards,  value 
$821,688;  wool  dress  goods,  sackings,  tricots, 
etc.,  and  opera  and  similar  flannels,  29,099,- 
956  square  yards,  value  $16,385,498;  worsted 
dress  goods,  cashmeres,  serges,  bunting,  etc., 
105,801,349  square  yards,  value  $54,030,376; 
carriage  cloths,  1,782,855  square  yards,  value 
$947,862;  flannels  for  underwear,  3,856,553 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Ill 


square  yards,  value  $1,257,271;  blankets, 
5,137,903  square  yards,  value  $3,228,797; 
horse  blankets,  247,395  square  yards,  value 
$185,430;  woven  shawls,  704,153  square 
yards,  value  $404,583;  and  all  other  all-wool 
woven  goods,  463,179  square  yards,  value 
§167,194;  union,  or  cotton  mixed,  woven 
goods,  37,453,351  square  yards,  value 
$14,327,973;  unions,  tweeds,  cheviots,  cassi- 
meres,  etc.,  18,^17,478  square  yards,  value 
$7,780,854;  overcoatings  and  cloakings, 
4,281,739  square  yards,  value  $2,363,381; 
sackings,  tricots,  dress  goods  and  opera  and 
similar  flannels,  4,319,539  square  yards, 


value  $1,776,721;  flannels  for  underwear, 
7,063,572  square  yards,  value  $1,308,369; 
blankets,  1,717,758  square  yards,  value 
$650,714;  all  other  union,  or  cotton  mixed, 
woven  goods,  1,153,265  square  yards,  value 
$447,934;  all  cotton-warp  woven  goods, 
210,346,081  square  yards,  value  $62,265,854; 
all  upholstering  goods  and  sundries,  value 
$1,986,330;  all  partially  manufactured  prod- 
ucts for  sale,  value  $115,032,285;  all  other 
products,  value  $3,250,857.  During  the  year 
there  were  4,287,640  spindles,  producing  and 
doubling  and  twisting;  also,  72,532  looms, 
all  classes. 


IV.     IRON  AND  STEEL  MANUFACTURES. 


1909 

1909 

MATERIALS. 

Total  cost 

1320,637,889 

48,353,677 
$187,264,601 

46,605,930 
$177,589,789 

1,747,747 
$9,674,812 

1,  982,  530 
$5,544,859 

13,570,845 
$12,  239,  493 
$105,994,112 

31,436,536 
$102,134,423 

38,032,618 
$2,  787,  026- 

PRODUCTS—  continued. 

Pig  iron,  classified  according  to  dispo- 
sition— Continued  . 
Produced  for  sale  — 

9,793,595 
$148,443,426 

10,147,052 

248,720 
7,741,759 
5,539,410 
586,685 
934,211 

110,  810 
16,  181 
326,970 
142,223 
82,208 

102,539 

12,197,686 
7,655,568 
5,096,797 
685,566 
16,  181 

388 
101,447 

370 
98,973 

10 
4,100 

104 

85 
5,699,259 

85 

198,040 

Iron  ore: 
Tons  

Cost  

Domestic- 
Tons  

Value  

Pig  iron,  classified  by  grades  (tons): 
Bessemer,  (0.04  to  0.10  per  cent 

Cost  

Foreign  — 
Tons  

Cost  

Low  phosphorus  (below  6.04  per 

Mill  cinder,  scrap,  etc.: 
Tons  

Basic  

_,    Cost  
Fluxes: 
Tons  

Foundry  
Forge  or  mill 

Malleable  Bessemer  

Cost  

Fuel,  total  cost  *  

White,  mottled,  and  miscellane- 

Coke- 
Tons  (2,000  pounds)  

Direct  castings,  i  
Ferro  alloys  

Cost  

Charcoal  — 
Bushels. 

Spiegeleisen  
Ferromanganese  

Cost  

Ferrosilicon.  including  Besse- 
mer ferrosilicon  (7  per  cent 
or  over  in  silicon)  and  fer- 

Anthracite  coal  J  — 
Tons  

265,401 
$904,102 

102,833 
$168,561 

$9,594,824 

$391,429,283 

25,651,798 
$387,830,443 

$3,598,840 

*  24,  608,  572 
$369,684,636 

670,991 
$10,962,150 

372,235 
$7,183,657 

15,858,203 
$239,387,017 

Cost  

P  ig  iron,  classified  by  method  of  delivery 
or  casting  (tons): 
Delivered  in  molten  condition.  .  . 
Sand  cast  

Bituminous  coal  2  — 
Tons 

Cost 

All  other  materials  cost 

PRODUCTS. 

Total  value 

Chill  cast  .  . 

Direct  castings. 

EQUIPMENT. 

Furnaces  in  active  establishments: 
Completed  stacks  at  end  of  year- 

Pig  iron: 
Tons  

Value.  . 

All  other  products,  value.... 

Pig  iron,  classified  according  to  fuelused: 
Bituminous,  chiefly  coke- 
Tons  

Daily  capacity  tons 

Active  during  the  year  — 
Number  

Anthracite  coal  and  coke  mixed 
and  anthracite  alone  — 
Tons  

Daily  capacity,  tons  
In  course  of  construction  at  end 
of  year- 
Number  

Charcoal- 
Tons  

Daily  capacity,  tons  

Pig-casting  machines,  number  
Granulated  slag  pits: 
Number.  .  . 

Value  

Pig  iron,  classified  according  to  dispo- 
sition'. 
Produced    for   consumption    in 
works  of  company  reporting— 

Annual  capacitv  tons 

Gas  engines  operated  with  blast-fur- 
nace gas: 
Nnmhpr 

Value. 

Horsepower  

112 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IRON  AND  STEEL. 


I.  MATERIALS. 


Total  cost 

Iron  and  steels 

For  furnaces  and  hot  rolls— 

Tons 

Cost 

Pig  Iron  and  ferroalloys- 
Tons 

Cost , 

Pig  iron- 
Tons 

Cost 

Ferroalloy  s—spiege  1  el  s  e  n , 
ferromanganese,  etc. — 

Tons 

Cost 

Scrap,  including  old  rails  not  in- 
tended for  rerolling— 

Tons 

Cost 

Ingots,  blooms,  billets,  slabs, 
muck  and  scrap  bar,  rerolling 
rails,  and  sheet  and  tin-plate 
bars- 
Tons 

Cost 

Rolled  forms  for  further  manufacture— 
Skelp— 

Tons 

Cost , 

Wire  rods- 
Tons .: 

Cost 

Iron  ore: 

Tons 

Cost 


All  other  materials,  cost . 


31  PRODUCTS 


Total  value 

Rolled,  forged,  and  other  classified  prod- 
ucts, steel  and  iron: 

Tons 

Value 

Rails- 
Tons i 

Value 

Bessemer  steel- 
Tons 

Value 

Open-hearth  steel,  basic- 
Tons 

Value 

Rerolled  or  renewed  rails- 
Tons : 

Value 

Rail   fastenings   (splice   bars,  tie- 
plates,  fishplates,  etc.)— 

Tons • 

Value 

Structural   shapes,   not   including 
plates  used  for  making  girders- 
Tons  ; 

Value 

Steel- 
Tons 

Value 

Open-hearth— 

Tons 

Value... 


Tons . , 
Value. 


1909 


$857,500,856 


30,388,755 
$515,769,588 

19,076,889 
$297,471,122 

18,712,304 
$282,663,740 


364,585 
$14,807,382 


4,803,617 
$72,722,831 


6,508,249 
$145,575,635 


176,717 
$5,704,856 

146,425 
$4,252,695 

835,338 

$4,292,963 

$127,480,754 


$985,722,534 


26,723,274 
$863,342,711 

2,858,599 
$81,128,295 

1,643,527 
$44,727,515 

1,215,072 
$36,400,780 

106,352 
$2,683,017 


396,911 
$14,488,412 


2,123,630 
$65,564,593 

2,102,300 
$64,853,466 

51.934,230 
$59,789,948 

168.070 
$5,063,518 


n.  raooucTS— continued. 

Iron- 
Tons 

Value 


Bars  and  rods,  including  merchant, 
shovel,  finger,  and  horseshoe  bars, 
spike,  chain,  bolt,  and  nut  rods, 
etc.  (but  not  including  wire  rods, 
sheet  and  tin-plate  bars,  splice 
bars,  and  bars  for  reenforced  con- 
crete): 

Tons 

Value 

Bars  for  reenforced  concrete: 

Tons 

Value 

Wire  rods: 

Tons 

Value 


Plates  and  sheets,  not  including 
black  plates  or  sheets  for  tinning, 
nail  and  tack  plates,  tie-plates, 
fishplates,  or  armor  plates: 

Tons 

Value, , 

Black  plates,  or  sheets,  for  tinning: 


Value. 
Shell 

ins. 
Value 

Hoops,  bands,  and  cotton  ties: 
Tons 


Value 

Nail  and  tack  plates: 

Tons 

Value 

Axles,  car,  locomotive,  automobile, 
wagon,  carriage,  etc.,  rolled  or 
forged: 


Value 

Armor  plates,  gun  forgings,  and  ord- 
nance: 

Tons 

Value 

Blooms,  billets,  and  slabs,  pro- 
duced for  sale  or  for  transfer  to 
other  works  of  same  company : 

Tons ^ 

Value 

Rolled  forging  blooms  and  billets 
produced  for  sale  or  for  transfer  to 
other  works  of  same  company: 

Tons ;... 

Value 

Sheet  and  tin-plate  bars  produced 
for  sale  or  for  transfer  to  other 
works  of  same  company: 

Tons 

•    Value.... 


Muck  and  scrap  bar  produced  for 
sale  or  for  transfer  to  other  works 
of  same  company: 

Tons 

Value 

All  other  rolled  steel  or  iron: 

Tons „.,...• 

Value.... 


1909 


21,330 
$711,127 


3,784,248 
$121,488,423 

191,358 
$5,588,963 

2,295,279 
$61,947,958 


3,332,733 
$133,272,393 

631,435 
$30,955,967 

2,084,286 
$64,514,728 

341,043 
$10,429,681 

68,557 
$2,540,022 


102,348 
$3,831,344 


26,845 
$10,649,079 


4,887,796 
$108,514,747 


84,383 
$2,247,133 


1,652,761 
$37,745,269 


174,496 
$4,986,211 

566,627 
$39,570,061 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


113 


IRON  AND  STEEL— Continued. 


1906 

1909 

n.  PRODUCTS—  continued. 

Rolled,  forged,   and    other   classified 
products,  steel  and  iron—  Continued  . 
Ingots  produced  for  sale  or  for  trans- 
fer to  other  works  of  same  com- 
pany: 
Tons  

142,745 
$3,593,726 

504,856 
$38,862,448 

365,986 
$18,740,241 

$122,379,823 

$86,534,369 

1,238,554 
$18,163,624 

$17,681,830 

•  23,473,718 
$478,736,988 

14,176,054 
$292,360,129 

13,210,419 
$262,529,822 

965,635 
$29,830,307 

9,190,291 
$178,232,848 

107,373 
$8,144,011 

22,968,862 
$439,874,540 

504,856 
$38.862,448 

522,682 

158,216 

100,335 
86,242 
14,093 
45,324 
12,557 

151,300 
6.916 

IV.  MANUFACTURES  FROM  ROLLING-MILL 
PRODUCTS. 

(Hade  in  mill  producing,  value  pre- 
viously included.) 

Wire  and  wire  products: 

1,634,855 
$71,624,024 

1,314,771 
$68,471,573 

54,273 
$5,650,739 

17,561 
$986,699 

4,471,985 
$20,538,858 

1,009,319 
$2,218,207 

996,383 
$7,202,897 

6,191 
$374,924 

28,608 
$2,471,008 

431,658 
$25,912,056, 

24,612 
$2,296,707 
$540,321 

867,646 
317,455 
20,118 
89,377 
85,123 
80,706 
79,246 
69,764 
48,938 
18,738 
18,021 
10,703 
29,457 

108,716 
687 
61,601 
549 
55,273 
138 

Value  

Value 

Direct  steel  castings: 

Tons.  ..      ,           .  

Pipes  and  tubes: 
Brought  welded— 
Tons 

Value  
All  other  forged  steel  and  iron,  not 
including  remanufactures  of  roll- 
ing-mill products: 
Tons  

Value  

Seamless,  hot-rolled  or  drawn  — 
Tons 

Value 

Value                  

All  other,  including  clinched,  rivet- 
ed, etc.,  but  not  including  cast: 
Tons 

All  other  products,  value  
Miscellaneous  steel  and  iron  prod- 
ucts not  rolled,  including  value 
added  to  iron  and  steel  rolling- 
mill  products  by  further  manufac- 
ture, value  

Value 

Bolts,    nuts,    rivets,    forged    spikes, 
washers,  etc.: 
Kegs  (200  pounds)  

Value 

Scrap  steel  or  iron  produced  for  sale 
or  for  transfer  to  other  works  of 
same  company: 
Tons                                      .... 

Cut  nails  and  spikes: 
Kees  (100  pounds) 

Value 

Horse  and  mule  shoes: 
Kegs  (200  pounds)  

Value 

All  products  other  than  steel  and 

Value  ....„  

m.  STEEL. 
Total  production: 

Springs,  car,  furniture,  and  all  other,  not 
including  wire  springs: 
Tons  

Value  

Value  (included  above)  

Switches,  frogs,  crossings,  etc.: 

Classified  according  to  process; 
Open-hearth— 
Tons  

Value 

Galvanized  plates  or  sheets: 
Tons  

Value  
Basic- 
Tons  

Stamped  ware: 
Tons  

Value  
Acid- 
Tons  

Shovels,  spades,  scoops,  etc.,  value  

V.  PRODUCTS  SOLD  FOR  EXPORT. 

(By  establishments  producing.) 
Total  tons  

Value                       

Bessemer- 
Tons  

Value 

Crucible  and  miscellaneous- 
Tons 

Rails 

Rail  fastenings  

Value 

Pi  pas  and  tilths  ,    ,  .                

Classified  according  to  form; 
Ingots- 
Tons 

Sheet  and  tin-plate  bars  
Plates  and  sheets 

Structural  shapes  

Value 

Bars  anr|  rn^S 

Castings  — 
Tons 

Wire  rods 

Blooms,  billets,  and  slabs  

Value 

Skelp.  .  .                                            .... 

Duplex  process—  open-hearth  steel  partly 
purified  in  Bessemer  converters  before 
finishing  in  open-hearth  furnaces  (in- 

Miscellaneous 

VI.  EQUIPMENT. 

Steel  plants:  Daily  capacity  of  steel  fur- 
naces and  converters,  tons  of  steel, 

AUoyed  steels,  nickel,  tungsten,  titanium, 
chrome,    vanadium,   etc.    (included 

Open-hearth  furnaces- 
Number                   

Classified  according  to  process; 

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 

Basic 

Basic- 
Number  

Acid 

Bessemer 

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 
double  turn              

Crucible  and  miscellaneous  
Classified  according  to  form.- 
Ingots  

Acid- 
Number  
Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 

Castings... 

114 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IRON  AND;  STEEL—  Continued. 

1900 

i 

vi.  EQUIPMENT,  —continued. 

Converters,  Bessemer  or  modified 
Bessemer- 
Number                      

! 

*! 

45,983 
2571 
3,840 

840  1 
16 
292i 

59  | 
(14,3431 

150,403 

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 

Crucible  furnaces- 
Number                            

Number  of  pots  that  can  be  used 
at  a  heat  

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 
double  turn 

All  other  steel  furnaces- 
Number  

Daily  capacity,  tons  of  steel, 

Metal  mixers-^ 
Number         

Capacity  tons  . 

\RolUng  mills:  Daily  capacity  of  rolled 
steel  and  iron,  double  turn,  tons  

PRODUCTION  OF  COKE. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
production  of  coke,  was  $65,388,124.  The 
cost  of  the  coal  charged  into  ovens,  wa> 
$59,354,937.  The  total  value  of  the  coke 
produced,  was  $98,078,383;  39,315,065  tons 
were  valued  at  $89,965,483.  Among  by- 
products obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  coke 
was  gas,  which  measured  in  thousands  of 
cubic  feet,  amounted  to  76,590,763  of  which 
60,799,543  cubic  feet  (thousands)  were  used 
in  process  or  wasted  and  15,791,220  cubic 
feet  (thousands)  were  sold  at  a  value  of 
$2,609,211.  60,126,006  gallons  of  tar  were 
obtained  having  a  value  of  $1,408,611;  of 
sulphate  ammonia,  or  its  equivalent  in 
sulphate,  123,111,197,  valued  at  $3,227,316. 
At  the  end  9f  the  year  1909,  the  number  of 
ovens  in  use  in  the  United  States  was  103,982. 
201  had  been  abandoned  during  the  year,  and 
2,950  were  building. 

Coal  seems  to  have  been  used  for  fuel  by 
the  ancient  Britons,  but  the  first  proper 
notice  we  have  is  that  it  was  mined  in  New- 
castle 1233. 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS. 


PRODUCT. 

1909. 

PBODUCT. 

1909 

Total  value                 

'$146,329,268 

Drin8  continued. 

Corn  

20,137 

Implements  of  cultivation  

$35,246,030 

Disk 

21  292 

Seeders  and  planters  

$13,679,921 

Grain 

68,611 

Harvesting  implements  

$34,568,131 

All  other 

32,507 

Seed  separators  

$11,030,412 

7  847 

All  other  products  

$48,690,082 

|3  114  692 

Principal  kind  of  implements,  by  number. 

Harvesters- 
Bean  . 

1,409 

Corn 

19,693 

Implements  of  cultivation: 
Cultivators- 
Beet    . 

3,172 

Grain  
Harvesters  and  thrashers  com- 
bined 

129,274 
543 

Small.... 

409,696 

Other 

1  707 

Wheeled  

435,429 

45  064 

Cotton  scrapers  

20,180 

43  675 

Harrows- 

Hayloaders  .     .. 

34,705 

Disk  

193,000 

266  260 

Spring-tooth  ,  

112,832 

17  212 

Spike-tooth  

394,988 

'     Hay  tedders 

34  396 

Listers  

44,840 

Mowers                              • 

359  264 

Plows-- 

Potato diggers  horse 

25,632 

Disk  

22,132 

58  294 

Gang  

91,686 

Shovel  

254,737 

437 

Steam  ,,.     ...     .  ...          

2,355 

372 

Sulky  or  wheel  

134,936 

1  240 

Walking                          

1,110,006 

r^IU  'i^^*'1  ^  **I1U  allreuuerH  *  -  - 

Seeders  and  planters: 

Hand 

74,223 

Seeders- 

Power.           ...     ..      

9,049 

Broadcast  

38,007 

33  805 

Combination 

23,963 

Cornplanters— 

Horsepower  

822 

Hand  

96,465 

23  5gg 

Horse  

122,780 

am  power  

Potato  planters... 

79,271 
23,092 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  Glucose  and  Starch  was  $36,- 
898,771.  The  total  value  of  the  manufactured 
products  was  $48,799,311;  677,535,647  pounds 
of  starch  were  valued  at  $17,514,823;  769,- 


660,210  pounds  of  glucose,  including  all 
sirups,  valued  at  $17,922,514;  159,060,478 
pounds  grape  sugar,  valued  at  $3,620,816; 
8,164,175  gallons  corn  oil,  valued  at 
$2,802,763. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


115 


TIN  AND  TERNE  PLATE. 


MATERIALS. 


Total  cost 

Black  plates  or  sheets: 

Pounds 

Cost 

Produced  by  the  establishment 
reporting: 

Pounds 

Cost 

Purchased: 

Pounds 

Cost 

Coating  metals: 

Pounds 

Cost 

Tin,  including  tin  contents  of  terne 
mixture  purchased— 

Pounds 

Cost 

Lead,  including-  lead  contents  of 
teme  mixture  purchased— 

Pounds 

Cost 

In  condition  purchased— 
Pig  tin- 
Pounds 

Cost 

Pig  lead- 
Pounds  

Cost 

Terne  mixture- 
Pounds 


All  other  materials,  cost.. 


Total  value 

Tin  and  terne  plates: 

Pounds 

Value 


$41,889,434 


1,321,071,691 
$28,981,151 


1,291,048,109 
$28,245,234 


$735,917 


40,927,759 
$9,670,037 


31,077,651 
$9,235,718 


9,850,108 
$434,319 


28,586,267 
$8,490,794 


2,708,496 
$117,656 


$1,061,587 
$3,238,246 


$47,969,645 


1,315,313,132 
$45,815,146 


1909 

PBODtJCTS-continued. 

Tin  plates- 
Pounds..,.  

1  123  968  875 

Value  ,  

$38,  259'  885 

Terne  plates  — 
Pounds  

191  344  257 

Value 

$7  555*261 

Other  sheet  iron  or  sheet  steel  tinned 
or  terne-plated,  taggers  tin.etc,: 
Pounds  

19  400  934 

value  .;  ;  

$520  465 

All  other  products,  value  

$1  634  034 

EQUIPMENT. 

Tin  or  terne  sets  at  end  of  year: 
Completed— 
Number  

563 

Usually  employed  on  tin 
plates  

450 

Usually     employed     on 
^rne  plates 

113 

Daily  capacity,  single  turn, 
pounds  

2  795  972 

Tin  plates  

2  055  915 

Terne  plates  

740  057 

Daily  capacity  as  operated, 
whether  on  single,  double, 
or  triple  turn,  pounds 

7  016  293 

B  uilding,  number  

49 

Black-plate  department    of   establish- 
ments making  their  black  plates: 
Hot  black-plate  mills  at  end  of 
year- 
Completed— 
Number  

335 

Annual  capacity  on  triple 
turn,  long  tons  

^1,042  088 

Building- 
Number  

70 

Annual  capacity  on  triple 
turn,  long  tons  

36  600 

Cold  mills,  completed,  number  

268 

WIRE. 

The  value  of  the  metal  used  in  the  production  of  wire,  amounted  to  $115,655,427,  while 
the  total  value  of  the  products  was  $180,083,522.  There  were  produced  2,471,854  tons  of 
steel  and  iron  wire,  haying  a  value  of  $120,585,637.  There  were  also  produced  13,926,861 


woven  wire,  fencing,  and  poultry  netting,  had  a  tonnage  of  422,127,  valued  at  $21,419,170; 
wire  rope  and  strands  had  a  tonnage  of  45,303,  the  value  being  $6,683,771;  other  manu- 
tactures  of  iron  and  steel  wire,  such  as  springs,  bale  ties,  flat  wire,  etc.,  weighed  129,940  tons, 
and  cost  $10,8o6,154. 

mS^  ^f/e  P,™duced.  m  the  United  States  in  1909,  154,231  tons  of  copper  wire,  valued 
at  $4/, 184,164.  The  equipment  consisted  of  43,697  wire  drawing  blocks,  having  an  annual 
capacity  of  3,213,574  tons;  4,428  wire  nail  machines,  having  an  annual  capacity  of  18,756,995 
kegs  01  100  pounds  each.  There  were  446  wovpn-wirp  ff>nr>P  manYiinos  haiHrio-  an  n,ir>,,ni 
capacity,  in  tons,  of  480,373. 


k'ere  446  woven-wire  fence  machines,  having  an  annual 


The  total  value  of  the  steel  and  iron  wire  products,  1909,  was  $120,585,637;  the  wire 
mills  were  valued  at  S4/, 994,204;  the  wire  departments  of  rolling  mills  produced  1,649,929 
tons,  valued  at  $<  2, 651,433. 

PRODUCTION  OF  SOAP. 


The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  product  hi  the  United 
States  in  1909  was  $72,179,418.  Of  tallow, 
grease,  and  other  fats,  413,969,787  pounds 
were  consumed,  costing  $23,341,905;  11,856,- 
837  gallons  of  cocoanut  and  palm-kernel  oil, 
costing  $5,875,294;  24,221,712  gallons  cotton- 
seed oil,  costing  $9,718,988;  207,296,447 
pounds  of  rosin,  costing  $4,362,412;  94,050,892 
pounds  hoofs,  costing  82,453,609;  52,172  tons 


(2,000  pounds)  caustic  soda,  costing  $2,212,- 
232;  121,016  tons  (2,000  pounds)  soda  ash, 
costing  $2,281,787. 

The  total  value  of  the  soap  products  of  the 
United  States  in  1909  was  $111,357,777. 
1,736,740,466  pounds  of  hard  soap  were  made, 
valued  at  $88,550,830;  44,052,615  pounds  of 
soft  soap,  valued  at  $943,676;  45,286,819 
pounds  of  glycerin,  valued  at  $5,713,558. 


lie 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


V.     TRANSPORTATION. 


RAILROAD  CARS. 

The  total  value  of  all  railroad  cars  con- 
structed in  all  establishments  throughout  the 
United  States,  in  1909,  was  $102,137,396. 
The  value  of  the  steam-railroad  cars  was 
$94,874,287:  Of  these  for  passenger  service 
were  built  1,819  cars,  valued  at  $15,120,961; 
for  freight  service,  96,648  cars,  valued  at 
$79,753,326.  Of  street-railroad  cars,  which 
were  chiefly  electric,  there  were  built  2,772 
cars,  valued  at  $7,263,109. 

STEAM-RAILROAD  CARS. 

The  total  value  of  the  products  of  this  in- 
dustry in  the  United  States,  in  1909,  was 
$123,729,627.  Of  steam-railroad  cars  for  the 
passenger  service  there  were  constructed 
1,601  cars,  valued  at  $13,829,607:  of  this 
class  there  were  built  216  baggage  and  ex- 
press cars,  valued  at  $1,105,779;  95  mail  cars, 
valued  at  $600,912;  957  passenger  cars, 
valued  at  $7,209,425;  the  chair,  dining  and 
buffet,  parlor,  sleeping,  and  all  other  cars, 
amounted  to  333,  valued  at  $4,913,491.  For 
the  freight  service  the  number  of  cars  con- 
structed, totaled  73,177,  valued  at  $61,691,- 
825;  Of  these  there  were  29,728  box  cars, 
valued  at  $23,982,446;  11,473  coal  and  coke, 
valued  at  $9,419,655;  3,232  flat  cars,  valued 
at  $2,033,801;  900  fruit  cars,  valued  at 
$784,476;  90  furniture  cars,  valued  at 
$70,515;  19,607  gondola  or  ore,  valued  at 
$18,128,186:  2,618  refrigerator  cars,  valued  at 
$2,747,957;  2,349  stock  cars,  valued  at 
$1,586,008;  537  caboose,  valued  at  $525,605; 
2,643  other  cars,  valued  at  $2,413,176.  There 
were  also  built  603  street-railroad  cars,  valued 
at  $2,023,922:  Of  these  558  were  passenger 
cars,  valued  at  $1,903,317;  45  other  cars, 
valued  at  $120,605. 

CARS  AND  GENERAL  SHOP  CONSTRUC- 
TION   AND    REPAIRS    BY    STEAM 
RAILROAD  COMPANIES. 

The  cars  and  general  shop  construction  and 
repairs  made  by  the  steam  railroad  companies 
in  1909,  reached  a  total  of  $405,600,727.  The 
value  of  the  car  department  was  $199,768,939. 
The  value  of  the  cars  built  was  $13,326,171: 
Of  these  there  were  218  passenger  cars,  valued 
at  $1,291,354;  13,972  freight  cars,  valued  at 
$11,767,664;  the  number  of  all  other  cars 
manufactured  was  359,  valued  at  $267,153. 
Repairs  to  cars  of  all  kinds  amounted  to 
$147,194,065. 

CARS,  STREET-RAILROAD. 

The  total  value  of  the  products  of  this  in- 
dustry in  the  United  States,  in  1909,  was 
$7,809,866.  There  were  constructed  1,922 
electric-railroad  cars,  valued  at  $4,602,435: 
Of  these  there  were  1,323  closed  cars,  valued 
at  $3,500,781;  369  combination  cars,  valued 
at  $704,309;  95  open  cars,  valued  at  $141,008; 
92  freight,  express,  and  mail  cars,  valued  at 
$179,293;  of  all  other  varieties,  43,  valued 
at  $77,044.  There  were  steam-railroad  cars 
built  for  freight  service,  167,  all  classes — 
valued  at  $11 1,813. 


SHIPBUILDING,    INCLUDING    BOAT 
BUILDING. 

The  total  value  of  work  done  on  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  water  craft,  not  in  Govern- 
ment establishments,  the  value  of  the  repair 
work,  and  all  other  products  of  the  ship- 
building industry,  in  1909,  was  $73,360,315. 
Work  done  during  the  year  on  vessels  and 
boats,  amounted  to  $42,310,925;  vessels  of 
5  gross  tons  and  over,  $37,718,018;  boats  of 
less  than  5  gross  tons,  $4,592,907;  repair 
work,  $26,678,643. 

BICYCLES,  MOTORCYCLES,  AND  PARTS. 

The  total  value  of  bicycles  and  motor- 
cycles, and  parts,  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  in  1909,  was  $10,698,567.  168,824 
bicycles  were  manufactured,  valued  at 
$2,436,996;  18,628  motorcycles  were  made, 
their  value  being  $3,015,988. 

AUTOMOBILE  INDUSTRY. 


909 

Number. 

Value. 

Totalvalue 

$249.202,075 

Automobiles 

126  593 

164  269  324 

Gasoline    .                      . 

120,393 

153.529,653 

Electric  
Steam 

3,826 
2,374 

7,259.430 
3,480,241 

Passenger  veh  icles  (pleasure,  fam- 
ily, and  public  conveyances)... 
Gasoline  
Electric 

123,338 
117,633 
3  331 

159.039,301 
149.530.232 
6  028  828 

Steam 

2  374 

3  480  241 

Buggif-s 

4,582 

2,  391  ,  250 

Gasoline 

4  314 

2  039  129 

Electric  

268 
36  204 

.    352.121 
28  030  479 

Gasoline 

35,347 

27.116.901 

Electric  

496 

648  630 

Steam 

361 

264  948 

Touring  care  

76,114 

113.403,188 

Gasoline 

73  883 

109  844  295 

Electric 

243 

387,526 

Steam  
Closed  (limousine,  cabs,  etc.).  .  . 
Gasoline  
Electric 

1,988 
5,205 
3,290 
1  915 

3,171,367 
12,729,304 
8,  762,  768 
3  966,536 

All  other  (omnibuses,  sight-see- 
ing wagons,  ambulances,  pa- 
trol wagons,  etc.)  
Gasoline  
Electric 

1,233 
799 
409 

2,485,080 
1,767,139 
674,015 

Steam  

Business  vehicles  (merchandise)  .  . 
Gasoline 

25 
3,255 

2,760 

43,926 

5,230,023 
3,999,421 

Electric 

495 

1  230  602 

Steam 

Delivery  wagons  
Gasoline 

i,862 
1  645 

1,918,856 
1  474  063 

Electric     .                   

217 

444,  793 

Trucks 

1,366 

3,165,512 

Gasoline  

1,090 

2,384,703 

Electric 

276 

780,809 

Allother  

Gasoline 

27 
25 

145,655 
140  655 

Electric  

Allother  products,  including  bodies 
and  parts  

2 

'    5,000 
'78,584,753 

Amount  received  for  custom  work 
and  repairing  

6,317,998 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


117 


Copyright,   1912,   by  Munn   &  Co.,   Inc. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  OUR  AUTOMOBILE  INDUSTRY. 

If  all  the  material  used  in  the  automobiles  manufactured  in  1911  were  put  into  a  single 
car,  the  giant  product  would  be  59  times  as  long,  59  times  as  high  and  59  times  as  wide  as 
an  average  machine.  Our  giant  car  would  tower  to  a  height  of  442  feet,  or  within  100  feet 
of  the  top  of  the  Municipal  Building.  During  the  year  the  automobile  manufacturers  of  the 
United  States  produced  209,000  cars. 

Comparison  of  our  increasing  exports  with  our  decreasing  imports. 


118 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CARRIAGES  AND   WAGONS  AND 
MATERIALS. 

The  total  value  of  carriages  and  wagons  and 
materials  manufactured  in  the  United  States, 
in  1909,  was  $159,892,547.  Of  carriages 
(family  and  pleasure)  there  were  made 
828,411,  valued  at  $47,756,118;  587,685 
wagons,  valued  at  $39,932,910,  were  manu- 
factured; of  these  154,631  were  business 
wagons,  their  value  being  $16,440,816; 
429,952  farm  wagons,  valued  at  $22,615,875; 
the  remainder,  government,  municipal,  etc., 
3,102,  valued  at  $876,219.  Of  public  con- 
veyances (cabs,  hacks,  hansoms,  hotel  coaches^ 
omnibuses,  etc.),  2,243  were  manufactured, 
valued  at  $939,267;  100,899  sleighs  and  sleds, 
valued  at  $2,065,850. 


CARS  AND  GENERAL  SHOP  CONSTRUC- 
TION   AND    REPAIRS    BY   STREET- 
RAILROAD  COMPANIES. 

The  cars  and  general  shop  construction  and 
repairs  by  street-railroad  companies  in  1909, 
reached  a  total  value  of  $31,962,561.  The 
value  of  the  motive  power  and  machinery  de- 
partment, was  $4,510,332.  The  value  of  the 
repairs  to  motors,  etc.,  was  $4,004,336.  The 
value  of  the  car  department  was  $25,835,463. 
The  value  of  all  the  cars  built  was  $626,752: 
Of  these  there  were  129  passenger  cars, 
valued  at  $498,709;  63  freight  cars,  valued  at 
$59,102;  of  all  other  cars  there  were  51  built, 
valued  at  $68,941. 


VI.     CLAY  AND  STONE  PRODUCTS. 


The  total  value  of  these  products  for  the 
year  1909,  was  $168,895,365.  The  value  of 
the  brick  and  tile,  terra-cotta,  and  fire-clay 
products,  was  $136,387,846;  of  common  brick 
there  were  9,787,671  thousand,  valued  at 
$57,216,789;  of  fire  brick,  838,167  thousand, 
valued  at  $16,620,695;  of  the  vitrified, 
paving,  etc.,  1,023,654  thousand,  valued  at 
$11,269,586;  front,  including  fancy  colored 
and  fancy  or  ornamental  brick,  821,641 
thousand,  valued  at  $9,886,292;  the  sand 
lime  brick  used  had  a  value  of  $1,150,580; 
the  enameled  brick  were  valued  at  $993,902; 
the  value  of  the  drain  tile  was  $9,798,978;  the 
sewer  pipe  used  was  valued  at  $10,322,324; 
the  value  of  the  architectural  terra-cotta  was 
$6,251,625;  the  firep  roofing,  terra-cotta 
lumber  and  hollow  building  tile,  or  blocks, 
was  valued  at  $4,466,708;  the  value  of  the 
tile,  not  drain,  was  $5,291,963;  the  value  of 
the  stove  lining  was  $423,583;  other  material, 
valued  at  $2,694,821.  The  value  of  the 
pottery  manufactured  was  $31,048,341. 

BUILDING  OPERATIONS. 

In  1911  the  total  cost  of  buildings,  accord- 
ing to  reports  of  municipal  authorities  to  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  was  $702,143,956. 
against  $726,436,975  in  1910.  The  total 
number  of  permits  for  the  latter  year  was 
192,978. 

CEMENT. 

The  total  value  of  the  cement  product  in 
1909,  for  the  United  States,  was  $63,205,455. 
There  were  manufactured  66,689,715  barrels 
of  cement,  valued  at  $53,610,563;  ol  this 
64,991,431  barrels  was  Portland,  valued  at 
$52,858,354;  1,537,638  was  natural,  valued  at 
$652,756;  160,646  barrels  puzzo.an,  valued  at 
$99,453.  The  value  of  all  other  products  of 
this  industry,  was  $9,594,892. 

GLASS. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  in  1909,  amounted  to 
$32,119,499,  while  the  total  value  of  these 
products  was  $92,095,203  Of  this  amount  the 
value  of  building  glass  aggregated  $26,308,438; 
included  under  this  head  are  8,921,611  50-foot 
boxes  of  window  glass,  valued  at  $11,742,959; 
also  included  in  this  division  is  plate  glass,  of 


which  there  was  cast  a  total  of  60,105,694 
square  feet:  of  this  amount  47,370,254  square 
feet  was  polished  glass,  valued  at  $12,204,875; 
the  remainder,  rough  glass,  made  for  sale, — 
205,690  square  feet,  valued  at  $37,431.  Of 
cathedral  glass  there  were  7,405,980  square 
feet,  valued  at  $569,848;  15,409,966  square 
feet  of  skylight  glass,  valued  at  $788,726.  The 
value  of  the  pressed  and  blown  glass  was 
$27,398,445;  Of  this  goods  there  was  manu- 
factured tableware,  100  pieces,  1,286,056  sets; 
jellies,  tumblers,  and  goblets,  11, 687, 036  dozen; 
lamps,  322,482  dozen;  chimneys,  6,652,967 
dozen;  lantern  globes,  952,620  dozen;  globes 
and  other  electrical  goods,  11,738,798  dozen; 
shades,  globes,  and  other  gas  goods,  1,541,449 
dozen;  blown  tumblers,  stem  ware,  and  bar 
goods,  9,182,060  dozen;  opal  ware,  3,095,666 
dozen;  cut  ware,  206,336  dozen.  The  value 
of  the  bottles  and  jars  manufactured,  was 
$36,018,333.  Of  prescriptions,  vials,  and  drug- 
gists' wares,  3,624,022  gross  were  made;  2,345, 
204  gross  of  beer,  soda  and  mineral  glassware; 
1,887,344  gross  of  liquors  and  flasks;  440,302 
gross  milk  jars;  1,124,485  gross  fruit  jars;  of 
battery  jars  and  other  electrical  goods,  9,981 

fross;    of  patent  and  proprietary  glassware, 
,637,798  gross;    of  packers  and  preservers, 
1,237,175  gross;    of  demijohns  and  carboys, 
122,570  dozen. 

ARTIFICIAL  ICE. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  ice,  in  1909, 
was  $1,021,913.  By  the  compressor  system 
there  were  used  3,097,191  pounds  of  anhy- 
drous, costing  $826,222.  By  the  absorption 
system  there  were  used  369,093  pounds  of 
anhydrous,  valued  at  $100,283.  There  were 
also  used  1,670,698  pounds  of  aqua,  valued  at 
$95,408. 

The  total  value  of  the  ice  products  for  the 
year  1909  was  $42,953,055.  Of  the  ice  itself 
there  was  12,647,949  tons  (2,000  pounds  each), 
valued  at  $39,889,263:  Of  the  can  ice,  11,- 
671,547  tons  (2,000  pounds),  valued  at  $37,- 
085,533;  of  the  plate  ice,  976,402  tons  (2,000 
pounds),  valued  at  $2,803,730. 


The   first  permanent  electric   railway  was 

operated  near  Berlin  in   1881,  and  the  first 

permanent    elevated    electric     railway  was 
operated  in  Chicago  1895, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


119 


A  MAMMOTH  OFFICE  BUILDING  DISSECTED.  . 
THE  WHITEHALL  BUILDING, 


120 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK, 


VII.     LEATHER  INDUSTRY. 


1909 

1909 

MATERIALS. 

Total  cost  

1248,278,933 

PRODUCTS—  con  ti  nued  . 

Tanning. 
Hides»  (an  kinds): 

J  Jg  ggQ  4j  rj 

Leather—  Continued. 
Sole—  Continued. 
Chrome- 
Sides.  

279  436 

Cost 

$119  410  767 

Value  

$1,634,954 

Skins:  » 
Number 

97  680  571 

Upper,  other  than  calf  or  kip 
skins,  value  

$39,951,460 

Cost  

$75  647  790 

Grain,    satin,    pebble,    etc. 

Calf  and  kip— 
Number 

19  732  638 

(side  leather  )- 
Sides  

7,946  769 

Cost 

$31  790  572 

Value  

$24  198  993 

Goat- 
Number  .  . 

48  077  664 

Finished  splits- 
Number  

8,134,229 

Cost 

$27  833  214 

Value  

$7,410,740 

Sheep— 

26  082  060 

Patent  and  enameled  shoe- 
Sides.. 

2  705  291 

Cost 

$12  231  618 

Value  

$8,341,727 

All  other— 
Number 

8  3  7S8  209. 

Horsehides  and  coltskins— 
Number  

1,342,938 

Cost 

$3  792  386 

Value  

$4  953  145 

Currying. 

$9  556  257 

Calf  and  kip  skins,  tanned  and 
finished- 
Number 

19  012  064 

Sides 

Value  

$42,412,256 

Number 

1  468  213 

Grain  finished- 

Cost 

$4  967  781 

Number  

17,516,910 

Grains 

Value. 

$39  982  447 

Sides.. 

525,786 

Flesh  finished- 

Cost 

$1  201  842 

Number 

1,495,154 

Splits  — 

Value  

$2,429,809 

Number    •• 

2  043  283 

Goatskins,  tanned  and  finished- 

Cost 

$1  442  505 

Number  -  

47,907,211 

All  other- 
Cost 

$1  944  129 

Value  
Black- 

$40,882,640 

Number.  .. 

40,351,192 

$43  664  119 

Value 

$33,  949,  575 

PRODUCTS. 

Colored- 
Number 

7,556,019 

Total  value 

^  $327  874  187 

Value  

$6,933,065 

Leather,  value 

$306  476  720 

Sheepskins,  tanned  and  finished— 
Number  

19,665,155 

Sold  in  rough  value 

$6  335  599 

Value.  .  . 

$12,236,687 

Sides- 
Number 

828  887 

Belting- 
Sides... 

1,042,070 

Value 

$3  539'  617 

Value 

$6,  995,  133 

Grains- 
Sides 

317  814 

Harness- 
Sides  

3,946,235 

Value 

$718*562 

Value 

$24,  802,  734 

Splits— 
Number  . 

2  912  964 

Carriage,  automobile,  and  furni- 
ture- 

Value 

$2  077  420    i 

Sides  .  .  . 

1,398,842 

Sole  value 

$88  331  713    ' 

Value  

$14,266,742 

Hemlock- 
Sides 

7  963  728   ' 

Trunk,    bag,   and   pocketbook, 
value  .             

$6,  198,  544 

Value 

$32  237  151 

Bookbinder's,  value  

$2,  450,  155 

Oak- 

Glove,  value  

$4,  913,  543 

Sides.. 

3  805  861 

All  other,  value  

$11,746,369 

Value 

$26  083  793 

Union- 

All  other  products/  value 

$8,632,689 

Sides 

5  756  227 

Work  on  materials  for  others  

$12,764,778 

Value  

528,375,815 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


121 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 

THE  GREAT  GLASS  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  U.  S.  AMOUNTING  TO 

892,000,000, 


122 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


BOOTS  AND  SHOES. 

In  1909  there  were  produced  in  the  United 
States  247,643,197  pairs  of  boots  and  shoes. 
The  classification  of  this  product  was  as  fol- 
lows,— Men's,  93,888,892;  boys'  and  youths', 
23,838,626;  women's,  86,595,314;  misses'  and 
children's,  43,320,365.  Of  slippers  there  were 
manufactured  17,507,834  pairs,  distributed  as 
follows,— Men's,  boys'  and  youths',  4,802,841 
pairs;  women's,  misses',  and  children's,  12,- 
704,993.  There  were  15,000,721  pairs  of  in- 
fants' shoes  and  slippers  manufactured,  and  of 
all  other  goods  of  this  nature  there  were 
4,865,429  pairs.  

The  products  of  the  essential-oil  industry  in 
1909  had  a  total  value  of  $1,737,234. 


GLOVES  AND  MITTENS — LEATHER. 

The  total  value  of  the  manufactures  in  the 
United  States,  in  1909,  was  $23,630,598.  Of 
gloves,  mittens,  and  gauntlets,  there  were  man- 
ufactured 3,368,655  dozen  pairs,  valued  at 
$22,525,861.  Of  these  there  were  made  for  men 
2,585,977  dozen  pairs,  valued  at  $17,060,797; 
this  included  921,259  dozen  pairs  lined  gloves 
and  mittens,  valued  at  $5,222,174;  1,664,718 
dozen  pairs  unlined,  valued  at  $11,838,623 
For  women  and  children  there  were  manu- 
factured 782,678  dozen  pairs,  valued  at  $5,- 
465,064;  this  included  365,477  dozen  pairs 
lined  gloves  and  mittens,  valued  at  $1,718,198 
417,201  pairs  unlined,  valued  at  $3,746,866. 
The  value  of  all  other  products  of  this  industry 
was  $1,104,737. 


VIII.     CHEMICALS  AND   ALLIED  PRODUCTS. 


The  total  value  of  chemicals  and  allied 
products  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was 
$117,688,887.  The  value  of  the  acids  was 
$11,926,389;  sodas  were  valued  at  $21,417,982; 
of  potashes  there  were  manufactured  1,866,570 
pounds,  valued  at  $88,940;  the  value  of  the 
alums  manufactured  was  $2,578,842;  coal-tar 
products  were  valued  at  $2,675,327;  the  value 
of  the  cyanides  was  $1,941,893;  bleaching  ma- 
terials were  valued  at  $1,635,046;  chemical 
substances  produced  by  the  aid  of  electricity, 
were  valued  at  $17,968,277;  121,946,967 
pounds  of  calcium  carbide,  were  produced, 
valued  at  $2,984,001;  11,802,076  pounds  of 
anhydrous  ammonia,  valued  at  $2,503,315;  of 
carbon  dioxide,  47,238,267  pounds  were  pro- 
duced, valued  at  $2,317,808. 

DYESTUFFS  AND  EXTRACTS. 

The  total  value  of  these  products  for  the 
year  1909  was  $15,954,574.  The  12,267,399 
pounds  of  artificial  dyestuffs  were  valued  at 
$3,462,436. 

EXPLOSIVES. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  explosives  was  $22,811,548; 
188,889  tons  of  nitrate  of  soda  were  used, 
valued  at  $7,892,336;  51,764,694  pounds  of 
mixed  acids  costing  $1,512,626,  were  needed; 
7,591,756  pounds  of  nitric  acid,  costing  $541,- 
314;  22,501  tons  of  sulphuric  acid,  costing 
$406,204;  17,389  tons  of  sulphur  or  brimstone, 
costing  $367,866.  The  cost  of  all  other  ma- 
terials used  was  $12,091,202.  The  total  value 
of  the  manufactured  products  was  $40,139,- 
661;  the  value  of  the  177,155,851  pounds  of 
dynamite  used  was  $18,699,746;  28,913,253 
jounds  of  nitroglycerin,  sold  as  such,  $3,162,- 
434;  9,339,087  twenty-five  pound  kegs  of 
blasting  powder,  valued  at  $9,608,265;  of  per- 
missible explosives  9,607,448  pounds  valued 
at  $863,209;  12,862,700  pounds  of  gunpowder, 
valued  at  $1,736,427;  7,464,825  pounds  of 
other  explosives,  valued  at  $3,913,7.87.  The 
value  of  all  other  products  was  $2, 155,793. 

FERTILIZERS. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
making  of  fertilizers  in  1909  was  $69,521,920. 
The  total  value  of  the  products  was  $103,- 
960,213.  5,240, 164  pounds  of  fertilizers,  valued 
at  $92,369,631. 


SALT. 

The  total  value  of  the  salt  products  of  the 
United  States  in  1909  was  $11,327,834.  There 
were  29,933,060  barrels  of  salt,  valued  at 
$8,311,729;  728,875  pounds  of  bromine,  valued 
at  $92,735;  the  value  of  all  other  products  was 
$2,923,370. 

SALT,    CLASSIFIED    BY    GRADE    (BARRELS). 

Table  and  dairy 3,042,824 

Common,  fine 7,745,204 

Common,  coarse 2,843,393 

Packers 385,802 

Coarse,  solar 1,109,396 

Rock  salt,  mined. 5,938,721 

Milling,  other  grades  and  brine  8,867,720 

PROCESS    EMPLOYED 

Total  number  of  establishments.  .  .  .  124 

Number  reporting: 

Solar 46 

Kettle 1 

Grainer 50 

Open  pan 11 

Vacuum  pan 21 

See  also  Chapter  on  "Mines  and  Quarries." 

PAINT  AND  VARNISH. 

In  the  manufacture  of  these  products  the 
following  materials  were  used, — 145,917  tons 
(2,000  pounds)  of  pig  lead,  costing  $12,014,859; 
1,683,382  gallons  alcohol,  costing  $920,086. 
1,327,157  gallons  of  which  was  wood  alcohol, 
costing  $693,362;  356,225  gallons  grain  alco- 
hol, costing  $226,724. 

The  total  value  of  these  products  in  1909 
was  $124,889,422.  The  value  of  the  pigments 
was  $16,985,588;  85,234,414  pounds  of  white 
lead,  dry,  was  valued  at  $3,921,803.  The  value 
of  paints  in  oil  was  $56,763,296;  246,567,570 
pounds  white  lead  in  oil,  were  valued  at  $15,- 
234,411.  The  value  of  varnishes  and  japans 
was  $31,262,535.  The  value  of  fillers,  all  kinds 
included,  was  $3,126,271;  of  these  1,159,569 
gallons  of  liquid  fillers  were  valued  at  $823,063. 

TURPENTINE  AND  ROSIN. 

The  total  value  of  the  turpentine  and  rosin 
industry  for  1909  was  $25,295,017;  the  28,- 
988,954  gallons  of  turpentine  were  valued  at 
$12,654,228;  the  3,263,857  barrels  (280  pounds 
each),  of  rosin,  were  valued  at  $12,576,721. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


123 


COALING  STATIONS  OF  EUROPE  AND  AFRICA. 


124 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK, 


IX.     ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRY. 


Total  value 

Dynamos: 

Number 

Kilowatt  capacity. 
Value :.. 


Dynamotors,  motor  generators,  boost- 
ers, rotary  converters,  and  double 


current  generators 

Transformers 

Switchboards,  panel  boards,  and  cut- 
out cabinets 

Motors: 

Total  number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  power— 

Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  automobiles- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  fans- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  elevators- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

For  railways,  and  miscellaneous 
services,  including    value  of 
parts  and  supplies- 
Number 

Horsepower 

Value 

Storage  batteries,  including  value  of 

Weight  of  plates  in  pounds 


W09 


'  $243,966,093 

16,791 
1,405,950 

913,081,048 


$3,154,733 
98,801,019 

95,971,804 

504,03Q 

2,733,418 

932,087,482 

243,423 

1,683,677 

918,306,451 

2,796 

12,471 

9294,152 

199, 113 

178,033 

92,450,739 

4,988 

63,585 

91,188,653 


53,710 
795,652 

99,847,487 


PRODUCT. 


Primary  batteries,  including  value 
of  parts  and  supplies: 

Number 

Value 

Arc  lamps: 

Number 

Value 

Searchlights,  projectors,  and  focusing 
lamps 


Incandescent  lamps , 

Carbon  filament 

Tungsten 

Gem,  tantalum,  glower,  and 

vacuum  and  vapor  lamps 

Decorative  and  miniature  lamps, 

X-ray  bulbs,  vacuum  tubes, 

etc... 


Sockets,  receptacles,  bases,  etc  ...... 

Electric-lighting  fixtures  of  all  kinds. 
Telegraph  apparatus 


Telephone  apparatus 

Insulated  wires  and  cables  ..........  , 

Electric  conduits  ............ 

Annunciators—  domestic,  hotel,  and 

office  .............................. 

Electric  clocks  and  time  mechanisms 
Fuses  ............................... 

Lightning  arresters  ................. 

Rheostats  and  resistances  .......... 

Heating,  cooking,  and  welding  appa- 

rat  us  ....  ................. 

Electric  flatirons  ..................... 

Electric  measuring  instruments  ...... 

Electrical  therapeutic  apparatus  ..... 

Magneto-ignition  apparatus,  sparks, 

coils,  etc  ........................... 

Electric  switches,  signals,  and  attach- 

ments ........................... 

Circuit  fittings  of  all  kinds  .......... 


34,333,531 
95,934,261 

123,985 
91,706,959 

9935,874 

915,714,809 
96,157,066 
96,241,133 

92,715,991 


9600,619 

94,521,729 

96,128,282 

91,957,432 

114.259,357 

151,624,737 

95,098,264 

9235,567 
9352,513 

91,001,719 
9940, 171 

92,674,963 

91,003,038 

9951,074 

97,800,010 

91,107,858 

96,092,343 


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rent-run  *  e»u*eTifl  WMK*. 

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Charts  Prepared  by  F.  E.  Woodward,  Washington,  D.  C. 
ANALYSIS  OF  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1910-1911. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  fcOOK. 


125 


X.     PAPER  AND  PULP. 


1909 

1909 

MATERIALS. 

1165,442,341 
'$33,772,475 

1.241,914 

$43,861,357 

452,849 
19,487,508 

154,626 
$6,862,864 

626,029 
$27,184,726 

8.410 
$326,259 

357.470 
$10,721,559 

933.882 
$13,691,120 

117,080 
$3,560,033 

303.  137 
$1,460,282 

$58,375,515 

i  $267,  656,964 

1.091,  017 

$42,807,064 

84.537 
$4,048,496 

575,616 
$42,846,674 

95,213 
$9,413,961 

6,498 
$555,352 

17,578 
$1,982,853 

51,449 
$3,352,151 

169,125 
$24,906,102 

29,088 
$4,110,536 

73,731 
$6,989,436 

108,561 
$4,380,794 

32,988 
$870,419 

PRODUCTS—  continued  . 

"Wrapping  paper—  Continued. 
Bogus  or  wood  man  Ha,  all  grades- 
Tons  .... 

367,932 
$19,777,707 

179,855 
$10,202,035 

71,036 
$2,639,4% 

in.  789 

$3,750,851 

74.606 
$2,215,469 

514,208 
$17,539,768 

77,745 
$8,553,654 

9,577 
$1,136,180 

225,824 
$9,251,368 

92,158 
$4,431,514 

96.577 
$6,869,169 

310,747 
$5,649,466 

155,844 
$6,572,152 

444,255 
$17,955,748 

$4,738,549 

2,495,523 
1,179,266 
298,626 
1,017,631 

1,480 
5,293,397 

804 
.10,508 

676 
6,316 

1,435 
542 
348 
194 
3,405,621 
1,809.685 
1,250,983 
344,953 

I~ulp  wood,  cost  

Wood  pulp,  purchased: 
Tons 

Value 

All  other- 
Tons... 

Cost  

Ground- 
Tons  , 

Value 

Boards: 
Wood  pulp  — 
Tons  

Cost 

Soda  fiber- 
Tons  

Value 

Cose  

Straw- 
Tons 

Sulphite  fiber- 
Tons 

Value 

Cost  

News- 
Tons  .  . 

Other  chemical  fiber- 
Tons  

Value 

Cost 

All  other- 
Tons  .  . 

Rags,  including  cotton,  flax  waste 
and  sweepings: 
Tons    .          

Value  

Other  paper  products: 
Tissues- 
Tons  .  . 

Cost 

Old  and  waste  paper: 
Tons  

Value 

Cost 

Blotting— 
Tons 

Manila  stock,  including  jute  bagging, 
rope,  waste,  threads,  etc.: 
Tons  „  
Cost 

Value  

Building  roofing,  asbestos,  and 
sheathing— 
Tons 

Straw: 
Tons  

Value 

Cost  

Hanging- 

All  other  materials,  cost  

Value 

PRODUCTS. 

Total  value 

Miscellaneous- 
Tons  .  .  . 

Value 

Wood  pulp  made  for  sale  or  for  con- 
sumption in  mills  other  than  where 
produced: 
Ground— 

News  paper: 
In  rolls  for  printing- 
Tons 

Value  

In  sheets  for  printing- 
Tons 

Value 

Soda  fiber- 

Value  

Book  paper: 
Book- 
Tons  

Value 

Sulphite  fiber— 

Value  

Value 

Coated— 
Tons  

Value 

Wood  pulp. 

Quantity  produced  (Including  that 
used   in    mills   where    manufac- 
tured), total  tons     

Plate,  lithograph,  map,  wood- 
cut, etc.— 
Tons    . 

Value 

Cover- 

Ground,  tons  

Value 

Soda  fiber,  tons  

Cardboard,  bristol  board,  card  mid- 
dles, tickets,  etc.— 
Tons  

Sulphite  fiber,  tons  

EQUIPMENT. 

Paper  machines: 
Total  number  
Capacity  yearly  tons 

Value  -v 

Fine  paper: 
Writing- 
Tons  

Fourdnnier— 

Value  

All  other- 
Tons 

Capacity  per  24  hours,  tons.  . 
Cylinder- 
Number 

Value  

Wrapping  paper: 
Manila  (rope,  jute,  tag,  etc.)— 
Tons  

Capacity  per  24  hours,  tons.  . 
Pulp: 

Value  
Heavy  (mill  wrappers,  etc.)— 

Digesters'  total  number  .  . 

Sulphite  fiber,  number  

Value 

Capacity,  yearly,  tons  of  pulp  
Ground,  tons  
Sulphite,  tons  

Straw 
Tons  

Value  

Soda,  tons  

126  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 


THE  CIVILIZED  WORLD'S  CONSUMPTION  OF  PAPER  PRESENTED 
IN  GRAPHICAL  FORM. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


127 


PUBLICATIONS. 


PRODUCT. 

1909 

PRODUCT. 

1909 

Total  value 

1737,876,087 

$337,596,288 
$135,063,043 
1202,533,245 
1232,993,094 
$84,438,702 
$148,554,392 
$104,603,194 
$50,624,341 
$53,978,853 

$2,293,077 

$62,930,394 
$10,209,509 

$5,510,698 
$1,000,966 

$207,940,227 
$50,552,808 

$47,956.979 
$11,885,141 

22.141 
164,468,040 

2.600 
24,211,977 

520 
13,347,282 

708 
2,648,308 

15,097 
40,822,965 

2,491 
63,280,535 

725 
20,151,973 

17,698 
61,074,990 

1,251 
29',  523,  777 

316 
11,327,253 

NEWSPAPERS    AND     PERIODICALS— 

Continued. 

By  character  —  Continued. 
Commerce,   finance,   insurance, 
railroads,  etc.  — 
Number  ,  ,  ,  -  -  ,  

264 
1,411,738 

685 
3,572,441 

340 
31,322,035 

197 
931,584 

56 
151,346 

139 
1,421,955 

419 
6,982,235 

202 
1,879,383 

164 
13,445,661 

271 
330,705 

139 
1,087,937 

20,744 
155,432,243 

1,397 
9,030,797 

39 
446,739 

692 
4,434,146 

104 
500,475 

161 
1,118,601 

169 
917,649 

232 
1,613,187 

Publications: 
Newspapers  and  periodicals  
Subscriptions  and  sales 
•  Advertising 

Newspapers     " 

Subscriptions  and  sales.  . 
Advertising 

Periodicals. 

Aggregate  circulation  

Subscriptions  and  sales.  . 
Advertising  
Ready  prints,  patent  insides  and 
outsiaee 

Trade  journals  generally— 
Number....,  

Aggregate  circulation  
General     literature,     including 
monthly  and  quarterly  maga- 
zines— 

Niimhpr 

Books  and  pamphlets- 
Published,  or  printed  and 
published  

Printed  for  publication  by 

Aggregate  circulation  

Sheet  music  and  books  of  music- 
Published   or  printed  and 
published  
Printed  for  publication  by 
others 

Medicine  and  surgery— 

Aggregate  circulation.  .  ..... 

Law- 
Number  

products  for  sale  and  in  execution  of 
orders: 
Job  printing  

Aggregate  circulation 

Science  and  mechanics- 
Number 

Book  binding  and  blank  books  .  . 
Electrotyping,    engraving,    and 
lithographing  
All  other  products  

\ggregate  circulation 

Fraternal  organizations— 
Num  ber                      .... 

NEWSPAPERS  AND  PERIODICALS. 

Education  and  history- 
Number               

Aggregate  circulation  

Aggregate  circulation 

Society,  art,  music,  fashions,  etc.— 
Number  

By  period  of  issue: 
Daily  (exclusive  of  Sunday)— 
Number.  . 

Aggregate  circulation  

College  and  school  periodicals- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

Sunday- 
Number... 

Aggregate  circulation  
Miscellaneous— 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation  

Semiweekly  and  triweekly- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

By  language: 
English- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation  
Number  

Aggregate  circulation  
Number  

Aggregate  circulation  
Foreign  (including  foreign  and 
English)— 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

All  otfilr- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation  

Aggregate  circulation  

By  character: 
News,  politics,  and  family  read- 
ing- 
Number  

French- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation  
German  — 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation  
Italian- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation 

Religious- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation  
Scandinavian- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation  
Agricultural,  horticultural,  dairy, 
stock  raising,  etc.— 
Number.. 

Aggregate  circulation  
Slavonic- 
Number  

Aggregate  circulation.  .  ..'.... 

The  earliest  advertisement  in  England  was 
found    in    "Perfect    Occurrences  of  Every 
Daie"  1647. 

Aggregate  circulation  
All  other- 
Number 

Aggregate  circulation  

128 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PUBLICATIONS  BY  STATES. 


Showing  the  number  of  newspapers  and  periodicals  of  all-  issues  published  in  the  United  States, 
Territories,  and  Dominion  of  Canada;  the  number  of  towns  in  which  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished, and  the  number  of  towns  which  are  county  seats. 

STATES,TERRITORIES  AND 
CANADIAN  PRO  VINCES. 

NEW  ENGLAND    STATES. 

Connecticut  

No.  of  Totant  in  which 
Papers  are  published. 

No.of  Towns  which  are 
County  Seats. 

ISSUES. 

} 

1 

1 

| 

Fortnightly. 

I 
I 

Monthly. 

j 

j 

j 

Total-all 
tuna, 

88 

TI 

18 

88 

9 
15 
20 
12 
4 
12 

36 
13 

ft 

12 
10 
167 

1 
2 

2 

~ft 

8 

1 
9 
1 
3 

22 

89 
95 
374 
83 

26 
83 

T«T 

2 
3 

5 

1 
1 
9 

1 
1 
13 

14 

22 
134 
13 
10 
6 
19F 

H 
1 

1 

10 

4 
4 

30 

3* 

2 
-J- 

154 
137 
65<i 
111 
53 
101 
1212 

Maine 

Rhode  Island  

NBW  YORK. 

New  York 

600       62 

201 

4 

44 

1066 

» 

39 

601  |  18     84  |    4 

2020 

MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATKS. 

14 
81 

457 

807 

3 

23 

67 
111 

B 

7 

yj 

50 
291 

i 

8 

2 
5 
43 

50 

27 
22 
117 

280 
847 

1291 

1 

6 

7 

1 
6 

i 

n 

21 

4 
37 

29 
29 

338 

4 
1 

1 
8 
11 

7 
6 
2 

52 

l 

2 

3 

35 
77 
180 
371 
1414 
•2077 

New  Jersey  

SOUTHERN    STATES. 

Alabama  
Arkansas  
Florida  

137 

lli'.l 
93 
207 
154 
107 
14S 
158 

H 

in 

5112 
131 
94 
2219 

69  ij    27 
84  i     31 
46  i!    19 
137       28 
117       31 
56       19 
85  !    14 
85  I1    31 
43  1     H 
N7        17 
222       96 
66       35 

1152      3(!f.~ 

1 

1 
i 

a 

201 
248 
144 

269 

1 

120 

227 
808 

172 

2 

1 
2 
1 

8 
3 

8 
If 

5 
6 
11 

5 
3 
8 
3 

1 

12 
0 
10 
49 
27 
19 
15 
27 
16 
39 
66 
32 
14 

1 
* 

3 

"7 

1 

1 
t 

4 

16 
2 
6 

31 

1 
1 

2 

256 
303 
176 
374 
331 
22} 
256 
299 
177 
310 
1010 
256 
221 
4102 

Louisiana  
Mississippi  
North  Carolina  

Tennessee  
Texas  

West  Virginia 

MIDDLE  WESTERN  STATKS. 

Illinois 

645  i   102 
374        !'l 
3!t3        82 
413  1     88 
374       71 
2199"  434 

170 

id 

17! 

ti-IK 

8 
5 
6 
6 

19 

34 

23 
24 

G6 

21 
157 

1073 
525 
535 
726 
531 

5 

1 
3 
1 

10 

21  i 

•; 

4 

13 
3 

52 

61 

155 
M 

7<tO 

7 

1 

8 

1 
17 

13 

8 
1 

22 

1 
15 

3 

787 
73H 
1162 
678 
5131 

Michigan  
Ohio  

Wisconsin 

WESTERN    STATES. 

Colorado  «  

181 

573 
150 
431 

MB 

m 

77 

L'i,S 
3S9 
313 
49 

<6S9 

59 
99 
105 
85 
113 
29 
91 
•24 
50 
76 
57 
15 
803" 

47 

aj 
I 

38 

3 

ao 

6 

!2 

51 

20 

I 

441 

2 
3 

I 

2 

6 
43 
8 
3 
14 
7 
16 
1 

2 
5 

5 

MO 

773 
628 

742 
135 
539 
115 
330 
559 
415 
61 
5239 

2 
5 

3 

7 
3 
11 

16 
1 
B 

1 

5 
1 

50 

31 

64 
23 
51 
116 
8 
34 
2 
6 
17 
13 
5 

1 

2 
1 

B 

1 

1 
1 
1 

10 

14 

1 

397 
959 
732 
746 
985 
168 
625 
126 
348 
634 
451 
76 
6249 

Kansas' 

Minnesota  
Missouri  

Nebraska 

North  Dakota  

Wyoming  „  

Arizona  Territory  
California 

31 

::oii 

HO 

63 
196 

SXO 

14 

14 

34 

20li 

n> 

10 

n 

32 
6 

4 

2 
3 

12 

31 
6 

11 

7 
60 

is 
502 
128 
34 
200 

29H 
1277 

2 

I 

2 
9 

3 
3 

l.s 

3 
101 
7 

26 
40 
W 

5 

5 

1 
I 

2 

j 

69 
816 

273 
97 

382 

TK37 

Idaho 

Nevada  
Oregon  „  
Utah 

OUTLYING  TERRITORIES. 

Hawaii  "i.7!!™"!".."'.".'.'.'."!]!!  'I"!""!!!"!!!." 

16 

6 
5 

32 

4 

11 
7  i      4 

12  1      1 
11  ! 

11          5 

14 
2  !     15 



B 

"3 

7 
17 
2 
26 





1 

25 
35 
37 
2-2 
119 

CANADIAN  PROVINCES. 

Alberta  
British  Columbia 

71 
50 

H 

120 
IS 

88 

tea 

4 
47 
6 

6 

» 

2 

22 
3 

102 

9 

1 

15 
57 
4 
20 
4 
151 

1 

1 
1 
1 
~5~ 

7 
2 

10 
1 

19 
1 
1 

15 

89 
67 

137 
3 
24 
51- 
412 
9 
100 
9 
iW 

2 

2 
4 

1 
Jf 

2 
4 

2 
2 
11 

-21" 

12 
25 
4 

9 
6 
136 
2 
30 
4 
229 

1 
1 
1 

3 

2 
10 

2 
IS 

1 

104 
104 
1:37 
151 
4 
55 
82 
681 

156 
18 
T508 

Manitoba  .     . 

Saskatchewan  
Yukon 

Nova  Scotia  

Ontario  

Prince  Edward  Island  
Quebec  

Newfoundland  

Ay  en's  Ncwspaytcr  Annual. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


129 


INTERNATIONAL  BOOK  PRODUCTION. 


TABLE  OF   BOOK   PRODUCTION  OF  LEADING    COUNTRIES— 1901-1910. 


1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

I9o6 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

27  606 

28  178 

28  886 

11  281 

France  ...  
Great  Britain  
Italy  

13,053 
6,044 

12,199 
7,38i 

12,264 
8,381 

12,139 

8,334 

12,416 
8,252 

10,898 
8,603 
6822 

10,785 
9,914 
7  040 

11,073 
9,821 
6  918 

^1>UOI 

13,185 
10,725 

6  8n 

12,615 
10,804 

6  788 

Switzerland  

I  766 

i  6ss 

2  4S2 

2  71Q 

•j  116 

\  24Q 

\  o8<; 

42?6 

4  -zcx) 

Holland  

2,8*7 

2,QI7 

3,005 

3,40^ 

*,29O 

.}»•"«? 
-1-546 

3  4°8 

\  2S8 

\  6^2 

3777 

Belgium  
United  States  

2,613 
8,141 

2,499 

7,833 

$t 

2,734 
8,291 

2,624 

8,122 

2,410 
7,139 

2,680 
9,620 

2,763 
9,254 

2,697 

10,901 

2,588 
13,470 

Publishers'  Weekly. 


RECORD  OF  AMERICAN  BOOK  PRODUCTION. 


FOR  1911 

FOR  1910 

INTERNATIONAL 
CLASSIFICATION 

New 

Publica- 
tions 

By  Origin 

1 

New 

Publica- 
tions 

By  Origin 

New  Books 

New  Editions 

American  Authors 

English 
and  Other 
Foreign 
Authors 

New  Books 

New  Editions 

American  Authors 

English 
and  Other 
Foreign 
Authors 

I 

American 

Maiiuf. 

Imported 

American 
Manuf. 

1  HI  ported 

Philosophy  .  . 

305 
879 
6l4 
629 
289 
180 
559 

584 
390 

1! 
% 

81 

94 
892 
674 
999 
725 
425 
555 
647 

222 

$ 

39 
53 
ii 

12 

65 

122 
137 
9 
14 

18 

20 

5 
9 
27 
ii 

25 
9 
17 
43 
48 

22 

244 
662 

559 
675 
269 
89 
492 

% 

2f9 

ft? 

206 

'% 

So 

% 

701 
439 
326 
J8/ 
433 

212 

'sTsj 

fS 

48 

21 

\ 

fr 
(<Q 

7 

J<> 

2 

3 
7 
4 

2 
170 
//>' 

ur 
36 

'5 

% 

6 

72 
207 
73 
3 
23 
43 

122 
124 

47 

21 

7 
fS 
84 

20 
21 
22fy 

152 

2O2 

259 
101 
I92 
226 

26 
2269 

334 
917 
653 
682 
300 
192 
624 

706 
527 
240 

95 
227 
196 
86 
103 

&9 

Mtt| 

734 

442 

598 
695 

244 

248 
894 
748 
620 
504 

17 
49 
36 
58 
19 

204 
6jo 

70S 
669 

378 

'7 

55 
3 

i 

43 

44 

258 

1 

102 

265 

943 

678 
523 

Religion   and  Theology  .   . 

Sociology  and  Economics  
Law  

Education  

Philology 

Science  

644 

721 

369 
1  287 

6? 

136 

175 

45 

570 

765 
47' 
272 

6 
3 

10 

/ 

*35 

S9 
6j 

& 

711 

857 
544 

332 

Applied  Science,  Technology, 
Engineering                        .     [ 

Medicine,  Hygiene  i 

Agriculture 

Domestic  Economy  
Business  

Fine  Arts 

d* 

126 

1399 
721 

1303 

935 
526 

544 
631 

127 

21 

19 

692 

31 
236 

K 

39 
55 
14 

15 

fSo 

122 

$ 

% 

411 
365 
423 

104 

12 

297 

161 
524 
30 
iS 
5 
23 

3 

'53 

% 

ffO 
200 

3  '7 
!36 

229 
199 

35 

345 

145 
2091 
752 
1539 

IOIO 

565 
599 
645 

142 

Music  ... 

Games,  Sports,  Amusements.  . 
General  Literature,  Essays.  .  . 
Poetrv  and  Drama  

Fiction  

Juvenile   Publications  , 
History  ,  

Geography  and  Travel  
Biography,   Genealogy  
General  Cyclopaedias,  General 
Works,  Bibliographies,  Mis- 
cellaneous 

Total  

10,4401783 

771 

11,123 

11,671 

1799 

9209 

r*,5 

304.6 

13,470 

i 

Publishers'  Weekly. 


130 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RHODES  SCHOLARSHIPS. 


Under  the  will  of  Mr.  Cecil  Rhodes  a  number 
of  Colonial,  American  and  German  scholarships 
were  established,  in  order  to  instill  into  the 
minds  of  colonists  the  advantage  to  the 
Colonies  as  well  as  to  the  United  Kingdom  of 
tha  retention  of  the  unity  of  the  Empire; 
to  encourage  in  the  students  from  the  United 
States  of  America  an  attachment  to  the 
country  from  which  they  have  sprung;  and 
to  further  a  good  understanding  between 
England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States. 

There  are  in  all  seventy-eight  colonial 
scholarships  for  male  students  of  $1,500  each 
a  year  for  three  years  at  the  University  of 
Oxford,  these  colonial  scholarships  being 
spread  over  most  of  the  colonies,  twenty-four 
being  allotted  to  Canada,  eighteen  to  Australia, 
twelve  to  Cape  Colony,  nine  to  Rhodesia,  and 
three  each  to  Natal,  New  Zealand,  Newfound- 
land, Bermuda  and  Jamaica. 


Two  Oxford  scholarships  are  to  be  allotted 
to  each  State  and  Territory  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  tenable  for  three  years, 
each  of  $1,500;  also,  five  German  scholar- 
ships, each  of  $1,250,  tenable  at  Oxford  for 
three  years,  the  holders  to  be  nominated  by 
the  German  Emperor. 

So  that  the  students  who  shall  be  elected 
to  the  scholarships  shall  not  be  merely  book- 
worms, regard  is  to  be  had,  not  only  to  their 
"literary  and  scholastic  attainments,"  but 
also  to  their  "  fondness  of  and  success  in  manly 
outdoor  sports,  qualities  of  manhood,  truth, 
courage,  devotion  to  duty,  sympathy  for  and 
protection  of  the  weak,  kindliness,  unselfish- 
ness, and  fellowship,"  moral  force  of  char- 
acter and  instinct  of  leadership.  "No 
student  shall  be  qualified  or  disqualified  for 
election  to  a  scholarship  on  account  of  his 
race  or  religious  opinion." 


BOOK  PRODUCTION  OF  LEAKING  COUN- 
TRIES, 1910,  BY  CLASSES. 

BOOK 

Country. 
Algeria    

PRODUCTION  OF 
COUNTRIES. 

Year.       Books. 

LEADING 

Germany 

Great 
Britain 

France 

United 
Slates 

Year. 

1908 
1900 
1903 

1910 
1910 
1902 
1897 
1910 
1900 

1896 

1907 
1903 
1910 
1902 
1909 
1908 
1910 
1907 
1895 
1903 
1908 
1908 
1904 
1903 
1899 
1902 
1907 
1900 

1908 
1892 
1903 
1908 
1892- 

1894 

1903 
1910 

1897 

1900 
1906 
1909 
1909 

1910 
1906 
1908 

Periodic'ls. 

282 
739 
1,000 
3,95^ 
1,655 
300 
90 
1,429 
90 

312 
123 
18 
L4I3 

120 
366 
8,658 
10,017 
4,329 
130 
27 

45 
1,492 
1,644 
40 
1,000 

30 
3,068 
2,727 

53 
300 
497 

21 
.'  10 

/« 

330 
2,39' 
80 

*8o4 
1,332 
380 
22,806 
240 

Fiction  .' 
Law  

Religion     

2510 
4852 
4815. 

''3«5 
1750 
[      "54 
1981 
1480 
2089 

668 
[     1030 

2833 

X659 
272 

816 
59° 

860 

398 
604 

1152 
3«« 
888 
1160 
142 

•1413 
1028 
4'7 
.7.8 
»23P 
328 
'i68' 

28, 

77 
464 

1797 
678 

523 
2042 

10*0 
784 
752 

7" 

I    645 
544 

*I7 
265 

145 
49 

142 

Argentine  Republic.  .  
Australia    
Austria?    1901 

2,050 
2,588 

456 

422 

400 

3,305 
160 

11,266 
31,281 
10,804 

212 
8,OOO 
1  80 
6,788 
34,730 

97 
682 

1.740 
29,057 

1.400 

1,474 
4,290 
900 
13.470 
no 

Education  r.  .  .  .  . 
Essays,  Miscellany. 
Juvenile  Publications. 
Sociology  
Poetry  and  Drama  .. 
Science  

Belgium    
Brazil    
Bulgaria 

1910 

Canada 

Q 

Cape  of  Good 
Ceylon  

Hope.  
1909 

History  f..... 

Chili    
China    

1891 

Medicine 

Costa-Rica 

• 

Description  and  Travel 

Egryot 

iSQS 

Applied  Science  

Finland   ..... 

Household  Science... 
Agriculture  

Germany     
Great    Britain. 

..  1910 
191-0 

Wit  and  Humor  

Haiti   



Philoloffy  
Military  Science  
General  Wprks.....  .. 

•      1884 
1094 

1206 

Hawaii    
Holland    

IQIO 

Hungary    .... 
Iceland   ...... 
India    

1898 
1OO3 
l895 

Printing  was   originally  practiced  by  the 
Chinese  in  very  early  times;    the  origin  of  the 
present  system  seems  to  be  very  doubtful. 
The  first  metal  plate  from  which  impressions 
on   paper   were    taken    seems   to   have   been 
executed  in  1452.     It  was  a  pax  or  metal  plate 
used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service.     Early 
books  containing  engravings  reproduced  from 
metal  plates  are  the  "Kalendar"  dated  1465, 
and  the  "Monte  Santo  de  Dio,"  1477.     The 
first  engraver  proper  who  seems  to  have  done 
nothing  but  engrave  was  Antonio  Raimondi 
(1488-1530). 

Italy        

I9IO 

Luxemburg    .  . 

......      I9IO 

.orway    ... 

Portuga_    .. 

....      I  9O  I 

Sweden    
Switzerland    . 

I9&4 
1910 
1890 

The  first  steam  turbine  was  built  in  1894 
by  the  Hon.  C.  A.  Parsons  of  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne;     the    first    Atlantic    passage    turbine 

United    States 

I9IO 

Venezuela   .  . 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


131 


XI.     MINOR 

GAS,  ILLUMINATING  AND  HEATING. 

The  total  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  product  in  the  year  1909 
was  $52,427,844;  4,940,598  tons  of  coal  cost 
$10,304,832;  579,657,152  gallons  of  oil  cost 
§17,345,750;  591,919  tons  coke,  costing  $2  - 
667,706;  all  other  materials  cost  $16,109,556. 
The  total  value  of  these  products  in  1909  was 


INDUSTRIES. 

$166,814,371:  150,835,793  cubic  feet  (thou- 
sands) of  gas  were  produced,  having  a  value 
of  $138,615,309;  19,985,253  cubic  feet  (thou- 
sands) straight  coal,  valued  at  $18,065,841; 
25,186  cubic  feet  (thousands)  of  acetylene 
valued  at  $361,348;  82,049,683  bushels  of  coke 
were  produced,  valued  at  $5,723,215;  92  152  - 
938  gallons  of  tar,  valued  at  $1,875,549;  the 
value  of  all  other  products  was  $13,556,908. 


Copyright,    Munn    &   Co. 

THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  GAS  INDUSTRY. 
A  Week's  Supply  of  Gas.     Fuel  for  23  Million  Horse-Power  Hours      The  Gas 
Holder  contains  2,163,207,368  Cubic  Feet? 


132 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LAUNDRIES  IN  1909. 


Number  of  establishments 5,186 

Capital  invested $68,935,000 

Cost  of  materials  used 17,696,000 

Salaries  and  wages,  total 53,007,747 

Salaries 8,180,769 

Wages 44,826,978 

Miscellaneous  expenses 14,483,497 

Value  of  products,   or  amount 

received  for  work  done.  .   $104,680,086 

PIANOS  AND  ORGANS  AND  MATERIALS. 

In  1909,  the  total  value  of  the  pianos  and 
organs,  and  materials,  in  establishments  espe- 
cial!/ designed  for  their  manufacture  through- 
oat  the  United  States,  amounted  to  $89,789,- 
511.  The  whole  number  of  pianos  manufactured 
was  374,154,  valued  at  $59,501,225:  Of  these 
tci3re  were  365,413  upright  pianos,  valued  at 
$55,462,556;  330,918  pianos  without  player 
attachment,  valued  at  $46,187,555;  34,495 


pianos  for  or  with  player  attachment,  valued 
at  $9,275,001;  8,741  grand  pianos,  valued  at 
$4,038,669.  There  were  10,898  player  attach- 
ments made  separate  from  pianos,  valued  at 
$1,474,630.  The  whole  number  of  organs  made 
was  65,335,  valued  at  $5,309,016:  Of  these 
there  were  1,224  pipe  organs,  valued  at  $2,- 
713,587;  64,111  reed  organs,  valued  at  $2,- 
595,429.  The  value  of  other  parts  and  ma- 
terials manufactured,  was  $20,417,762;  the 
value  of  all  other  products  was  $3,086,911. 

PHONOGRAPHS  AND  GRAPHOPHONES. 

The  total  value  of  the  phonographs,  grapho- 
phones,  and  records  manufactured  in  1909, 
throughout  the  United  States,  was  $11,725,- 
996.  There  were  344,681  phonographs  and 
graphophones  made,  valued  at  $5,406,684; 
27,183,959  records  and  blanks,  valued  at  $5,- 
007,104;  all  other  products  were  valuer!  at 
$1,312,208.  Since  1909  the  products  have 
vastly  increased  in  quantity  and  value. 


TABLE  OF  HEIGHT  AND  WEIGHT  AT  VARYING  AGES 

Based  upon  an  Analysis  of  74,162  accepted  Male  Applicants  for  Life  Insurance,  as  reported  tc 
The  Association  of  Life  Insurance  Medical  Directors.   1897. 


ACES, 

15-24 

29-29 

30-34 

33—39 

40-44 

45-49 

50-54 

33—59 

6O—  64 

65—  69 

.".  feet  0  irches 

96 

120 

<44 

i<*. 

»5 
50 

02 
28 

54 

105 
'3' 

'57 

106 

'33 
160 

107 
'34 
161 

107 
$4 

61 

107 
'34 
161 

'05 
3' 

57 

« 

98 

122 
I46 

26 
5« 

o.t 
'9 
55 

105 
'31 
'57 

107 

'34 

161 

109 
X 

09 

36 

109 
'36 

07 
34 

-  a 

99 
"4 
149 

S4 

05 
3' 

37 

106 

'33 
160 

109 
'^ 

no 

'38 
166 

38 
66 

'38 
1  66 

37 
64 

3 

102 
127 

'5* 

°5 

3' 
57 

°7 
8 

109 
| 

III 

'39 
167 

"3 
169 

'3 

69 

"3 
169 

40 
68 

140 
168 

4 

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'57 

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35 

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38 
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146 

1  68 

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16 

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lit 

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44 

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172     f 

5 

107 
134 
161 

38 
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'3 

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69 

114 
'43 
'72 

"7 
146 
'75 

118 

'47 
176 

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49 
79 

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'79 

18 

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'47 
176 

C 

no 
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14 

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70 

16 

45 
74 

118 
147 
176 

120 

'50 
180 

121 

'5' 
181 

22 

53 
84 

122 

'53 
184 

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«4 

'5' 
181 

7 

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142 
170 

18 

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5° 
80 

•5J 

182 

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1  86 

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187 

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126 
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190 

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187 

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54 
85 

126 
'57 
188 

•       128 
160 
192 

129 
161 
'93 

30 
63 
96 

'30 
163 
196 

63 
96 

'30 
162 

'94 

O 

120 

t 

»4; 
II 

27 
59 
9' 

13° 
162 

'94 

'3' 
'65 
198 

'33 
166 
'99 

34 

67 

00 

"J4 

168 

202 

34 
68 

134 
168 

IO 

"3 
'54 
«»5 

27 
59 
9' 

3' 
64 
97 

'34 
167 

'36 

204 

'37 
'7' 

205 

38 
72 
06 

'38 
'73 
208 

39 

'39 
•74 

11 

"7  , 
'59 
'91 

3' 
64 
97 

35 
69 
°3 

138 
'73 
208 

140 

'75 

142 

"77 

4* 
77 

142 
178 
214 

44 
80 
16 

180 
216 

G        0 

'3* 
jg 

3« 

04 

40 
75 

>43 

'79 
"5 

'44 

180 
216 

146 

'»3 

46 
82 
tl 

146 
'83 

48 
85 

22 

148 
'85 

1 

'36 
170 
204 

42 

77 

45 
81 
'7 

148 
'85 

'40 
186 

=  23 

'5' 

189 

227 

50 
88 
26 

'5' 
189 

"7 

Z 

27 

'5' 
189 

"7 

a 

141 
176 

'211 

'47 
184 

221 

5° 
88 
26 

'54 
192. 
23° 

'55 
'94 
233 

'57 
196 
»35 

55 
94 
33 

'55 

^    '94 

J33 

54 
92 
30 

'54 
192 
230 

a 

MS 
181 
217 

152 
190 

til 

56 
95 
34 

160 

200 

240 

162 
203 
J4* 

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161 

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^41 

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198 
J38 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


IS 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES :  BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  190  \ 

Source:  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  The 
figures  for  some  industries  do  not  represent  the  total  value  of  the  products,  because  import- 
ant establishments  that  manufacture  the  same  class  of  products  may  be  included  in  other 
industries.  [Primary  horse-power  includes  power  generated  in  manufacturing  establishments 
plus  electric  and  other  power  rented  from  outside  sources;  it  does  not  include  electric  power 
generated  by  primary  units  of  the  establishments  reporting.] 


INDUSTRY. 

Persons 
Engaged. 

Primary 
Horse- 
Power. 

Value  of 
Products 

Agricultural  implements  
Artificial  flowers  and  feathers  and  plumes  
Artificial  stone 

60,229 
11,583 
15,202 

100,601 
334 
12,185 

«146,329,00( 
23,  981.001 
18  596  00( 

Artist-:'  materials    

865 

1,628 

2,340,00( 

Automobiles,  including  Iwxlies  ami  parts.    

85.359 

">.747 

75,550 
2022 

249,202,00< 
14  499  00' 

Axle  grease      

334 

492 

1,481,00 

Babbitt  metal  and  solder 

1,491 

2,293 

19  768  00 

8,838 

6  855 

54  882  OC( 

Bags,  paper  
Baking  powders  and  veast 

3,683 
3,531 

3,885 
3,335 

15.698.OCi. 
20  775  COO 

Baskets,  and  rattan  and  willow  ware  
Beet  sugar                                  .                 ... 

5.419 

8,389 

7,196 
57,202 

5,695,OCt 
48  122  OCC 

Be'  ting  and  hose   leather 

4,370 

5  438 

23  692  OCC 

Belting  and  hose,  woven  and  rubber              

7,304 

6,319 

24,729  OCC 

Bicycles   motor  cvcles  and  parts 

5,017 

5,932 

10  699  000 

Billiard  tables  and  materials  
Blacking  and  cleansing  and  polishing  preparations 
Bluing 

1,776 
4,407 
545 

2.642 
3,977 
242 

5.878.0CO 
14.679.00C 
1  074  OOC 

Bone,  carbon  and  lampblack 

302 

1,023 

1.093.00C 

Boots  and  shoes,  including  out  stock  and  findings 
Boots  and  shoes,  rubber     

215,923 
18,899 

96,302 
25,903 

180.060.0CC 
49.721.00C 

Boxes,  cigar 

6,852 

6,049 

8,491  000 

Boxes,  fancy  and  paper  

43,568 

23,323 

54.450.0CC 

Brass  and  bronze  products  
Bread  and  other  bakery  products 

45,441 
144,322 

106,120 
65  298 

149.989.00C 
396  865  000 

Brick  and  tile  
Brooms  and  brushes 

85,764 
15,143 

341,169 
8  800 

92.776.00C 
29,126  000 

Butter   cheese  and  condensed  milk 

31  506 

101  349 

274  558  OCC 

Butter,  reworking  

418 

1,471 

8.200,000 

Buttons 

18,004 

12  831 

22  708  000 

Calcium  lights  

26 

53 

52,000 

Candles                       .             

649 

799 

3,130,000 

Canning  and  preserving 

71  972 

81  179 

157  101  000 

Card  cutting  and  designing     

702 

269 

1,031,000 

Carpets  and  rugs,  other  than  rag 

34,706 

38  553 

7l    188  000 

Carpets   rag 

2  688 

9  651 

2  568  000 

Carriages  and  sleds,  children's  
Carriages  and  wagons  and  materials 

5,769 
82,944 

5,281 
126032 

8,805,000 
159  893  000 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
steam-railroad  companies  
Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by- 
street-railroad companies  

301,273 
23,699 

293,361 
35,794 

405,601,000 
31,963,000 

Cars,   steam  -railroad,  not  including  operations  of 
railroad  companies  

47,094 

97,797 

123,730,000 

Cars,  street-railroad,  not  including  operations  of 
railroad  companies 

4  005 

15,161 

7,810  000 

Cash  registers  and  calculating  machines  

9,249 

6,944 

23,708,000 

Cement  

29,551 

371,799 

63,205,000 

Charcoal.      .      . 

731 

165 

872,000 

Chemicals 

27  791 

208  604 

117  689  000 

China  decorating  

436 

18 

786,000 

Chocolate  and  cocoa  products 

3,404 

10,593 

22,390,  COO 

Clocks  and  watches,  including  cases  and  materials 
Cloth,  sponging  and  refinishing  
Clothing,  horse                                                                     i 

25,439 
1,167 
1  830   : 

14,957 
704 
1  454 

35,197,000 
1,544.000 
4,135,000 

Clothing,  men's,  including  shirts  
Clothing,  men's,  buttonholes  
Clothing,  women's    ' 

271,437 
1,031    i 

179,021 

42,725 
176 
2-^,294 

568,077,000 
781,000 
384.752.0CO 

Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and  grinding  
Coffins,  burial  cases,  and  undertakers'  goods  
Coke  
Confectionery  

13,516 
11,448 
31,226 
54.854 

22,234 
16,490 
62,602 
35,870 

110.533.0CO 
24,526.000 
95,697,000 
134,796,000 

134 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES:  BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  1909.  —  Continued 


INDUSTRY. 

Persons 
Engaged. 

Primary 
Horse- 
Power. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Cooperage  and  wooden  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified 

29,717 
86,934 

65,108 
62,366 

60,248,  000 
199  824,000 

Cordage  and  twine,  jute  and  linen  goods  

27,214 

78,549 

61,020,000 

1,638 

1,154 

9,662,000 

3,376 

3,746 

5  940  000 

Corsets                            

19,611 

4,581 

33,257,000 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton  small  wares  
Crucibles                

387,771 
398 

1,296,517 
816 

628,392,000 
1,849,000 

Cutlery  and  tools,  not  elsewhere  specified.  ...... 
Dairymen's,  poulterers',  and  apiarists'  supplies.  . 
Dentists'  materials  

37,161 
6,431 
1,982 

68,294 
6,898 
865 

53,2*66,000 
15,463,000 
10,836,000 

Drug  grinding 

1,152 

3,322 

6,007,000 

Dyeing  and  finishing  textiles  

47,303 

107,746 

83,556,000 

Dyestuffs  and  extracts                                      .    .    . 

3,015 

22,213 

15,955,000 

Electrical  machinery,  apparatus  and  supplies.  .  .  . 
Electroplating  
Emery  and  other  abrasive  wheels  
Enameling  and  japanning  

105,600 
3,558 
2,446 
2,418 

158,768 
4,461 
4,005 
1,695 

221,309,000 
4,510,000 
6,711,000 
3,316,000 

Engravers'  materials  
Engraving  and  dyesinking 

189 

1  782 

549 

768 

921,000 
2  250  000 

Engraving,  wood  
Explosives         

480 
7  058 

39 
28,601 

711,000 
40  1-10,000 

Fancy  articles,  not  elsewhere  specified  

14,194 

8,310 

22,632,000 

Fertilizers  

21,950 

64,711 

103,960,000 

Files 

4  521 

7  383 

5  691  000 

Firearms  and  ammunition  
Fire  extinguishers,  chemical           

16,042 
300 

17,840 
215 

34,112,000 
754  000 

Fireworks 

1  567 

517 

2  269  000 

Flags,  banners,  regalia,  society  badges  and  emblems 
Flavoring  extracts 

4,522 
2  634 

1,173 
1  060 

8,1  1  4,  000 
8  828  000 

Flax  and  hemp,  dressed  

216 

1,147 

467,000 

Four-mill  and  gristmill  products.         

66054 

853  584 

883  584,000 

Food  preparations 

20965 

55  166 

125  331  000 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  products  
Foundry  supplies  

615,485 
710 

869,305 
4  995 

1,228,4'75,000 
2  298  000 

Fuel  manufactured 

112 

1  290 

311  000 

Fur  goods  

16  152 

2  120 

55  938,000 

Furnishing  goods,  men's 

43  935 

12  116 

87  710  000 

Furniture  and  refrigerators  
Furs,  dressed  

144,140 
1  472 

221,451 
2  103 

239,886,000 
2391  000 

Galvanizing 

1  689 

1  367 

7  338  000 

Gas  and  electric  fixtures  and  lamps  and  reflectors  .  . 
Gas,  illuminating  and  heating 

22,906 
51  007 

15,862 
128  350 

45,057,000 
166  814  000 

Glass 

72  573 

128  532 

92  095  000 

Glass,  cutting,  staining,  and  ornamenting  

11,090 

4,897 

16,101,000 

Gloves  and  mittens,  leather 

12  950 

2  889 

23  631  000 

Glucose  and  starch  .  . 

5,827 

28,257 

48,799,000 

Glue  

3  840 

15  596 

13  718  000 

Gold  and  silver,  leaf  and  foil  
Gold  and  silver,  reducing  and  refining,  not  from 
the  ore  

1,553 
690 

259 
1  735 

2,630,000 
23  612  000 

Graphite  and  graphite  refining  
Grease  and  tallow  

262 
5  504 

1,472 
14  613 

1,140,000 
23  419,000 

Grindstones  

1  485 

5  700 

1  688  000 

Haircloth 

621 

995 

2  230  000 

Hairwork  

4  383 

218 

5  135  000 

Hammocks 

325 

157 

578  000 

Hand  stamps  and  stencils  and  brands 

2,539 

903 

3,673,000 

Hat  and  cap  materials 

2  618 

2  922 

8  236  000 

Hats  and  caps,  other  than  felt,  straw,  and  wool.  .  . 
Hats,  fur  felt  

7,609 
27,091 

990 
19,245 

13,689,000 
47,865  000 

Hats,  straw 

9  704 

3  482 

21  424  000 

Hones  and  whetstones  
Horseshoes,  not  made  hi  steel  works  or  rolling  mills 
Hosiery  and  knit  goods  

173 
360 
136,130 

'677 
1,045 
103,709 

268,000 
1,015,000 
200,143,000 

House-furnishing  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified..  . 
Ice,  manufactured 

5,916 
21  107 

9,328 
317  789 

18,509,000 
42  953  000 

Ink,  printing 

1  854 

5  857 

8  865  000 

Ink,  writing  

824 

169 

2  505  000 

Instruments,  professional  and  scientific  

6,175 

4,856 

10,504,000 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


135 


SUMMARY   OF   MANUFACTURES  :   BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  1909.— Continued. 


INDUSTRY. 

Persons 
Engaged. 

Primary 
Horse- 
Power. 

Value  of 
Products. 

Iron  and  steel,  blast  furnaces  
Iron  and  steel   steel  works  and  rolling  mills 

43.061 
260,762 

1,173.422 
2,100  978 

391,429,000 
985  723  000 

Iron  and  steel,  bolts,  nuts,  washers,  and  rivets,  not 
made  in  steel  works  or  rolling  mills                .... 

12,395 

22,113 

24  485  000 

1,816 

1  997 

3  006  000 

Iron  and  steel  forgings                                       .    . 

9,193 

27,803 

20,293  000 

Iron  and  steel,  nails  and  spikes,  cut  and  wrought, 
including  wire  nails,  not  made  in  steel  works  or 
rolling  mills      .                                                

3,239 

7,723 

8  192  000 

Iron  and  steel  pipe,  wrought     

7,309 

20,656 

30,886000 

Jewelry                                                             

36,992 

11,204 

80350000 

2,441 

527 

3  116  000 

Kaolin  and  ground  earths.             

2,351 

20,920 

4,681  000 

Labels  and  tags 

2,880 

1,589 

4670  000 

Lapidary  work  

886 

679 

9,173,000 

Lard,  refined,  not  made  in   slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing establishments 

515 

723 

10  326  000 

Lasts  

2,029 

3,386 

4,159  000 

Lead,  bar,  pipe,  and  sheet                  

1,044 

3,179 

9  145  000 

Leather  goods 

43,525 

28,148 

104  719  000 

Leafner,  tanned,  curried  and  finished  
Lime                   

67,100 
15,659 

148,140 
27,671 

327,874,000 
17  952  000 

Liquors   distilled 

8,328 

46,120 

204  699  000 

Liquors,  malt  

66,725 

347,726 

374  730  000 

Liquors,  vinon» 

2,726 

6,771 

13  121  000 

Locomotives,  not  made  by  railroad  companies  .  .  . 
Looking-glass  and  picture  frames  

16,945 
7,470 

35,102 
5,330 

31,582,000 
13  475  000 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

7S4  9V» 

2  840  082 

1  156  129  000 

Malt 

2  237 

26  441 

38  252  000 

Marble  and  stone  work  .        ... 

77,275 

187  686 

113  093  000 

Matches 

4220 

6  224 

11  353  000 

Mats  and  matting  

1,040 

1,433 

2  432  000 

Mattresses  and  spring  beds 

14  109 

17  689 

35  783000 

Millinery  and  lace  goods  

46,301 

7,918 

85,894  000 

Mineral  and  soda  watei's                 .    , 

22,060 

19,392 

43  508000 

Mirrors 

350& 

3  862 

9  571  000 

Models  and  patterns,  not  including  paper  patterns  . 
Moving  pictures 

5,450 
718 

5,486 
486 

8,868,000 
4  206  000 

Mucilage  and  paste  

901 

2,335 

4,918,000 

Musical  instruments  and  materials  not  specified.  .  . 
Musical    instruments,    pianos    and    organs,    and 
materials  

2,269 
41,882 

1,423 
41,623 

3,228.000 
89  790,000 

Needles,  pins  and  hooks  and  eyes 

4  978 

4  542 

6  694  000 

Oakum  .  ."  ."  

129 

289 

338,000 

Oil,  castor  

70 

385 

905000 

Oil   cotton  seed  and  cake 

21  273 

192  342 

147  868000 

Oil,  essential  

408 

1,218 

1,737,000 

Oil,  Unseed                     

1  753 

13  211 

36  739  000 

Oil,  not  elsewhere  specified  

3,144 

5,772 

30,865,000 

Oilcloth  and  linoleum  .    . 

5  557 

16,125 

"23,339,000 

Oleomargarine 

773 

2  408 

8  148000 

Optical  goods 

7  809 

5  725 

11  735000 

Paint  and  varnish         

21  896 

56  162 

124,889,000 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

81  473 

1  304  255 

267  657  000 

Paper  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified  

•2-2  '!*'*> 

27,067 

55,171  000 

Paper  patterns  

1755 

751 

2,611  000 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds  and  druggists' 
preparations  

41  101 

25  659 

141,942,000 

Paving  materials     

1  731 

5  757 

6  229  000 

Peanuts,  grading,  roasting,  cleaning  and  shelling  .  . 
Pencils,  lead  

2,177 
4  513 

2,827 
3  448 

9,737,000 
7,379,000 

Pens,  fountain,  stylographic  and  gold 

1  820 

569 

4  739  000 

Pens  steel              ,.»•»;,.                 " 

755 

244 

577  000 

Petroleum,  refining  

16  640 

90  268 

236  998,000 

Phonographs  and  graphophones 

5928 

6  371 

11  726  000 

Photographic  apparatus  and  materials  
Photo-engraving           

6,596 
7  277 

8,637 
2  638 

22,561,000 
11.624.000 

Pipes,  tobacco  .7  

3,090 

1,506 

5,312,000 

Pottery,  terra-cotta  and  fire-clay  products  
Printing  and  publishing  

61,022 
388,466 

110,017 
297,763 

76.119.000 
737.876.000 

136 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES:  BY  SPECIFIED  INDUSTRIES,  1909.  — 


INDUSTRY. 

Persons 
Engaged. 

Primary 
Horse- 
Power. 

Value  of 
Products. 

882 

3,125 

1,770,000 

2  623 

4  214 

5  583  000 

Rice  cleaning  and  polishing               .        

1  777 

19,519 

22,371,000 

3  530 

9  431 

19  204  000 

Rubber  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified  

31,284 
127 

79,062 
167 

128,430,000 
144  000 

4  060 

5  546 

8  491  000 

Salt     

6,580 

27,263 

11,328000 

779 

3  351 

4  358  000 

5,757 

11,852 

11,530  000 

4  275 

6  183 

s  7S(i  000 

Screws  machine  

1,863 

3*ai9 

3,014,000 

3  758 

5,618 

6,199,000 

dewing  machines,  cases  and  attachments  

20,556 
44  949 

19,426 

88  063 

28,262,000 
73  360  000 

Shoddy          '                              •                 

•>  3'>0 

13  820 

7,446,000 

3  943 

4  746 

7  167  000 

7  277 

3  790 

13  546  000 

Silk  and  silk  goods  including  throwsters     .... 

105  238 

97  947 

19^912  000 

18  774 

15  183 

42  929  000 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  

108,716 
16  832 

208,707 
158  126 

1,370,568,000 
378  806  000 

Smelting  and  refining,  lead  

8059 

26,954 

167  406,000 

Smelting  and  refining   zinc                   

7  156 

21  457 

34  206  000 

Smelting  and  refining,  not  from  the  ore  

S()aP                                                                                       

2,596 
IS  393 

10,705 
28  360 

28,072,000 
1  1  1  358  000 

2  399 

2  894 

6  556  000 

5  993 

3  243 

11  052  000 

Springs  steel   car  and  carriage.       .          ... 

3  573 

7  349 

9  005  000 

7  938 

6  842 

16  647  000 

Statuary  and  art  goods  

2,172 
4  968 

462 
11  129 

3,442,000 
12  160  000 

Stereotyping  and  electrotyping  

3,661 

4,076 

6,384,000 

Stoves  and  furnaces,  including  gas  and  oil  stoves  .  . 
Sugar  and  molasses,  not  including  beet  sugar.  .  .  . 
Sulphuric,  nitric  and  mixed  acids  

42,921 
15,658 
2  582 

45,524 
160,603 
6,494 

78,853,000 
279,249,000 
9,884,000 

Surgical  appliances  and  artificial  limbs  . 

5  805 

5  752 

12  399  000 

5  846 

8  154 

47  970  000 

Tin  toil                        <  

762 

1  699 

3  419,000 

197  637 

28  514 

416  695  000 

Toys  and  games  

6,072 

5,323 

8,264,000 

Turpentine  and  resin               

44  524 

4  129 

25  295  000 

Type-founding  and  printing  materials  
Typewriters  and  supplies  

2,597 
12  101 

1,948 
6  845 

4,703,000 
19,719,000 

6  505 

2  413 

15  864  000 

4  777 

17  456 

13  054  000 

Vault  lights  and  ventilators  

453 

234 

957,000 

3  073 

16  681 

8  448  000 

Wall  paper 

4  746 

5  680 

14  449  000 

Wall  plaster                .... 

5  624 

25  892 

12,804  000 

Washing  machines  and  clothes  wringers  

2,294 

3,351 

5,825,000 

Waste      

2  129 

4  286 

11,398,000 

Wheelbarrows 

775 

1  486 

1  625  000 

Whips 

1  946 

1  321 

3  949  000 

Windmills          

2  742 

3  301 

6  677,000 

Window  shades  and  fixtures 

4  770 

5  737 

18  571  000 

Wire     

19  945 

71,959 

84,486,000 

Wirework,  including  wire  rope  and  cable  
Wood  distillation,  not  including  turpentine  and  resin 
Wood  carpet  
Wood  preserving                       .        .        .    . 

14,994 
3,095 
221 

2  875 

20,131 
9,854 
269 
10  647 

41,938,000 
9,737,000 
490,000 
14  099,000 

Wood,  turned  and  carved  

16  243 

48,447 

22,199,000 

Wood  pulling     

759 

1  366 

5,181,000 

Wool  scouring 

1  262 

6  785 

3  289,000 

Woolen,  worsted,  and  felt  goods,  and  wool  hats.  .  . 
All  other  industries*  . 

175,176 
132 

362,209 
136 

435,979,000 
390,000 

Total  

7,678,578 

18,680,776 

$20,672,052,000 

*  Includes  the  following  industries:    Millstones;    ordnance  and  accessories;    pulp,  from 
fibre  other  than  wood;   straw  goods,  not  elsewhere  specified;    and  whalebone  cutting. 


CHAPTER  V. 


COMMERCE, 


PRINCIPAL  TRADE  ROUTES  OX  THE  ATLANTIC  OCEAN. 


AREA  OF  THE  LARGEST  LAKES. 


,  Square 
Miles. 
Caspian  Sea  (85  feet  below  the  level  of 

the  Black  Sea) 169,890 

Lake  Superior  (N.  Am.) 32,430 

Victoria  Nyanza  (Afr.) 28,960 

Lake  Aral  (As.) 26.260 

Lake  Huron  (N.  Am.) 23,940 

Lake  Michigan  (N.  Am.) 23,940 

Tanganyika  (Afr.) 13,740 

Lake  Baikal  (As.) 13,130 

Nyassa  (Afr.) • 10,230 


Square 
Miles 

Lake  Tsad  (Afr.) 9.800 

Lake  Erie  (N.  Am.) 9,650 

Lake  Winnipeg  (N.  Am.) 9,270 

Great  Slave  Lake  (N.  Am.) 8,110 


Great  Bear  Lake  (X.  Am.) . 


8,110 


Lake  Balkash  (As.) 8  110 

Lake  Ontario  (N.  Am.) 7,720 

Lake  Ladoga  (Russia) 6.950 

Maracaibo  Lake 6,490 

Great  Salt  Lake  (N.  Am.) 5,600 


137 


138 


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147 


148 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FOREIGN  CARRYING  TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1821-1911, 


Year. 

.Total  imports  and  exports. 

In  cars  and 
other  land 
vehicles. 

By  sea. 

1'cr  cent. 
carried  in 
American 

vessels. 

In  American 

vessels. 

In  foreign 
vessels. 

Total. 

1821 

$113,201,462 
129,918,458 
198,424,609 
239,272,084 
507,247,757 
352,969,401 
258,346,577 
202,451,086 
195,084,192 
260,837,147 
280,206,464 

$14,358,235 
14,447,970 
40,802,856 
90,764,954 
255,040,793 
638,927,488 
1,224,265.434 
1,371,116,744 
1.894,444,424 
2,721,962,475 
2,930,436,506 

$127,559,697 
144,366,428 
239,227,465 
330,037,038 
762,288,550 
991,896,889 
1,482,612,011 
1,573.567,830 
2,089,528,616 
2,982,799,622 
3,210,642,970 

SS.7 
89.0 
S2.(.) 
72.5 
06.5 
35.6 
17.4 
12.<» 
9.3 
8.7 
8.7 

1830  
1840 

1850 

I860  
1870 

1880.  .  . 
1890              

$20,981,393 
73,571,263 
154,895,650 
319,132,528 
365,903,334 

1900  
1910  
1911 

Comparison  of  the  area  of  all  states  of  the  world  in  English  square  miles. 

E  U  R  0  P  E  =  3,952,846  square  miles. 
France  Spain  Sweden 

191963          172,876 

D       D 


Norway 
124,130 


Ha'y         Turkey 
110,659      eg™, 

D        b 


50,720 
D 


80.19.702  Switzer. 

Bulgaria  Portugal   Greece     Servia       land 
35.490     25.014     18,650     15,976 


12.648     11,373      3,630 
ASIA  =  16.905,821  square  miles 


Crete     Luxemburg     Andorra 

3,365       998  175 


Persia 

528,000 


French  Possessions 

and  Dependencies 

Annam.  Tonking, 

Cochin-China 
, Cambodia  and  Laos     Afghanistan 

D  D°  a000 


'      (uKt  oTA'mer)     ^  Oman 

) 240,000  Q175.540     fj  127,853  (QJ 86,000      Q^.OOO      Q  HOOO 

AFRICA  =  11,952,211  square  miles. 


D  22,780         a  8,972  . 200 

AUSTRALASIA  and  OCEANIA 


Guatemala  possess.  Honduras     Cuba     .  Possess.    Panama  Costa  Rice 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


149 


TRADE   WITH  THE   NONCONTIGUOUS 

TERRITORIES    OF   THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  its  non- 
contiguous territories  continued  to  expand,  the 
figures  of  1911  showing  a  larger  amount  than 
ever  before.  The  value  of  the  merchandise 
forwarded  to  the  non-contiguous  territories 
was:  To  Hawaii,  22  million  dollars,  against  20£ 
million  in  the  preceding  year;  to  Porto  Rico, 
34£  million  in  1911,  against  27  million  in  1910; 
ta  the  Philippines,  20  million,  against  17  mil- 
lion in  1910;  while  to  Alaska  the  figures  show 
a  slight  decline,  being  16  million  in  the  fiscal 
year  1911,  against  18£  million  in  the  preceding 
year.  This  makes  the  total  value  of  the  mer- 
chandise shipped  to  non-contiguous  territories 
of  the  United  States  92i  million  dollars  in 
1911,  against  83  million  in  1910,  and  70  mil- 
lion in  1909.  The  merchandise  entering  the 
United  States  from  its  non-contiguous  terri- 
tories shows  in  the  most  cases  larger  totals  in 
1911  than  in  the  preceding  year.  From  Alaska 
the  value  of  such  shipments  was  14  million 
dollars  in  1911.  against  12*  million  in  the 
preceding  year;  from  Porto  Rico,  34£  million, 
against  32  million  in  1910;  from  the  Philip- 
pines, 17i  million  in  1911,  against  17£  million 
in  the  preceding  year;  and  from  Hawaii,  41 
million,  against  46  million  in  1910.  Taking  the 
entire  group  known  as  ' '  Non-contiguous  terri- 
tories of  the  United  States,"  the  total  value  of 
merchandise  shipped  thereto  from  the  United 
States  was  92J  million  dollars  in  the  fiscal  year 
1911,  against  S3  million  in  1910,  and  70  million 
in  1909,  and  the  shipments  to  the  United 
States  from  those  territories,  107£  million  in 
1911,  against  108  million  in  1910  and  89* 
million  in  1909. 


IMDIA 
248,020,398 


X^- 


CHIHA 
214,683,333 

(fJ(PO«TJ  OHIX 


CEYLON 
179,834,462. 


TEA. 

A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 
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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


151 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


153 


PRINCIPAL  PORTS  OF  THE  WORLD:  FOREIGN  COMMERCE  CUBING 
THE  LATEST  YEAR  TOR  WHICH  DATA  ARE  AVAILABLE. 

[Sources:  Official  reports  of  the  respective  countries.] 


Country  and  port. 

Year.> 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Total  commerce. 

EUROPE. 

United  Kingdom: 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1908 

1910 

1909 

1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 

1909 
1909 

1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 

1911 
1911 
1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 

1909 

18 

oerwise 

Q. 

wcastle, 

Dollars. 
1,110,828,205 
828,620,152 
205,765,480 
145,726,880 
103,588,830 
70,726,450 
61,395,564 
102,940,379 
45,154,087 
65,988,061 
31,024,453 
72,956,694 
38,632,331 

872,629,975 
289,338,012 
560,994,911 

340,787,600 
306,958,600 
170,513,600 
100,160,200 
151,710,829 

122,153,658 
24,623,494 

64,562,173 
32,646,436 
35,097,293 
27,722,640 
18,014,311 
5,341,553 

54,034,028 
16,517,323 

881,592,689 
"66,722,295 
3,530,945 
116,597,440 
83,626,647 
32,174,404 
53,885,021 
5,  2%,  746 
36,654,675 
116,866,171 

21,993,561 
38,383,232 
71,793,680 
271,053,026 

46,048,404 
87,257,003 

45,109,846 
8,345,005 
34,949,864 

specified  by  note. 
North  Shields,  an 

DoUarg, 
643,014,124 
829,250,836 
150,630,959. 
85,lll,f;83 
119,420,173 
143,857,594 
92,268,305 
33,727,254 
55,031,243 
33,921,982 
63,473,550 
20,946,891 
6,393,802 

661,480,352 
224,819,348 
523,075,033 

297,626,300 
255,014,600 
34,586.600 
110.245,700 
69,792,702 

128,050.033 
24,108,483 

4,829,726 
82,888,874 
23,747,639 
13,708,395 
784,939 
18,692,627 

26,313,747 
11,446,608 

772,552,449 
172,835,293 
220,504,917 
71,534,082 
69,956,380 
85,120,843 
40,624,903 
72,076,045 
39,361,303 
74,330,938 

46,096,331 
26,724,073 
46,946,485 
156,225,552 

92,941,797 
38,068,876 

4,984,218 
22.098,422 
30,908,320 

<J  South  Shields. 

Dollars. 
1,753,  842,  32» 
1,657,870,988 
356,396J39 
230,838,563 
223,009,003 
214,584,044 
153,663,869 
136,667,633 
100.985,330 
99,910,043 
94,498,003 
93,903,585 
45,026,133 

1,534,110,327 
514,187,300 
1,084,069,944 

638,413,900 
561,973,200 
205,100,200 
210,405,900 
221,503,531 

250,203,691 
48,731,977 

69,391,899 
115,535,310 
58,844,932 
41,431,035 
18,799,250 
24,034,180 

80,347.775 
27,963,931 

1,654,145,138 

239,557,588 
224,035,862 
188,131,522 
'    153,583,027 
117,295,247 
94,509,924 
77,372,791 
76,015,978 
191,197,109 

63,089,892 
65,107,305 
118,740,165 
427,278,578 

138,990,201 
125,325,939 

50,094,064 
30,443,427 
65,858,184 

Hull                 

Glasgow                    

Leith                         

Cardiff              

Bristol                                       ••  ••  

Belfast                  •  

Germany: 

France: 
Marseille                  

Havre               

Dunkirk  

Italy  Genoa                    

Austria-Hungary: 
Trieste 

Russia: 
St  Petersburg                     . 

Riga                                  

Odessa                    

Reval                 

Vladivostok 

Spain: 

Bilbao 

AMERICA. 

United  States:  » 
New  York  

New  Orleans 

Galveston              .  . 

Boston*    .»  

Philadelphia  

San  Francisco 

Pavftnn&h 

Puget  Sound  .  .  .  ,     ,  

Canada:  Montreal7.... 

Mexico:* 

Vera'Cruz  

Cuba*  Habana 

Argentina*  Buenos  Aires    . 

Brazil: 
Santos 

Chile: 
Valparaiso  

i  Calendar  years  unless  ot 
*  Including  Que«nboroug 
»  Including  Runcorn. 
*  .Tyne  ports  comprise  Nc 
»  Years  ended  June  30. 

•  Including  Charlestown. 
»  Years  ended  Mar.  31. 


154 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  PORTS   OF  THE  WORLD :  VESSEL  TONNAGE  MOVEMENT  IN 

THE  FOREIGN  TRADE,  DURING  THE  LATEST  YEAR  FOR  WHICH 

DATA  ARE  AVAILABLE. 

[Sources:  Official  reports  of  the  respective  countries.] 


Country  and 
port. 

Year.' 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

Country  and 
port. 

Year.i 

Entered. 

Cleared. 

Tons. 
2,272,502 
1,138,009 

1,609,337 
1,010,058 
1,759,861 

1,  768,  540 
1,258,034 

5,  079,  863 

2,  990,  307 
4,  297,  799 
2,  816,  195 

1,  598,  713 
1,  742,  548 

10,477,301 
7,  419,  373 
6,919,960 
3,200,168 
9,459,584 

3,  337,  140 
2,  405,  330 
5,584,231 
4,151,244 

3,  344,  640 

1,  487,  419 
3,217,146 

381,  100 
908,278 
614,328 

EUROPE. 

Great  Britain: 
Cardiff  

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1911 
1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 

1909 

1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1910 
1910 

1910 

1909 
1909 

1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 
1909 

1909 
1909 

1910 

1911 

1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 
1911 

Tons. 
5,  523,  S95 
3,  749,  882 
7,  588,  G53 
12.  154,  1G2 
5,022,250 
2,  037,  332 
4,  337,  736 
5,  482,  559 

11,  417,  773 
1,258,907 
1,585,334 

3,085,000 

3,947,402 
1,  955,  276 
2,027,483 
7,775,411 
2,  733,  133 
12,654,318 

10,649,843 

4,  908,  474 
3,371,332, 

1,866,000 
1,289,000 
1,558,000 
1,028,000 
734,000 

2,502,033 
2,036,785 

•  16,21 

13,428,950 

2,836,611 
2,672,883 
1,  279,  487 
830,  272 
2,019,067 

Tons. 
8,  562,  764 
3,477,484 
6,  697,  512 
8,  999,  635 
6,  128,  928 
3,  292,  887 
4,  329,  301 
5,  457,  659 

11,  583,  211 
1,209,137 
1,572,758 

3,174,000 

4,  070,  467 
2,084,861 
2,  026,  795 
7,  977,  386 
2/661,  836 
12,  625,  165 

10,490,049 

4,092,148 
3,  737,  863 

1,  874,  000 
1,211,000 
1,597,000 
1,012.000 
699,000 

1,661,858 
2,212,636 

5,459 

13,366,893 

1,839,682 
2,  327,  119 
1,  283,  822 
1,049,787 
2,  249,  883 

AMERICA—  contd. 

United  States;- 
Continued. 
Puget  Sound  
San  Francisco.  .  . 
Canada:  2 
Montreal 

1911 
1911 

1911 
1911 
1911 

1910 
1910 

1908 

1909 
1909 
1910 

1910 
1911 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1910 

1910 
1910 

1910 
1910 
1910 

Tons. 
2,  105,  599 
987,  374 

1,661,370 
1,509,445 
1,322,890 

1.  673,  845 
1,259,846 

5,  981,  477 

2,  983,  879 
4,  282,  051 
2,  870,  799 

1,  962,  528 
2,060,632 

10,  489,  203 
7,  407,  143 
6,937,361 
3,  187,  479 
9,198,490 

3,  455,  147 
2,431,376 
5,  608,  837 
4,131,787 

3,319,515 

1,  746,  146 
3,244,089 

591,250 

869,883 
775,324 

Hull 

J./iverpool 

London 

T  yne  ports 

Glasgow 

Vancouver      ... 

Malta-Valetta2.. 
Gibraltar  

Victoria  

Mexico:  *fi 
VeraCruz  

Germany: 
Hamburg 

Tampico 

Bremen 

Argentina:  Buenos 
Aires 

Bremerhaven... 
Denmark:  Copen- 
hagen   

Brazil: 
Santos  .        ..  . 

France: 
Havre 

Rio  de  Janeiro.. 
Cuba:  Habana*... 

ASIA. 

British  India: 
Bombay  2  

Bordeaux 

Dunkirk  , 

Marseille  . 

Austria:  Trieste... 
Belgium:  Antwerp 
Netherlands:  Rot- 
terdam   

Calcutta*  

British  Colonies: 
Hongkong  -Vic- 
toria ' 

Italy: 
Genoa 

Naples    .      .  . 

Singapore  ' 

Russia: 
Cronstadt-St. 
Petersburg  — 
Odessa  

Colombo  8 

Aden  M 

China:  Shanghai  ">. 
Japan: 
Yokohama  

Riga  

Nikolaiev... 

Nagasaki  

Vladivostok  
Spain: 
Barcelona  

Kobe  
Moji  

AFRICA. 

Egypt:  Alexandria 
Union  of    South 
Africa: 
Cape  Town  
Port  Natal  

OCEANIA. 

Australia:  " 
Melbourne 

Bilbao  (Vizcaya) 
Turkey:  Constan- 
tinople 

AMERICA. 

United  States:  * 
New  York  

Boston     and 
Charlestown.. 
Philadelphia.... 
Baltimore 

Galveston 

Sydney 

New  Orleans  

Fremantle  

1  Calendar  years  unless  otherwise  specified  by  note. 

2  Year  ended  Mar.  31. 


a  Total  movement  of  shipping,  excludingsailing  and  small  coasting  vessels.    Separate  data  for  entrances 
and  clearances  not  available.    Year  ended  Feb.  28. 


Year  ended  June  30. 
6  Gross  tons. 
.'  Excluding  Chinese  junks  engaged  in  the  foreign  trade,. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


155 


The  accompanying  chart  shows  graphically 
the  world's  production  of  gold,  from  the  dis- 
covery of  America  to  the  close  of  the  year 
1911.  The  horizontal  divisions  of  the  chart 
measure  the  lapse  of  time  by  ten-year  periods. 
The  vertical  divisions  represent  the  value  of 
the  production  in  American  money,  each  divi- 
si  )ii  representing  ten  million  dollars.  The  pro- 
duction of  silver  until  its  demonetization  in 
1873  is  also  shown,  superimposed  on  the  gold 
production. 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER. 

NOTES  TO  PRECEDING  PAGE— Continued. 

7  Excluding  warships,  transports,  yachts,  native  craft  and  steam  and  sailing  vessels  under  50  tons,  I 
including  vessels  engaged  in  intersettlement  trade. 

8  Excluding  the  tonnage  of  vessels  that  called  for  the  purpose  of  coaling  and  for  orders  only. 

9  Including  native  craft.     Figures  for  year  ended  Mar.  31,  1908. 

10  Tonnage  of  vessels  entered  and  cleared  at  the  maritime  customs. 

u  Figures  of  direct  entrances  and  clearances  from  and  to  places  outside  the  commonwealth. 


156 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  PORTS  OF  THE  WORLD  :   FOREIGN  COMMERCE  DURING  THE  LATEST 
YEAR  FOR  WHICH  DATA  ARE  AVAILABLE — Continued. 


Country  and  port. 

Year.i 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Total  commerce. 

ASIA. 

China*  Shanghai  *          

1910 

Dollars. 
129,383,470 

Dollars. 
114  627  983 

Dollars. 
244  Oil  453 

Japan: 
Yokohama  

1910 

76,833,707 

112,136,886 

188  970  593 

Kobe  

1910 

114,822,654 

60,813  155 

175  635  809 

British  Colonies: 
Singapore'              .    .....  . 

1909 

127,141,948 

108  081  776 

235  223  7°4 

Calcutta4*                   .... 

1911 

157,482,211 

252  646  619 

410  128  8'iO 

Bombay  * 

1910 

128,231,008 

180  221  358 

308  45°  4'''j 

AFRICA. 

1910 

101,224,909 

140,189,861 

241,414,770 

OCEANIA. 

Australia:' 
Sydney                    ..  

1909 

98,007,653 

119,803,283 

217,810,836 

Melbourne...  

1909 

79,520,065 

80,601,820 

160,121,885 

1  Calendar  years  unless  otherwise  specified  by  note. 

2  Direct  foreign  trade,  exclusive  of  reexports. 
*  Exclusive  of  intersettlement  trade. 

«  Years  ended  Mar.  3L 

s  Merchandise  only,  exclusive  of  Government  stores, 

'  Exclusive  of  interstate  commerce/. 


FRANCE 
1,331,300,000 


ITALY  5PAIM 

640,690,000    418,616,000 


ALGERIA  AUSTRIA-  PORTUGAL 

181,031,000  HUN<jAKr  113,900,000 


QERMAHY 

68,991,000  BRIT.  W.AFRICA 

22,830 


17,160 


5.DOMIN<jO     GRENADA 
15,057  6,4,62 


WINE. 

(in  gallons.) 


COCOA. 

(in  tons.) 


ONE  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


15? 


GOLD:     VALUES    OF    IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS    AND     ANNUAL    EXCESS    OF 
IMPORTS  OR  EXPORTS,  1862  TO  1911.1 


Year 
ended 

June 
30— 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Excess  of  — 

Domestic.2 

Foreign. 

Total. 

Exports  over 
imports. 

Imports  over 
exports. 

1sc,2.    .  . 
L870. 
1880.      . 
1890.      . 
1900.      . 
1910.      . 
1911.      . 

Dollars. 
31,044,651 
28,580,609 
1,775,039 
13,403,632 
46,693,893 
114,569,714 
21,810,820 

Dollars. 
4,395,252 
5,055,353 
1,863,986 
3,870,859 
1,572,866 
3,993,501 
698,833 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 
13  907  Oil 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 

33,635,962 
3,639,025 
17,274,491 
48,266,759 
118,563,215 
22,509,653 

12,056,950 
80,758,396 
12,943,342 
44,573.184 
43.339,905 
73,607,013 

21,579,012 

'77,'ll9.37i 

4,331,149 
3,693,575 
75,223,310 

"  '51,097,360 

'The  figure*  relate  to  coin  and  bullion  only  prior  to  1895:  subsequently  they  include  ore  also. 

-Gold  and  silver  cannot  be  separately  stated  in  domestic  exports  prior  to  1864,  but  it  is 

probable  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports  was  gold,  under  which  head  the  silver  in  question 

is  included. 


BRITISHIUIJ      121.390  5QH 
BRITISH  FMPIM  11,908.378  - 


IWUM  IN  BinTE  I.M«.743  W1 
RUSSIAN  EMPIRE   8.M7.457    - 


BRITISH   EMPIRE     RMJIAfl   Inf.    UHlTfD  STATES 
&2.O09,  300    »  POSSESSIONS 

too.iM.oss 


4S3.JS3.030  3S4.9Z4.905  &2.O09,  300 

CHINA  pROprn       BRITISH  ISLES     RUSSIA  inivftort 

407,253,030  15,216.711  III.27S.SOO 


4363.160  SQ.M. 


'-HIHA  1.532.420  S.M. 
CHIN  Bt  EMPIRE 
4.Z77.I70  S.«. 


UNITED  STATES 
Z.S70.2SO  S9.M. 
WITH  WiStJSions 
3.699.I30SQ.M 


*i  oo 
=  i5 

£    2*255 

»    *•> 

<*J     0)^0  ^*** 

«)!.» 

N   «5f«o 

RKEV 

1  TALI  AM 
ITALY 

2-i 

I  hit 
3  JiS 

co  «>*££ 

ifnn/iKK 
15,592 

DAHISH 

261,540       (02.230 


HOME     AND     COLONIAL     POPULATIONS     AND 
WORLD'S    EMPIRES. 


AREAS     OF     THE 


158 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SILVER:  VALUES  OF  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  AND  ANNUAL  EXCESS  EXPORTS 
OVER  IMPORTS,   1862  TO  191 1.1 


Year  ended 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Excess  of 
exports  over 

June  30— 

Domestic.2 

Foreign. 

Total. 

imports. 

1862 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 
1  447  737 

Dollars. 

Dollars. 
2  508  041 

Dollars. 

1870 

15,303,193 

9,216,511 

24,519,704 

14,362,229 

i6,157,47S 

1880 

7  572  854 

5,931,040 

13,503,894 

12,257,914 

1,227,9X0 

1890  
1900 

22,378,557 
52,464,345 

12,495,372 
4,247,930 

34,873,929 
56,712,275 

21.032,984 
3">,2r>6,302 

13.S40.945 
2  1  .455,973 

1910 

53  094  567 

2,192,294 

55,286,801 

•15,217,194 

10,069.667 

1911    

60,068,925 

4,681,033 

64,749,958 

45,937,249 

18,812,709 

'The  figures  relate  to  coin  and  bullion  only  prior  to  1895;   subsequently  they  include  ore  also. 

2Gold  and  silver  can  not  be  separately  stated  in  domestic  exports  prior  to  1864,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  greater  portion  of  the  exports  was  gold,  under  which  head  the  silver  in  question 
is  included. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  ANTARCTIC  EXPLORATION. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


159 


FAILURES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


MANUFACTURERS. 

Number 

Liabilities 

1911. 

1910. 

1911. 

1910. 

Iron,  Foundries  and  Nails  
Machinery  and  Tools  
Woolens,  Carpets  and  Knit  Goods  
Cottons,  Lace  and  Hosiery  
Lumber,  Carpenters  and  Coopers  .           .    . 

61 
173 
53 
36 
416 
497 
68 
15 
26 
172 
218 
79 
105 
127 
1,455 

80 
167 
31 
19 
427 
530 
53 
31 
17 
187 
221 
71 
118 
116 
1,212 

$5,056,635 
6,689,566 
4,329,758 
3,590,816 
16,000,205 
4,509,586 
978,002 
105,623 
1,051.  212 
2,448,366 

i,2r,!.r,i  i 

1,577,919 
2,451,589 
3,972,382 
33,345,453 

$11,748,872 
5,788,919 
1,277,813 
1,709,686 
14,806,274 
6,318,815 
763,756 
249,638 
385,540 
5,729,994 
1,430,309 
2,319,839 
3,544,769 
5,025,462 
27,817,199 

Clothing  and  Millinery 

Hats,  Gloves  and  Furs  

Chemicals  and  Drugs  
Paints  and  Oils 

Printing  and  Engraving  
Milling  and  Bakers 

Leather,  Shoes  and  Harness  

Liquors  and  Tobacco  
Glass,  Earthenware  and  Bricks  

All  Other 

Total  Manufacturing 

3,502 

1,380 
2,134 
486 
747 
1,036 
671 
349 
287 
302 
361 
57 
296 
90 
02 
1,222 

3,280 

1,228 
2,316 
468 
688 
965 
592 
358 
226 
244 
304 
52 
242 
78 
46 
1,122 

$87,371,623 

$10,977,030 
9,543,008 
3,762,792 
4,268,965 
10,015,849 
11,320,606 
2,461,699 
2,877,533 
3,401,792 
1,946,546 
438,667 
3,270,182 
951,147 
886.201 
18,117,659 

$88,916,885 

$8,719,230 
8,680,079 
5,523,322 
5,207,942 
8,388,015 
9,756,558 
2,227,357 
2,402,980 
3,030,710 
1,826,348 
312,589 
3,271,427 
561,168 
823,363 
14,259,905 

TRADERS. 

General  Stores 

Groceries,  Meat  and  Fish  
Hotels  and  Restaurants 

Liquors  and  Tobacco  
Clothing  and  Furnishings 

Dry  Goods  and  Carpets  

Shoes,  Rubbers  and  Trunks  
Furniture  and  Crockery 

Hardware,  Stoves  and  Tools  
Chemicals  and  Drugs  
Paints  and  Oils 

Jewelry  and  Clocks  
Books  and  Papers 

Hats,  Furs  and  Gloves.  .  . 

All  Other  

Total  Trading  ....;.-.  
Brokers  and  Transporters 

9,480 
459 

8,929 
443 

$84,239,679 
19,450,363 

$74,990,993 
37,849,219 

Total  Commercial  
Banking   ...         ... 

13,441 
107 

12,652 
119 

$191,061,665 
25,511,606 

$201,757,097 
41,097,255 

Year. 

No. 

Liabilities. 

Year. 

No. 

Liabilities. 

Year. 

No. 

Liabilities. 

1870 

3,546 

$88,242,000  i 

1884 

10,968 

226,343,427 

1898 

12,186 

$130,662,899 

1871 

2,915 

85,252,000  ! 

1885 

10,637 

124,220,321 

1899 

9,337 

90,879,889 

1872 

4,069 

121,056,000  ; 

1886 

9,834 

114,644,119 

1900 

10.774 

138,495,673 

1873 

5,183 

228,499,900 

1887 

9,634 

167,560,944 

1901 

11,002 

113,092,376 

1874 

5,830 

155,239,000 

1888 

10,679 

123,829,973 

1902 

11,615 

117,476,769 

1875 

7,740 

201,000,000 

1889 

10,882 

148,784,337 

1903 

12,069 

155,444,185 

1876 

9,092 

191,117,000 

1890 

10,907 

189,856,964 

1904 

12,199 

144,202,311 

1877 

8,872 

190,669,936 

1891 

12,273 

189,868,638 

1905 

11,520 

102,676,172 

1878 

10,478 

234,383,132 

1892 

10,344 

114,044,167 

1906 

10,682 

119,201,515 

1879 

6,658 

98,149,053  li  1893 

15,242 

346,779,889 

1907 

11,725 

197,385,225 

1880 

4,735 

65,752,000  I  1894 

13,885 

172,992,856 

1908 

15,690 

222,315,684 

1881 

5,582 

81,155,932  ! 

1895 

13,197 

173,196,060 

1909 

15,924 

154,603,465 

1882 

6,738 

101,547,564 

1896 

15,088 

226,096,834 

1910 

12,652 

201,757,097 

1883 

9,184 

172,874,172 

1897 

13,351 

154,332,071 

1911 

13,441 

191,061,665 

Courtesy  of  Dun's  Review. 

COINAGE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  MINTS. 


The  total  coinage  of  gold  in  the  United 
States  mints  for  the  year  ending  December 
31,  1911  was  $56,176,822.50;  the  total  coin- 
age of  silver  for  the  same  period  amounted  to 


$6,457,301.55  and  the  total  coinngo  «f  minor 
metals  to  $3,156,726.47.  Thus  the  iot.,1 
coinage  of  the  United  States  Mints  amounted 
to  $65,790,850.52. 


160 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRICES  OF  THE  LEADING  ARTICLES  OF  GRAIN,  GROCERIES  AND 
PROVISIONS  IN  NEW  YORK  MARKET. 

[Sources:  Coffee,  Mr.  Louis  Seligsberg,  New  York;  Sugar,  Messrs.  WillettA  Gray;  other  figures,  Mr. 
Henry  Heinzer,  statistician,  New  York  Produce  Exchange.] 


i 

$ 

I 

1 

1 

& 

Coffee. 

Sugar. 

Calendar 
year. 

Wheat,  No.  2, 
winter,  per  bush 

4* 

§ 

l-s 

3 
5* 

8 

Lard,  prime  con  ti 
per  pound. 

Beef,  extra  mess, 
barrel. 

is' 
1 

i 

g 

•2« 

ill 

Na.  7,  Ex- 
change stand- 
ard, perpound. 

Java,  per  pound. 

Raw,  centrifu- 
gals, per  pound. 

Soft,  standard  A, 
per  pound. 

Hard,  granulat- 
ed, per  pound. 

1890... 
1891 

Dolls. 
0.983 
1  094 

Cents. 
48.1 
70  4 

Cents. 
28.9 
46  0 

Cents. 
6.33 
6  59 

Dolls. 
6.96 
8  35 

Dolls. 
12.13 
11.38 

Cents. 
4.59 
4  81 

Cents. 
19.43 
17.80 

Cents. 
18.03 
16  40 

Cents. 
24.37 
24  50 

Cents. 
5.57 
3  92 

Cents. 
6.00 
.47 

Cents. 
6.27 
65 

1892 

908 

54  0 

36  3 

7  69 

6  86 

11.52 

4.62 

15.83 

14.43 

26  37 

3  32 

21 

36 

1893 

.739 

49.9 

35  9 

10.34 

8.17 

18.35 

6.44 

18.82 

17.42 

24  23 

3  69 

.72 

.84 

1394  

.611 

50.9 

37  2 

7.75 

8.16 

14.13 

4.81 

17.81 

16.41 

23.25 

3.24 

.00 

.12 

1895  

.669 

47.7 

28.9 

6.60 

8.09 

11.91 

4.33 

17.80 

15.80 

26.60 

3.23 

.00 

.12 

18%  

.781 

34.0 

23.3 

4.67 

7.51 

8.95 

3.44 

15.05 

12.15 

23.44 

3.62 

.41 

.53 

1897  

.954 

31.9 

23.2 

4.42 

7.71 

8.85 

3.31 

11.96 

9.80 

24.00 

3.56 

.38 

.50 

1898 

952 

37  6 

29  7 

5  63 

9  16 

9  82 

3  56 

8  00 

6  80 

24  00 

4  24 

84 

97 

1899 

794 

41  3 

30  7 

6  57 

9  26 

9  35 

4  54 

7.45 

6.26 

24  00 

4  42 

.80 

.92 

1900 

.804 

45  3 

27  3 

7.05 

9  73 

12  48 

4  84 

9.50 

8.30 

22  00 

4  57 

.12 

.32 

1901 

.803 

56.7 

36  6 

8  87 

9  32 

15  62 

6  25 

8.60 

7.38 

17.00 

4.05 

.86 

.05 

1902     

.836 

68.4 

44.9 

10.  59 

11.75 

17.94 

6.31 

6.75 

5.66 

16.00 

3.54 

.27 

.46 

1903  

.853 

57.2 

41.1 

8.81 

9.03 

16.50 

6.06 

6.T5 

5.50 

15.75 

3.72 

.48 

.64 

1904  

1.107 

59.4 

42.0 

7.32 

8.82 

14.01 

4.60 

8.80 

7.70 

15.00 

3.97 

.62 

.77 

1905 

1  028 

59  3 

35  0 

7  44 

10  02 

14  43 

4  50 

9  15 

8  25 

15  00 

4  28 

11 

26 

1906 

865 

56  0 

38  0 

8  88 

8  85 

17  55 

5  31 

9  25 

8  10 

14  50 

3  69 

.37 

.52 

1907 

963 

64  0 

49.6 

9  20 

9  83 

17  61 

6  25 

8  85 

6  60 

16  60 

3  76 

.45 

.65 

1908        * 

1.04} 

78  6 

54.5 

9.08 

13.20 

15  93 

5.50 

7.85 

6  25 

18  50 

4.07 

.76 

.96 

1909..  .  . 

1.263 

76.7 

51.4 

11.68 

11.09 

21.34 

6.00 

8.75 

7.85 

18.00 

4.00 

.56 

.76 

1910  

1.118 

66.8 

12.  52 

14.64 

23.72 

7.25 

10.15 

9.60 

18.00 

4.19 

.77 

.97 

1911 

96  3 

71  1 

2  45  7 

9  11 

12  92 

19  12 

6  50 

14  35 

13  26 

18  75 

4  453 

5  145 

6  345 

1  No.  3,  Exchange  standard. 


* No.  2  white  oats. 


ESTIMATED  STOCK  OF  GOLD  AND  SILVER  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  June  30,  1911, 
the  population  of  the  United  States  was 
93,983,000,  against  76,891,000  in  1900, 
62,622,250  in  1890,  50,155,783  in  1880,  and 
41,677,000  in  1873.  The  total  stock  of  gold 
coin  and  bullion  in  1911  was  $1,753,134,114, 
against  $1,034,439,264  in  1900,  $695,563,029  in 
1890,  $351,841,206  in  1880,  and  $135,000,000 
in  1873.  The  total  stock  of  silver  coin  and 
bullion  in  1911  amounted  to  $732,002,448, 


against  $647,371,030  in  1900,  $463,211,919 
in  1890,  $148,522,678  in  1880,  and  $6,149,305 
in  1873.  The  amount  of  gold  per  capita  in 
the  United  States  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
June  30,  1911,  was  $18.65,  against  $13.45  in 
1900,  $11,10  in  1890,  $7.01  in  1880,  and 
$3.23  in  1873.  At  the  end  of  this  same  period 
the  supply  of  silver  per  capita  was  $7.79, 
against  $8.42  in  1900,  $7.39  in  1890,  $2.96  in 
1880,  and  $0.15  in  1873. 


RESOURCES  AND  LIABILITIES  OF  NATIONAL  BANKS  IN  1911. 


The  resources  of  the  7,301  National  Banks 
in  the  United  States  on  September  1,  1911, 
which  amounted  to  a  grand  total  of  10,379.4 
million  dollars,  were  derived  from  the  follow- 
ing sources:  Loans  and  discounts,  inclusive 
of  overdrafts,  5,690.6  million  dollars;  bonds 
for  circulation  707.2  millions;  other  United 
States  bonds  and  other  bonds  for  deposits 
74.7  millions;  bonds,  securities,  etc.,  1,018 
millions;  due  from  banks  and  reserve  agents 
1,306.4;  real  estate,  banking  house,  etc., 
256.4  millions;  specie  711.5  millions;  legal 
tender  notes  183. 9  millions;  bills  of  other 


banks  42.6  millions;  clearing-house  ex- 
changes 298.2  millions;  due  from  United 
States  Treasurer  42.5  millions;  and  other 
resources  47.4  millions. 

Their  liabilities  for  the  same  period,  totaling 
10,379.4  million  dollars,  were  as  follows: 
Capital  stock  1,025.4  millions;  surplus  fund 
670  millions;  undivided  profits  234.4  millions; 
national  bank  circulation  697  millions;  in- 
dividual deposits  5,490  millions;  due  to  bank 
and  reserve  agents  2, OSS. 2  millions;  and  other 
liabilities  17-1.4  million  dollars. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN   REFERENCE  BOOK. 


1C1 


SUMMARY  OF  RELATIVE  PRICES  OF  COMMODITIES,  1890  TO  1910,  BY  GROUTS. 
[Average  price  for  1890-1899=  100.] 


Years. 

Farm 
prod- 
ucts. 

Food, 
etc. 

Cloths' 
and 
cloth- 
ing. 

Fuel 
and 
light- 
ing. 

Metals 
and 
imple- 
ments. 

Lum- 
ber and 
build- 
ing 
mate- 
rials. 

Drugs 
and 
chem- 
icals. 

House 
fur- 
nishing 
goods. 

Mis- 
cellane- 
ous. 

/D 

com- 
modi- 
ties. 

1890... 
1891. 

110.0 
121  5 

112.4 
115.7 

113  5 
111  3 

104.7 
102  7 

119  2 
111  7 

111.8 
108.4 

110.2 
103  6 

Ill  1 

110  2 

110.3 
109  4 

112.9 
111  7 

1892. 

111  7 

103  6 

109  0 

101  1 

106  0 

102  8 

102.9 

106  5 

106  2 

106  1 

1893  

107  9 

110.2 

107.2 

100.0 

100.7 

101.9 

100.5 

104.9 

105.9 

105.6 

1894 

95  9 

99  8 

96  1 

92  4 

90  7 

96  3 

89  8 

100  1 

99  g 

96  1 

1895 

93  3 

94  6 

92  7 

98  1 

92  0 

94  1 

87  9 

96  5 

94  5 

93'6 

1896  
1897  

78.3 
85.2 

83.8 
87.7 

91.3 
91.1 

104.3 
96  4 

93.7 
86.6 

93.4 
90.4 

92.6 
94.4 

94.0 

89.8 

91.4 
92.1 

90.4 
89  7 

1898 

96.1 

94.4 

93  4 

95  4 

86  4 

95.8 

106.6 

92  0 

92.4 

93.4 

1899 

100.0 

98  3 

96  7 

105  0 

114  7 

105  8 

111.  3 

95  1 

97  7 

101  7 

1900 

109  5 

104  2 

106  8 

120  9 

190  5 

115  7 

115  7 

106  1 

109  8 

110  5 

1901 

116  9 

105  9 

101  0 

119  5 

111  9 

116  7 

115  2 

110  9 

107  4 

108  5 

1902 

130  5' 

111  3 

102  0 

134  3 

117  2 

118  8 

114  2 

112  2 

114  1 

112  9 

1903 

118  8 

107  1 

106  6 

149  3 

117  6 

121  4 

112  6 

113  0 

113  6 

113  6 

1904  

126  2 

107  2 

109  8 

132  6 

109.6 

122.7 

110.0 

111  7 

111  T 

113  0 

1905  ...   .,. 
1906 

124.2 
123  6 

108.7 
112  6 

112.0 
120  0 

128.8 
131  9 

122.5 
135  2 

127.8 
140  1 

109.1 
101  2 

109.1 
111  0 

112.8 
121  1 

115.9 
122  5 

1907 

137  1 

117  8 

126  7 

135  0 

143  4 

146  9 

109  6 

118  5 

127  1 

129  5 

1908 

133  1 

120  6 

116  9 

130  8 

19-,  4 

133  1 

110  4 

114  0 

119  9 

122  8 

1909  :... 

153.1 

124  7 

119.6 

129.3 

124.8 

138.4 

112.4 

111.7 

125.9 

126.5 

1910  

164.6 

128.7 

123.7 

125.4 

128  5 

153  2 

117.0 

111  6 

133.1 

131.6 

CASUALTY  AND  SURETY  INSURANCE 
BUSINESS  IN  1911. 

The  business  of  Companies  doing  a  miscel- 
laneous insurance  business  in  the  United 
States  during  the  year  1911  was  divided  as 
follows?  Automobile  business,  $2,676,767 
received  from  premiums,  $1,129,193  paid  for 
losses;  burglary,  $2,850,344  received  from 
premiums,  $1,110,978  paid  for  losses;  credit, 
SI, 752, 582  received  from  premiums,  $1,056,- 
133  paid  for  losses;  fidelity  and  surety, 
$16,958,051  received  from  premiums,  $4,980,- 
430  paid  for  losses;  health,  $7,101,666  re- 
ceived from  premiums,  $3,314,301  paid  for 
losses;  liability,  $35,201,753  received  from 
premiums,  $20,341,029  paid  for  losses; 
l>rr-;-mal  accident,  $27, 35 1,626  received  from 
premiums,  $11.837,347  paid  for  losses;  plate 
Khss.  $3.960,546  received  from  premiums, 
$1,714,236  paid  for  losses;  steam  boiler, 
S2.246.225  received  from  premiums,  $282.338 
paid  for  losses;  sprinkler  business,  $178,016 
received  from  premiums,  $73,438  paid  for 
1-jsses;  flywheel,  $184,514  received  from 
premiums,  $75,704  paid  for  losses;  live  stock, 
$572,564  received  from  premiums,  $267,315 
paid  for  losses;  workmen's  collective,  $711,726 
received  from  premiums,  $306,433  paid  for 
losses.  Courtesy  Spectator  Ins.  Year  Book. 

The  first  fire  insurance  company  in  the 
United  States  was  established  in  Boston,  Mass. 
by  the  Sun  Insurance  Company  (English)  in 
172S.  The  first  fire  insurance  policy  was  issued 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  1794.  First  accident  in- 
surance company  established  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  1863,. 


From  the  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint. 

GOLD   AND    SILVER    CURRENCY    AND 

TOTAL  MONEY  IN  THE  TREASURY 

AND  IN  CIRCULATION. 

At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  1911  the  gold 
in  the  United  States  was  divided  as  follows: 
Coin  and  bullion  in  the  Treasury  $233,533,255, 
and  in  circulation  $589,295,538;  and  certifi- 
cates in  circulation  $930,367,929.  Thus  the 
total  amount  of  gold  in  the  United  States  was 
$1,753,196,722. 

The  silver  of  the  United  States,  for  the  same 
year,  was  divided  as  follows:  Standard  dollars 
in  the  Treasury  $39,043,622,  and  in  circulation 
$72,446,049;  certificates  in  circulation  $453,- 
543,696;  and  subsidiary  coin  in  the  Treasury 
$21,185,641,  and  in  circulation  $138,421,723. 
Thus  the  number  of  standard  dollars  and  of 
certificates  in  circulation  amounted  to 
$565,033,367,  and  the  amount  of  subsidiary 
coin  to  $159,607,364. 

AGGREGATE  SAVINGS  DEPOSITS  OF 
SAVINGS  BANKS,  NUMBER  OF  DE- 
POSITORS, AND  AVERAGE  AMOUNT 
DUE  TO  EACH  DEPOSITOR:  YEAR 
ENDED  JUNE  30,  1911. 

At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1911  there  were 

1,884   Savings   Banks  in   the   United   States 

[This  includes  only  mutual  and  stock  savings 

banks    transacting    chiefly    a    savings    bank 

business]    and    they    had    depositors    to    the 

!   number   of    9,597,185.       The    total    amount 

!   of  the  deposits  for  that  year  was  $4,212,583,- 

i    598.53  or  an  average  deposit  to  each  depositor 

|   of  $438.93. 


162 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  NORTH  AMERICA. 


Courtesy  of    "The   Sphere." 

FORMATION  AND  DEATH  OF  ICEBERGS. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


163 


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164 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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Quick  Method  for  Calculating  Interest 
Where  the  Time  is  for  Days  Only 

Rule.—  To  find  the  interest  on  any  given  sura  for  any  number  of  days 
multiply  the  principal  by  the  number  of  days,  and  divide  as  follows:  At 
5%,  divide  by  72;  at  6%,  divide  by  60;  at  7%.  divide  by  52;  at  8%, 
divide  by  45;  at  9%,  divide  by  40. 


Table  of  Days  for  Computing  Interest 

To  Find  the  Number  of  Days  from  any  Day  of  any  one  Month 

to  the  same  Day  of  any  other  Month 


From 

d 

-g 

M 

t: 

I 

>. 

| 

^ 

I 

I 

J 

1 

| 

To  January  . 

365 

334 

301; 

275 

245 

214 

184 

153 

122 

92 

61 

31 

February 

31 

365 
M 

337 
365 

m 

27  G 

245 

215 

1S4 
212 

153 
181 

123 
151 

92 
~120 

62 
WO 

March... 

.w 

334 

3(14 

379 

243 

April.  .  .  . 

M 

It 

31 

385 

335 

304 

274 

243 

212 

182 

151 

121 

May  

120 

89 

61 

30 

r,i 

01 

305 

334 

304 

273 

242 
273 

212 

181 

151 

182 
212 

June  
July  

151 
181 

120 

02 

31 

r,i 

365 
30 

335 
365 

31)4 
334 

MB 

243 

212 
242 

150 

122 

303 

273 

August.. 

212 

181 

153 

122 

1  53 

92 
123 

61 

92 

31 

334 

304 

273 
304 

243 
274 

Septem'r 

243 

212 

184 

02 

31 

October.. 

273 

242 

214 

183 
214 
244 

153 

122 

92 

01 
92 

30 
61 

m 

31 

334 

w 

3i 

304 

November 

304 

273 

245 

184 

214 

153 

123 

335 
365 

Dece'her 

m 

303 

275 

1S3 

153 

122 

91 

M 

N.B.— In  leap  year,  if  the  last  day  of  February  comes  between,  add 
one  day  to  the  number  in  the  table. 

EXAMPLB.— How  many  days  from  May  10th  to  Sept.  13th?  From  the 
above  table  we  get  123;  add  3  for  difference  between  10  and  13,  and  we 
get  126,  the  number  of  days  required. 

Table  Showing  Rate  of  Income  on  Stocks 

Purchased  at  the  Following  Prices  (Par  Value  Being  $1.00)  and 
Bearing  Interest  at  the  Following  Rates 


Paid 

4% 

5% 

* 

7% 

8% 

9% 

10% 

$80 

6. 

6.25 

7.50 

8.75 

10. 

11.25 

12.50 

00 

4.44 

5.55 

6.66 

7.77 

8.88 

10. 

11.11 

95 

4.21 

5.26 

6.31 

7.36 

8.42 

9.47 

10.62 

105 

3.80 

.76 

5.71 

6.66 

7.61 

8.57 

9.52 

110 

3.63 

.54 

5.45 

6.36 

7.27 

8.18 

9.09 

115 

3.47 

.34 

5.21 

6.08 

6.95 

7.82' 

8.69 

120 

3.33 

.16 

5.83 

6.66 

7.50 

8.33 

125 

3.20 

.80 

5.60 

6.40 

7.20 

8. 

126 

3.17 

3^96 

.76 

5.55 

6.34 

7.14 

7.93 

127 

3.14 

3.93 

.72 

5.51 

6.29 

7.08 

7.87 

128 

3.12 

3.90 

.68 

5.46 

6.25 

7.03 

7.81 

'129 

3.10 

3.87 

.65 

5.42 

6.20 

6.97 

7.75 

130 

3.07 

3.84 

.61 

5.38 

6.15 

6.92 

7.69 

131 

3.05 

3.81 

.58 

5.34 

6.10 

6.87 

7.63 

132 

3.03 

3.78 

.54 

5.30 

6.06 

6.81 

7.57 

133 

3. 

3.75 

.51 

5.26 

6.01 

6.76 

7.51 

134 

2.98 

3.73 

.47 

5.22 

5.97 

6.71 

7.46 

135 

2.96 

3.70 

.44 

5.18 

5.92 

6.66 

7.40 

136 

2.94 

3.67 

.41 

5.14 

5.88 

6.61 

7.35 

137 

2.91 

3.63 

.37 

5.10 

5.83 

6.56 

7.29 

138 

2.89 

3.62 

.34 

5.07 

5.79 

6.52 

7.24 

139 

2.87 

3.59 

.31 

5.03 

5.76 

6.47 

7.19 

140 

2.85 

3.57 

.28 

5. 

5.71 

6.42 

7.14 

141 

.  2.83 

3.54 

.25 

4.96 

5.67 

6.38 

7.09 

142 

2.81 

3.52 

.22 

4.92 

5.63 

6.33 

7.04 

143 

2.79 

3.49 

.19 

4.89 

5.59 

6.29 

6.99 

144 

2.77 

3.47 

.16 

4.86 

5.55 

6.25 

6.94 

145 

2.75 

3.44 

.13 

4.82 

5.51 

6.20 

6.89 

146 

2.73 

3.42 

.10 

4.79 

5.47 

6.16 

6.84 

147 

2.72 

3.40 

4.  OS 

4.76 

5.44 

6.12 

6.80 

148 

2.70 

3.37 

4.05 

4.72 

5.40 

6.08 

6.75 

149 

2.68 

3.35 

4.02 

4.69 

5.36 

6.04 

6.71 

150 

2.66 

3.33 

4. 

4.66 

5.33 

6. 

155 

2.58 

3.22 

3.87 

4  51 

5.16 

5.80 

6^45 

160 

2.50 

3.12 

3.75 

4.37 

5. 

5.62 

6.25 

165 

2.42 

3.03 

3.63 

4.24 

4.84 

5.45 

6.  08 

170 

2.35 

2.94 

3.52 

4.11 

•  4.70 

5.29 

5.88 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


165 


1JO         fXO        110         10O        00          8<l        70        60       Jfffff.-fff        90        Hf         10  0 

PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


OCEAN  MARIXE  IXSURAXCE. 

Twenty-five  marine  insurance  companies 
reporting  to  the  New  York  State  Insurance 
Department  had  on  January  1,  1912  assets 
of  $34,043,458,  surplus  of  815,274,675,  and 
premiums  received  in  preceding  year  $13,- 
774,  722,  losses  paid  85,450.267,  risks  \yritten 
t<>  policy  holders  $10,395,373,098, 


The  first  savings  banks  in  the  United  States 
were  established  at  Boston  and  Philadelphia 
in  1816  and  in  New  York  in  1819.  The  postal 
savings  bank  system  was  established  by  an 
Act  of  Congress  June  25,  1910,  and  on  Jan.  3, 
1911  one  city  in  each  state  was  selected  for 
the  opening  of  the  first  postal  savings  banks. 


166 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NOTABLE  CONFLAGRATIONS  IN  THE  WORLD'S  HISTORY. 

From    "The   Insurance  Year  Book,"   published   by    "The   Spectator   Company." 

Even  before  man  began  to  congregate  and  build  cities,  there  existed  the  danger  of  prairie 
and  forest  fires;  but  these,  except  in  a  minor  way,  were  not  especially  destructive  of  other 
property.  When  cities  had  been  built  and  many  thousands  of  people  came  to  be  housed  within 
a  small  area,  the  danger  of  fire  and  its  capacity  for  doing  harm  to  men  and  their  property  were 
greatly  augmented;  and  as  cities  increased  in  size,  the  fire  hazard  and  the  accumulated  values 
subject  to  destruction  were  both  correspondingly  multiplied.  During  the  last  four  thousand 
years  many  cities  have  been  swept  by  fire,  some  of  them  several  times;  and  some  have  been 
practically  obliterated.  Below  will  be  found  a  list,  compiled  from  various  sources,  of  some 
of  the  more  important  fires  of  history,  comprising  those  most  notable  because  of  the  values  or 
lives  destroyed,  or  for  some  peculiar  reason: 


Year.                   Location. 

Year.                   Location. 

Year.                   Location. 

B.C. 
1897    Sodom    and    Gomorrah 

A.  D. 

1123    Lincoln 

A.  D. 

1737     Moscow 

1400    Jerusalem 

1130    Rochester 

1737    Jaroslaw 

1141    Ephesus 

1135    London 

1738    Martinique 

586    Jerusalem 

1137    York 

1742    Smyrna 

480    Plataea 

1137    Bath 

1744    Brest 

497    Athens 

1140    Nottingham 

1745    Constantinople 

390    Rome 

1171    Canterbury 

1748    Moscow 

241    Rome 

1171    Cairo 

1749    Constantinople 

215    Rome 

1189    Carlisle 

1750    Constantinople 

212    Rome 

1190    Dublin 

1750    Moscow 

146    Corinth 

1203    Constantinople 

1751    Constantinople 

50    Rome 

1204    Doncaster 

1752    Moscow  ' 

48    Alexandria 

1215    Bruges 

1753    Smyrna 

13-14    Rome 

1283    Dublin 

1753    Archangel 

12    Rome 

1292    Carlisle 

1756    Berghen 

A.  D. 

1299    Westminster 

1756    Constantinople 

59    Lyons 

1321    Geneva 

1758    Savannah 

64    Rome 

1327    Munich 

1759    Salonica 

70    Jerusalem 

1333    Geneva 

1760    Boston 

80    Rome 

1349    Newcastle-upon-Tyne 

1764    Konigsberg 

154    Rome 

1385    Edinburgh 

1765    Belgrade 

154    Antioch 

1388    Dunkirk 

1769    Konigsberg 

188    Rome 

1401    Edinburgh 

1769    Constantinople 

197    Lyons 

1405    Berne 

1769    St.    John's 

260    Bordeaux 

1405    Brussels 

1771    Constantinople 

273    Alexandria 

1430    Geneva 

1771    St.    Petersburg 

393    Constantinople 

1471    Chester 

1772    Smyrna 

465    Constantinople 

1491    Dresden 

1773    Moscow 

532    Constantinople 

1507    Norwich 

1775    Limehouse 

558    Paris 

1512    Brest 

1775    St.    George 

640    Alexandria 

1542    Edinburgh 

1776    St.    Kitts 

667    Rochester 

1544    Edinburgh 

1776    New    York 

741    York    Minster 

1570    Moscow 

1777    New    Orleans 

781    Constantinople 

1576    Antwerp 

1778    Charleston 

798    London 

1612    Cork 

1778    New    York 

802-7    Constantinople 

1631    Magdeburg 

1778    Constantinople 

807    Peterborough 

1633    Constantinople 

1780    St.    Petersburg 

893    London 

1656    Jeddo 

1780    St.    Petersburg 

917    Cordova 

1666    London 

1782     Constantinople 

978    Cork 

1667    Archangel 

1782    Constantinople 

982    London 

1675    Northampton 

1784    Port-au-Prince 

1004    Norwich 

1676    Southwark 

1784    Brest 

1010    Northampton 

1682    Wapping,    London 

1784    Constantinople 

1013    Cork 

1689    Prague 

1784    Rokitzan,     Bohemia 

1069    York 

1692    Salem 

1790    Carlscrona 

1086    London 

1694    Warwick 

1791    Constantinople 

1087    London 

1694    Dieppe 

1792    Constantinople 

1092    London 

1700    Charleston 

1793    Archange) 

1102    Winchester 

1702     Bergen 

1794     Copenhagen 

1106    Venice 

1728    Copenhagen 

1794    Wapping,     London 

1113    Mons 

1729    Constantinople 

1795    Copenhagen 

1113    Worcester 

1731    Baireuth 

1795    Constantinople 

1116    Bath 

1736    Peasmore 

1796    Smyrna 

1118    Nantes 

1737    Panama 

1796    Barbados 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


167 


NOTABLE  CONFLAGRATIONS  IN  THE  WORLD'S  HISTORY— Continued. 


Year.                    Location. 

Year.                    Location. 

Year.                    Location. 

A.   D. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

1796    Baltimore 

1861    London 

1893    Boston 

1797    Scutari 

1861    Charleston                               i    1894    Shanghai 

1798    Wilmington 

1862    Enschede,    Holland 

1894    Canton,    China 

1799    Peru 

1862    Troy 

1896    Guayaquil 

1799    Constantinople 

1862    St.    Petersburg 

1897    Melbourne 

1799     Manila 

1862    Marseilles 

1897    London 

1802    Liverpool 

1862    Constantinople 

1897    London 

1803    Bombay 

1863    Monastir 

1897    Paris 

1805     St.     Thomas 

1864    Georgetown 

1898    Nijni-Novgorod 

1808    Spanish     T'n,     Trinidad 

1864    Hankow 

1899    Philadelphia 

1811     Smyrna 

1865    Port-au-Prince 

1900    Hoboken 

1812     Moscow 

1865    New    York 

1900    Bayonne 

1814    Rangoon 

1865    Constantinople 

1900    Ottawa-Hull,     Canada 

1816    Constantinople 

1865    Manila 

1901    Jacksonville 

1817    Pt.     Louis,     Mauritius 

1866    London 

1901    Antwerp 

1818    Constantinople 

1866    Portland,    Me. 

1901    Montreal 

1820    Canton 

1866    Quebec 

1902    Paterson 

1820    Savannah,    Ga. 

1866    Yokahama 

1902    Waterbury 

1820    Paris 

1868    Charleston,    S.    C. 

1904    Baltimore 

1820    Port-au-Prince 

1868    Albany,    N.    Y. 

1904    Aesland,     Norway 

1821    Paramaribo 

1869    Philadelphia 

1904    Toronto 

1822    Canton 

1870    Constantinople 

1904    Halifax 

1824    Cairo 

1870    Pera,     Turkey 

1904    Rochester' 

1825    New    Brunswick 

1870    Sam-Sun,     Turkey 

1905    New    Orleans 

1826    St.    John's,    N.    F. 

1870    Chicago 

1906    San    Francisco 

1826     Constantinople 

1871    Chicago 

1906    Valparaiso,     Chile 

1827    Abo,     Finland 

1872    Constantinople 

1906    Wellington,    N.    Z. 

1831    Constantinople 

1872    Boston 

1907    Iquique,     Chile 

1831     Bristol 

1873    Alexandra    Palace,     Lon- 

1907   Hakodate,     Japan 

1831    St.     Thomas,     W.     I. 

don 

1907    Kingston,     Jamaica 

1833    Manila 

1873    Havana 

1908    Chelsea,    Mass. 

1833    Constantinople 

1874    Constantinople 

1908    Noda    Soy,    Japan 

1834    Houses     of      Parliament, 

1874    Pimlico,     London 

1908    Niigata,    Japan 

London 

1874    Chicago 

1908    Chisholm,    Minn. 

1835    New    York 

1875    Oshkosh 

1908    Port-au-Prince,    Hayti 

1836    Constantinople 

1875    Virginia    City 

1908    Paris,     France 

1837    Surat 

1875    Iquique 

1908    El    Oro,    Mexico 

1837    St.    Petersburg 

1876    St.     John's 

1908    Rostov-on-Don,     Russia 

1837    Naples 

1876    Soderhamn,     Sweden 

1909    Acapulco,     Mexico 

1838    Charlestown 

1876    Quebec 

1909    Osaka,    Japan 

1839    New    York 

1876    St.    Hyacinth 

1909    Valdivia,    Chile 

1841    Smyrna 

1877    St.    John,    N.    B. 

1909    London,     England 

1842     Hamburg 

1877    Pittsburgh 

1910    Campbellton,    N.    B. 

1842    Liverpool 

1879    Irkutsk,     Siberia 

1910    Wajima,     Japan 

1845    Quebec 

1879    New    York 

1910     Brussels,     Belgium 

1845     Smyrna 

1879    Boston 

1910    U.     S.     and    Canada    for- 

1845   New    York 

1882    Kingston,    Jamaica 

est    fires 

1846    St.    John's,    N.    F. 

1882    Colorado 

1911     Santiago,    Chile 

1846    Albany 

1882    Wood     Street,     London 

1911    Aux    Cayes,    Hayti 

1848    Orel,    Russia 

1883    Vienna 

1911    Tokio,     Japan 

1848    Constantinople 

1884    Bayswater,     London 

1911    Yamagata,     Japan 

1848    Albany,    N.    Y. 

1885    Aspinwall 

1911    Bangor,    Me. 

1849     St.    Louis 

1887    Paris 

1911     N.    Y.,     "Triangle" 

1851    San     Francisco 

1887    Exeter,     England 

1911    Albany,    N.    Y. 

1851    San     Francisco 

1888    Sundsvall 

1911    Kirin,    Manchuria 

1853    Montreal 

1889    Seattle 

1911    Constantinople 

1853    Sacramento     City 

1889    New    York 

1911    Hankow,    China 

1853    Constantinople 

1889    Spokane 

1911    Nanking,    China 

1854    Gateshead 

1889    Boston 

1912    Peking,    China 

1858    Astrakan 

1889    Lynn 

1912    Osaka,  Japan 

1858    Valparaiso 

1890    Fort     de     France, 

1912    N.     Y.,     "Equitable" 

1858    Auckland 

Martinique 

1912     Valdivia,  Chile 

1859    Key    West 

1890    Sydney 

1912    Tien-Tsin,     China 

1859     St.    Louis 

1892    New    Orleans 

1912    Pao    Ting    Fu,    China 

1859    Constantinople 

1892    New    Orleans 

1912    Tokio,    Japan 

1860    Barbadoes 

1892     Tokio 

1912    Damascus,     Syria 

1861    Mendoza,    S.    A. 

1892    Milwaukee 

1912    Constantinople 

1861    Limoges 

1892    St.    John's,    N.    F. 

1912    Castellon,    Spain 

168 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  EUROPE. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


169 


FIRES,  URBAN  AND  RURAL,  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES:     NUMBER, 

LOSS  ON  BUILDINGS  AND  CONTENTS,  BY  KINDS  OF 

BUILDINGS,   AND  LOSS  PER  CAPITA, 

CALENDAR  YEAR  1907, 

[Source:  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey,  Department  of  the  Interior.] 


Urban. 

Rural. 

Total. 

Fire  loss: 
Brick,  etc.,  buildings- 
Buildings 

Dollars. 

19,816,474 

Dollars. 
11,276,213 

Dollars. 
31,092,687 

29,092,270 

8,240,310 

37,332,580 

Total  

48,908,744 

19,516,523 

68,425,207 

Frame  buildings  — 

30  357,151 

47,707,056 

78,064,207 

27,827,388 

40,767,847 

68,595,235 

Total  

58,184,539 

88,  474,  903 

146,659,442 

Totals: 

50,173,625 

58,983,269 

109,156,894 

Contents      .          

56,919,658 

49,008,157 

105,927,815 

Grand  total 

107  093  283 

107,991,426 

215,084,709 

Number  of  fires: 
In  brick  etc    buildings  

25,297 

10,843 

36,140 

In  frame  buildings  .             

80,109 

49,008 

129,117 

Total  

105,406 

59,851 

165,257 

2  54 

2  49 

2  51 

FIRES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES:  POPULATION,  LOSS  AND  PER  CAPITA 
LOSS,  BY  GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISIONS,  CALENDAR  YEAR  1907. 

[Source:  Report  of  the  Geological  Survey,  Department  of  the  Interior.] 


Geographic  division. 

Total  popu- 
lation. 

Total  fire 
loss. 

Fire  loss 
per 
capita. 

North  Atlantic: 
Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Is- 
land, Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania.  .  . 
South  Atlantic: 
Delawase,  Marvland  ,  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  West  Vir- 
ginia, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida  
North  Central: 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa, 
Missouri,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas.  . 
South  Central: 
Kentucky  ,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
Oklahoma  Arkansas 

23,779,013 
11,574,988 
29,026,645 
16  368  558 

Dollars. 
59,447,532 

25,349,223 
68,793,148 
59  908  922 

Dollars. 
2.50 

2.19 
2.37 
3  66 

Western: 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah, 
Nevada,  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon,  and  California  

4,783,557 

12,676,426 

2.65 

TOTAL  WATER  SURFACE. 


Fathoms  Depth. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  -•  
'  Atlantic  Ocean  
'  Indian  Ocean 

48  p.  c. 
24  p.  c. 
21  p  c 

Sq.  Miles. 
67,570,000 
34,700,000 
28  900  000 

Max.  Average. 
5,350  2,100 
4,730  1,800 
3  830  •  2  000 

11  Arctic  Sea 

3  p  c 

4  470  000 

•?  550  i  500 

'  Antarctic  Sea  

4  p.  p. 

o!6io!ooo 

3,130  1,600 

170 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ANNUAL    FIRE    LOSSES    IN    THE     UNITED     STATES    FOR     THIRTY-SEVEN    YEARS- 

1875-1911 
[Mainly  from  the  Chronicle  Fire  Tables.     Courtesy  of  "  The  Spectator." 


Year 

Aggregate 
Property 
Loss. 

Aggregate 
Insurance 
Loss. 

Year. 

Aggregate 
Property 
Loss. 

Aggregate 
Insurance 
Loss. 

1875. 

$78,102,285 

$39,327,400 

1894.  .. 

$140,006,484 

$89,574,699 

1876. 

64,630,600 

34,374,500 

1895.  .. 

142,110,233 

84,689,030 

1877. 

68,265,800 

37,398,900 

1896.  .  . 

118,737,420 

73,903,800 

1878. 

64,315,900 

36,575.900 

1897... 

116,354,575 

66,722,145 

1879. 

77,703,700 

44,464,700 

1898.  .  . 

130,593,905 

73,796,080 

1880. 

74,643,400 

42,525,000 

1899  .  .  . 

153,597,830 

92,683,715 

1881. 

81,280,900 

44,641,900 

1900.  .. 

160,929,805 

95,403.650 

1882. 

84,505,024 

48,875.131 

1901.  . 

165,817,810 

100,798,645 

1883. 

100,149,228 

54,808,664 

1902  .  .  . 

161,488,355 

94,775,045 

1884. 

110,008,611 

60,679,818 

1903.  . 

145,302,155 

*1  04,000,000 

1885. 

102,818,796 

57,430,709 

1904.  .. 

f229,  198,050 

*144,000,000 

1886. 

104,924,750 

60,506,564 

1905  .  .  . 

t!65,  221,650 

*1  16,000,009 

1887. 

120,283,055 

69,659,508 

1906.  .. 

t518,611,800 

*292,000,000 

1888. 

110,885,665 

63,965,724 

1907  .  .  . 

1215,084,709 

+127,000,000 

1889. 

123,046,833 

73,679,465 

1908.  .. 

t217,885.850 

*157,000,000 

1890. 

108,993,792 

65,015,465 

1909.  .  . 

tl88,705,150 

*143.000.000 

1891. 

143.764,967 

90,576,918 

1910.  .  . 

t214.003,300 

*175,000.000 

1892. 

1  QOQ 

151,516,098 

1  AT  f^AA  Q*7A 

93,511,936 

1  r\Pi  OQA  R77 

1911.  .  . 

t217,004,575 

*190,000,000 

lotW  .  . 

ID/  ,O44.o/U 

iuo,yy'±,o/  / 

Totals 

$5,337,215,795 

$3,345,359.583 

*Estimated  by  publishers  of  the  Insurance  Year  Book 
tFrom  National  Board  Tables. 


FINANCIAL  STANDING  OF  LIFE  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 


The  combined  aggregates  of  the  Financial 
Standing,  etc.,  of  the  214  principal  insurance 
companies  show  that  the  capital  stock  in  1910 
was  $40,544,728.  The  principal  sources  of 
income  of  these  companies  for  the  same  period 
were  as  follows:  New  premiums,  $70,180,419; 
renewed  premiums,  $517,535,978;  received 
for  annuities,  $5,671,844;  dividends,  interest, 
etc.,  $160,513,917;  received  for  rents, 
$10,309,988;  and  all  other  receipts,  $16,- 
799,103;  thus  making  the  total  income 
$781,011,249.  The  expenditures  of  these 
same  companies  for  the  same  period  were  as 
follows:  Paid  for  death  losses,  $180,654,396; 
paid  for  matured  endowments,  $46,349,075; 
annuities  paid,  $7,426,499;  paid  for  sur- 
rendered, lapsed  and  purchased  policies, 
$77,518,465;  dividends  to  policyholders, 
$75,355,638;  dividends  to  stockholders, 
$2,140,037;  commissions,  salaries  and  travel- 
ing expenses  of  agents,  $87,628,519;  medical 
fees,  salaries  and  other  charges  of  employees, 
$26,036,575;  and  all  other  expenditures, 
$37,235,222;  thus  making  the  total  ex- 
penditures of  the  companies  $540,342,426. 
The  excess  of  the  income  over  the  expenditures 
for  the  year  1910  amounted  to  $240,668,823. 


At  the  end  of  the  calendar  year  1910  there 
were  5,937  Building  and  Loan  Associations 
in  the  United  States  having  assets  to  the 
sum  of  $945,568,907  and  a,  membership  of 
2,216,912, 


The  assets,  amounting  to  $3,875,877,059  of 
admitted  assets  and  $25,185,764  of  assets  not 
admitted,  were  divided  as  follows:  Real 
estate  owned,  $172,960,857;  bond  and 
mortgage  loans,  $1,227,231,592;  bonds 
owned,  $1,659,845,447;  stocks  owned,  $129,- 
622,493;  collateral  loans,  $18,941,120;  pre- 
mium notes  and  loans,  $495,099,854;  cash  in 
office  and  banks,  $71,112,566;  net  deferred 
and  unpaid  premiums,  $50,955,665;  and  all 
other  assets,  $50,107,465.  The  liabilities  of 
these  same  companies,  amounting  to  $3,385,- 
821,478,  were  divided  as  follows:  Reserve, 
$3,225,966,060;  losses  and  claims  not  paid, 
$17,072,212;  claims  resisted,  $1,779,117; 
dividends  unpaid,  $79,990,050;  and  all  other 
liabilities,  $61,014,039.  The  total  surplus  paid 
to  policyholders  amounted  to  $490,055,571. 

The  policy  account  of  these  companies  is  as 
follows:  New  business  actually  paid  for, 
$1,822,260,287;  whole  life  policies  in  force, 
$8,816,663,388;  endowment  policies  in  force, 
$3,042,585,983;  and  all  other  policies  in  force, 
$1,367,963,797.  The  total  insurance  in  force 
in  these  companies  amounted  to  $13,227,- 
213,168;  the  industrial  business  written  to 
$734,793,180;  and  the  industrial  insurance  in 
force  to  $3,177,047,874.  - 

Spectator  Insurance  Year  Book. 


The  first  steam  fire  engine  was  invented  by 
Braithwaite,  1829;  Ericsson,  in  New  York, 
produced  a  similar  one  in  1840.  They  were 
not  generally  used  until  1860.  Fire  engines 
driven  by  motor  power  first  used  in  1905, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


171 


FIRE,  MARINE  AND  CASUALTY  INSURANCE. 

FIRE  AND  MARINE  CASUALTY  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  INSURANCE  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  IN  1890,  AND  FROM  1895  TO  1910.  TOTAL  INCOME 
OF  COMPANIES  AND  PAYMENTS  TO  POLICY  HOLDERS. 

Data  furnished  by  "  The  Spectator  "  Company,  New  York. 
Fire  and  Marine  Insurance. 


Stock  and  Mutual  Companies. 


Calendar  Year. 

Number 
of 
Companies. 

Total  Income 

Payment^  to  Policy  Holders. 

Losses. 

Dividends. 

Total. 

1890 

580 
555 
541 
530 
504 
484 
493 
482 
489 
526 
515 
575 
597 
618 
598 
598 
597 
593 

$157,857,983 
176,300,042 
172,945,625 
176,751,124 
178,320,217 
184,142,217 
198,312,577 
216,452,381 
239,468,206 
258,340,036 
278,340,036 
293,224,649 
350,285,740 
338,232,409 
334,490,040 
360,545,341 
381,545,814 
388,462,193 

$75,334,517 
89,673,663 
83,355,538 
79,440,595 
90,051,512 
106,726,658 
108,307,171 
112,008,998 
113,147,727 
112,817,357 
151,264,900 
125,074,600 
276,795,627 
145,597,362 
165,489,578 
154,430,781 
166,789,763 
183,476,741 

$5,433,495 
7,705,363 
6,547,922 
7,724,657 
7,023,170 
7,892,714 
8,446,110 
9,011,926 
10,184,285 
11,559,470 
12,855,153 
14,379,174 
15,412,212 
16,223,261 
17,808,367 
19,091,596 
20,709,261 
18,771,959 

$80,768,012 
97,379,026 
89,903,460 
87,165,252 
97,974,682 
114,619,372 
116,753,2F1 
121,020,924 
123,302,012 
124,376,827 
164,120,053 
139,453,774 
292,207,839 
161,820,623 
183,297.945 
173,522,377 
187,499,024 
202,248,700 

1895 

1896           

1897                                .    . 

1898 

1899                               .    . 

1900           

1901 

1902  
1903 

1904  
1905 

1906  
1907 

1908  
1909 

1910         

1911                             .... 

Calendar 
Year. 

Lloyd's  and  Interinsurance 
Associations. 

Total. 

Number 
of  Asso- 
ciations. 

Total 
Income. 

Losses 
Paid. 

Number 
of  Com- 
panies. 

Total 
Income. 

Payments 
to  Policy 
Holders. 

1890 

580 
583 
541 
530 
504 
484 
493 
482 
489 
563 
550 
612 
632 
654 
636 
636 
628 
621 

$157,857,983 
176,300,042 
172,945,625 
176,751,124 
178,320,217 
184,142,217 
198,312,577 
216,452,381 
239,468.206 
261,431,401 
281,228,402 
296,562,588 
353,922,994 
342,531,049 
339,068,915 
365,264,413 
385.657,028 
392,966,986 

$80,768,012 
97,379,026 
89,903,460 
87,165,252 
97,974.682 
114,619,372 
116,753,281 
121,020,924 
123,332,012 
125,431,065 
165,658,558 
140,825,191 
293,649,192 
163.436,624 
185,163,126 
175,461,211 
189,143,026 
203,689,509 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900... 
1901 

1902  
1903  
1904  
1905  
1906  
1907  
1908  
1909  
1910  
1911  

37 
35 
37 
35 

36 
38 
38 
31 

28 

$2,972,800 
2,888,366 
3,337,939 
3,637,254 
4,298,640 
4,579,875 
4,719,072 
4,111,214 
4,504,793 

$1,057,238 
,538,505 
,371,417 
,441,353 
,616,001 
,865,181 
,938,834 
,644,002 
,440,809 

Cuba's  exports  of  sugar  cane  and  its  products  were  valued  in  1910  at  $101,500,000 — 
70.28  per  cent,  of  the  total  export. 


172 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CORPORATIONS,  JOINT-STOCK  COMPANIES  OR  ASSOCIATIONS,  AND 
INSURANCE  COMPANIES:    YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1911. 


At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1911  a  report 
based  on  31,188  financial  and  commercial 
companies  and  corporations,  including  banks, 
banking  associations,  trust  companies, 
guaranty  and  surety  companies,  title  insurance 
companies,  building  associations  (if  for  profit), 
and  insurance  companies  not  specially  exempt, 
showed  that  the  amount  of  capital  stock  of 
these  companies  totaled  $2,783,180,912.99; 
that  the  amount  of  bonded  and  other  in- 
debtedness was  $549,928,546.23;  and  that 
the  net  income  amounted  to  $440,528,501.28. 
For  the  same  period  the  public  service,  such 
as  railroads,  steamboat,  ferryboat  and  stage- 
line  companies,  pipe-line,  gas,  and  electric- 
light  companies,  transportation  and  storage 
companies,  telegraph  and  telephone  com- 
panies, basing  the  figures  on  the  24,694 
reports  received,  had  a  capital  stock  of 
$19,329,023.135.35;  an  indebtedness,  bonded 
and  otherwise  of  $17,383,237,766.43;  and  a 
net  income  9f  $843,855,442.89.  The  third 
class,  industrial  and  manufacturing,  such  as 
mining,  lumber,  and,  coke  companies;  rolling 
mills;  foundry  and  machine  shops:  sawmills; 
flour,  woolen,  cotton,  and  other  mills; 
manufacturers  of  cars,  automobiles,  elevators, 
agricultural  implements,  and  all  articles 


manufactured  wholly  or  in  part  from  metal, 
wood,  or  other  material;  manufacturers  or 
refiners  of  sugar,  molasses,  syrups,  or  other 
products;  ice  or  refrigerating  companies; 
slaughterhouse,  tannery,  packing,  or  canning 
companies,  have  a  capital  stock  of  $26,177,- 
131,698.07;  an  indebtedness,  bonded  and 
otherwise  amounting  to  $7,894,834,181.56; 
and  a  total  income  of  $1,436,061,261.73. 
This  report  was  based  on  the  89,114  returns 
received.  The  58,233  reports  received  from 
the  mercantile  class,  including  all  dealers 
(not  otherwise  classed  as  producers  or 
manufacturers)  in  coal,  lumber,  grain,  pro- 
duce, and  all  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise, 
show  a  capital  stock  of  $3,361,390,780.38; 
an  indebtedness,  bonded  and  otherwise, 
of  $2,009,749,482.83;  and  a  net  income  of 
$385,304,595.65.  The  last  or  miscellaneous 
class,  such  as  architects,  contractors,  hotels, 
the  theaters,  or  other  companies  or  associa- 
tions, not  otherwise  classed,  had  a  capital 
stock  of  $6,235,703,992.25;  an  indebtedness, 
bonded  and  otherwise  amounting  to  $2,877,- 
586.031.79:  and  a  net  income  of  $254,500,- 
841.10.  This  report  was  based  on  66,973 
returns  received. 


Booklovers'  Magazine 

COMPARISON  OF  THE   CHINESE  EMPIRE  WITH   EASTERN 
UNITED  STATES, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


173 


COMPARATIVE  NON-PARTICIPATING  PREMIUM  RATES  OF  AMERICAN  LIFE  INSURANCE 
COMPANIES,  1860,  1870,  1880,  1890,  1900,  1910— WHOLE  LIFE  PLAN  * 

AVERAGE  PREMIUM  RATES  PER  $1,000  INSURANCE. 


u 

560. 

li 

$70. 

18i 

JO. 

18< 

K). 

19( 

X). 

IS 

10. 

Age. 

Num- 

Num- 

Num- 

Num- 

Num- 

Num- 

ber of 

Average 

ber  of 

Average 

berof 

Aver- 

ber of 

Aver- 

ber of 

Aver- 

ber of 

Average 

Com- 

Rate: 

Com- 

Rate: 

Com- 

age 

Com- 

age 

Com- 

age 

Com- 

Rate. 

panies. 

panies 

panies 

Rate.. 

panies. 

Rate. 

panies. 

Rate. 

panies. 

20 

6 

$15.27 

26 

$13.57 

$14.61 

5 

$14.38 

50 

$15.23 

21 

6 

15.68 

28 

13.88 

. 

14.81 

5 

14.72 

76 

15.65 

22 

6 

16.11 

28 

14.19 

15.07 

5 

15.08 

76 

16.00 

23 

6 

16.58 

28 

14.49 

15.28 

5 

15.45 

76 

16.37 

24 

6 

17.03 

28 

14.80 

15.62 

5 

15.85 

76 

16.75 

25 

6 

17.55 

29 

15.20 

'4 

$15^  64 

15.93 

5 

16.27 

76 

17.16 

26 

6 

18.08 

29 

15.63 

16.04 

16.36 

1 

16.72 

76 

17.58 

27 

6 

18.63 

29 

16.08 

16.46 

16.79 

5 

17.17 

76 

18.03 

28 

6 

19.19 

29 

16.55 

16.91 

17.26 

5 

17.66 

76 

18.49 

29 

6 

19.76 

29 

17.06 

17.37 

17.74 

5 

18.17 

76 

19.00 

30 

6 

20.29 

29 

17.52 

17.87 

18.26 

5 

18.70 

76 

19.51 

31 

20.87 

29 

18.02 

18.38 

18.81 

5 

19.27 

76 

20.07 

32 

21.48 

29 

18.59 

18.94 

19.38 

5 

19.87 

76 

20.64 

33 

22.13 

29 

19.16 

19.51 

4 

19.97 

5 

20.50 

76 

21.26 

34 

22.81 

29 

19.79 

20.15 

4 

20.62 

5 

21.17 

76 

21.90 

35 

23.53 

29 

20.44 

20.81 

4 

21.30 

5 

21.88 

76 

22.59 

36 

6 

24.30 

29 

21.14 

21.51 

4 

22.02 

5 

22.62 

76 

23.31 

37 

6 

25.07 

29 

21.86 

22.23 

4 

22.78 

5 

23.41 

76 

24.07 

38 

6 

25.93 

29 

22.64 

23.03 

4 

23.60 

5 

24.25 

76 

24.88 

39 

6 

26.83 

29 

23.46 

23.85 

4 

24.45 

5 

25.14 

76 

25.74 

40 

6 

27.75 

29 

24.33 

24.76 

4 

25.38 

5 

26.09 

76 

26.65 

41 

6 

28.70 

29 

25.24 

25.71 

4 

26.35 

5 

27.09 

76 

27.62 

42 

6 

29.64 

29 

26.20 

26.72 

4 

27.37 

5 

28.17 

76 

28.64 

43 

6 

30.66 

29 

27.21 

27.79 

4 

28.46 

5 

29.31 

76 

29.74 

44 

6 

31.74 

29 

28.30 

28.94 

4 

29.64 

5 

30.53 

76 

30.91 

45 

6 

32.89 

29 

29.46 

30.16 

4 

30.89 

5 

31.83 

76 

32.14 

46 

6 

34.12 

29 

30.70 

31.46 

4 

32.21 

5 

33.20 

76  ' 

33.46 

47 

6 

35.43 

29 

32.19 

32.86 

4 

33.63 

5 

34.66 

76 

34.87 

48 

6 

36.87 

29 

33.41 

34.34 

4 

35.11 

5 

36.22 

76 

36.37 

49 

6 

38.46 

29 

34.98 

35.94 

4 

36.74 

5 

37.86 

76 

37.97 

50 

6 

40.20 

29 

36.63 

37.65 

4 

38.48 

5 

39.62 

76 

39.69 

51 

6 

42.09 

29 

38.45 

39.46 

4 

40.28 

5 

41.48 

76 

41.49 

52 

6 

44.10 

29 

40.35 

41.38 

4 

42.22 

5 

43.46 

76 

43.43 

53 

6 

46.25 

29 

42.38 

43.45 

4 

44.32 

5 

45.57 

76 

45.49 

54 

6 

48.59 

29 

44.55 

45.68 

4 

46.53 

5 

47.81 

76 

47.69 

55 

6 

51.12 

29 

46.88 

48.10 

4 

43.92 

5 

50.20 

76 

50.04 

56 

5 

54.29 

27 

49.37 

50.72 

4 

51.49 

5 

52.74 

75 

52.53 

57 

5 

57.14 

27 

52.39 

53.54 

4 

54.27 

5 

55.45 

75 

55.22 

58 

5 

60.18 

27 

54.88 

56.54 

4 

57.21 

5 

58.34 

75 

58.08 

59 

5 

63.29 

27 

57.85 

59.75 

4 

60.36 

5 

61.42 

75 

61.16 

60 

5 

66.19 

27 

60.92 

63.18 

4 

63.73 

5 

64.71 

75 

64.44 

*  The  premium  rates  for  1860  and  1870  are  compiled  from  the  Reports  of  the  New  York  Insurance  De- 
partment of  1861  and  1869,  respectively.  The  rates  for  1880  and  1890  are  compiled  from  the  Spectator 
Year  Books  of  1881  and  1891,  and  the  rates  for  1900  and  1910  are  from  the  Spectator  Handy  Guides  for 
those  years. 


AREA  OF  THE  LARGEST  ISLANDS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


Sq.  Miles. 

Greenland 837,760 

New  Guinea.  .  .,303,500 

Borneo 284,840 

Madagascar 228,600 

Sumatra 161,610 

New  Zealand....  104,400 


>,,.  Miles.1  Sq.  Miles. 

Great  Britain... 88,000 1  Luzon 40,930 

Hondo 87.490  Iceland 39,756 

Celebes 71.470   Mindanao 37,180 

Java 49,030  j  Yezo 36,300 

Cuba 46,000  NovayaZemlya3o,520 

Newfoundland  40,200  Ireland .32,530 


Haiti 

Sakhalin. 
Tasmania 
Ceylon. .  .  . 
Kuishiu. . 
Formosa. 


Sq.  Miles. 
.  .  .29,810 
...29,114 
.  .  .26,215 
.  .  .25.330 
. . .  16,840 
. . . 13,460 


174 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ORDINARY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  INSURANCE  IN  FORCE  BY  STATES,  DECEMBER  31,  1910.* 


State. 

Total 
Population 
1910. 

Ordinary 
Insurance  in 
Force. 

Industrial 
Insurance  in 
Force. 

Total 
Insurance  in 
Force. 

Insur- 
ance in 
Force  per 
Capita. 

Alabama     . 

2  138  093 

$160  000  997 

•  $8  953  990 

$168  954  987 

$79 

Arizona  

204  354 

'     17  706  369 

17  706  369 

87 

1  574  449 

91  092  866 

2  927  661 

94  020  527 

60 

California  

2  377  549 

391  875  291 

40,040,942 

431  916  233 

182 

Colorado 

799  024 

131  533  563 

8  216  272 

.    139  749  835 

175 

Connecticut  

1,114  756 

168  463,959 

84,541,832 

253,005  791 

227 

202  322 

24  247  892 

17,225  939 

41  473  831 

205 

District  of  Columbia  
Florida 

331,069 
752  619 

79,258,009 
79  091  347 

33,152,206 

112,410,215 
79  091  347 

340 
105 

Georgia.  . 

2  609,121 

282,704,932 

24,019,716 

306,724,648 

118 

Idaho 

325  594 

27  892  642 

27  892  642 

86 

Illinois  

5,638,591 

1,007,271,561 

103,774,012 

1,111,045,573 

197 

Indiana 

2  700  876 

321  111  088 

95,803,745 

416  914  833 

154 

Iowa. 

2,224,771 

221,095,910 

16,620,410 

226,031,973 

102 

Kansas 

1  690  949 

146  186  246 

19,962,756 

166  149  002 

98 

Kentucky  

2,289,905 

223,247,521 

63,297,260 

286,544,781 

125 

1  656  388 

149  288  555 

29,971  837 

179  260  392 

108 

Maine.  . 

742,371 

97,241,628 

16,509,020 

113,750,648 

153 

Maryland 

1  295  346 

177  268  672 

95,915,434 

273  184  106 

211 

Massachusetts  

3,366,416 

635,619,342 

257,300,837 

892,920,179 

265 

2  810  173 

304  015  961 

47,802  235 

351,818  196 

125 

Minnesota        

2,075,708 

240,918,006 

16,825,506 

257,743,512 

124 

1  797  114 

116  706  215 

116,706,215 

65 

Missouri  

3,293,335 

423,090,516 

122,423,104 

545,513,620 

166 

Montana 

376  053 

54  149  564 

1,765,045 

55,914,609 

149 

Nebraska 

1,192,214 

124,556,740 

7,452,286 

132,009,026 

111 

Nevada 

81,875 

11,983  559 

11,983,559 

146 

430  572 

53  151  854 

14  359  926 

67  511  780 

157 

New  Jersey  

2,537,167 

394,358,783 

278,891,717 

673,250,500 

265 

327  301 

22  159  552 

22  159  552 

68 

New  York  

9,113,614 

1,859,488,827 

705,260,714 

2,564,749,541 

281 

North  Carolina 

2  206  287 

156  137  868 

9  079  925 

165,217,793 

75 

North  Dakota.  . 

577,056 

55,203,241 

55,203,241 

96 

Ohio 

4  767  121 

691  213  034 

197  072  487 

888  285,521 

186 

Oregon  

672,765 

76,010,451 

3,611,500 

79,621,951 

118 

7  665  111 

1  241  865  748 

465  104  712 

1,706  970,460 

223 

•Rhode  Island 

542  610 

85  064  017 

52  623  684 

137  687  701 

254 

South  Carolina     .    .  . 

1  515  400 

114  622  829 

15  116  654 

129,739,483 

86 

South  Dakota  

583,888 

63,579,694 

63,579,694 

109 

Tennessee  ... 

2  184  789 

171  632  371 

37  495  347 

209,127,718 

96 

Texas 

3  896  542 

262  708  661 

976  536 

263  685  197 

68 

Utah. 

373*351 

42  606  638 

4,334,810 

46,941,448 

126 

Vermont  
Virginia  

355,956 
2,061  612 

57,606,582 
180,205,741 

7,044,595 
39,269,190 

64,651,177 
219,474,931 

182 
106 

Washington  

1,141,990 

126,583,116 

8,802,412 

135,385,528 

119 

West  Virginia  

1,221,119 

94,853,455 

14,561,149 

109,414,604 

90 

Wisconsin  . 

2  333  860 

224  237  069 

35  588  883 

259  825  952 

111 

Wyoming-  .  . 

145,965 

16,871,048 

16,871,048 

116 

,  *  Compiled  from  Spectator  Year  Book,  1911,  p.  366. 


F.  L.  Hoffman 


HIGHEST  MOUNTAINS  IN  THE  WORLD. 

(Exceeding  20,000  feet.) 


Mountain.  Feet. 

Asia— Mt.Everest.29,002 

Godwin-Austen .  28,278 

Kunchinginga....28,156 

Gusherbrum 26,378 

Dhawalagiri. . .  .26,826 
Masherbrum..  .  .25,600 

Kakapushi 25,560 

Kutha  Kangir. . 24,740 


Mountain.  ,  Feet. 
Nanda  Devi...  25,600 
Mustagata...  .  24,400 
Chumalari...  .23,946 

South  America  — 

Mountain.  Feet. 
Ariconhuma.  .21,490 
Sorata  21,470 
Illampu  21,490 
Huandoy  21,089 
Sajama  21,047 

Mountain.  Feet. 
Tupungota.  .  .20,286 
Cacaca  20,250 
Haina  20,171 
San  Jose  20,020 
Misti*  .  .  20  013 

Aconcagua.  .  .22,860 
Mercedario..  .22,315 

Illimani  21,030 
Paniri  20,735 

North  America  — 

Huascan  22,051 

Chimborazo..  .  20,498 

McKinley  20,290 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


175 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  AFRICA. 


Miles. 

Length  of  the  Equator 24,900 

'    Meridian 24,858 

'     a    Tropic .  22,853 

"    Polar  Circle 9.940 

the  Great  Axis  (diameter  of  the  Equator) 7,926 

"    Little  Axis  (diameter  through  the  Poles) 7,400 

"    Parallel  Degree  on  the  Equator 69 .  2 

in  the  Tropics 63 . 5 

in  the  Polar  Circle 27 .  7 

at  the  Pole 0 

The  solid  contents  of  the  Globe  amounts  to  260,000,000,000  cubic  miles. 


176 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


179 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  ASIA. 


WE5T  COAST 
OF  AFRICA 
1^.800 


MEXICO 
8,000 


FURTHER  INDIA      CONGO  & 
&  E.INDIES  5UDAN 

6,800  6,000 


BOLIVIA 
2.900 


PERU 
2,700 

RUBBER. 

A  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 
(in  tons.) 


CEYLON 
&  INDIA 
I.43O 


VENEZUELA 

^^68,900,000 


.     HAITI 
153,800.000 


wrxico 

£6,000,000 


SALVADOR 

55,000,000 


DUTCH 
101,800.000 


81.000,000 


COLOMBIA 
70,000,000 


COFFEE. 

ONE  YEAR'S  PRODUCTION. 
(in  Ibs.) 


180 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


181 


STEPPES,  HEATHER 
[CAPABLE  DF  CULTIVATION  BUT  FALL 
TABLELAND  LOWLAND. 
45% 


ASIA  JFORESTAN 
CULTIVATED^  ^-^X^BRUSHLAN 


INDIAN 
OCEAN 
14.69% 


DESERT., 

MOUNTAIN  CHAINS 


AND OTHER  UNPROD,; 


PDIAR  REGIONS 
0-82% 


TEPPES.PASTURE&ETC 
PRAIRIES,  LLANOS,  PAMPAS 
VANNAS 


STURES  AND  STEPPES 
[CAPABLE  OF  CULTIVATION]  ill 


FOREST 

AND 

BRUSH LAND 


UNPROD 

NTAIN  CH 
ICE  BOUND  DISTRI 


^DESERT  AN 

RODUCTIVE  DISTRICTS 


ASTUREAND  STEFFEN 


^  6.57XJEPREST 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  LAXD  AND  WATER  OX  THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE 
AND  THE  DIVISION  OF  LAXD  IX  FIVE  COXTIXEXTS. 


182 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CUSTOMS  AND  INTERNAL  REVENUE 
COLLECTED  ON  DISTILLED  SPIRITS, 
WINES,  MALT  LIQUORS  AND  TOBAC- 
CO WITH  TOTAL  NATIONAL  REVENUE 
AND  PERCENTAGE:  1911. 

For  the  year  1911  the  total  national 
ordinary  receipts  from  all  sources  amounted 
to  $701,372,375  and  the  total  internal  revenue 
and  customs  receipts  from  alcoholic  beverages 
and  tobacco  and  the  manufacture  of  same 
amounted  to  $329,381,000,  or  in  other  words 
the  receipts  from  alcoholic  beverages  and 
tobacco  was  46.96  per  cent,  of  the  total 
revenue  of  the  United  States. 

The  customs  revenue  from  alcoholic  bever- 
ages, amounting  to  $16,663,000,  was  divided 
as  follows:  From  malt  liquors  $2,075,000, 
from  wine  $5,495,000,  from  distilled  spirits 
$9,093,000.  The  customs  revenue  from 
tobacco  and  the  manufacture  of  same 
amounted  to  $26,160,000.  The  internal 
revenue  from  alcoholic  beverages,  exclusive 
of  licensed  duties,  which  for  the  manufacture 
of  malt  liquors  and  distilled  spirits  amounted 
to  $503,000  and  for  the  sale  of  malt  liquors 
and  distilled  spirits  to  $7,340,000,  totaling 
$211,805,000,  was  divided  as  follows:  From 
malt  liquors  $63,217,000  and  from  distilled 
spirits  $148,588,000.  The  internal  revenue 
from  tobacco  amounted  to  $66,910,000. 
Thus  for  the  year  1911  the  total  internal 
revenue  and  customs  receipts  from  alcoholic 
beverages  amounted  to  $236,311,000  and 
from  tobacco  and  the  manufacture  of  same  to 
$93,070,000. 

DOMESTIC  EXPRESS  RATES. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  space  allotted  to  the 
subject  to  give  an  accurate  idea  of  domestic 
express  rates.  However,  the  matter  will  be 
greatly  simplified  if  the  rates  based  on  a  zone 
system,  as  advocated  by  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission,  are  put  into  effect.  In  any 
case,  the  introduction  of  the  Parcels  Post  will 
cause  a  material  reduction  hi  the  present  rates 
and  tariffs. 

FOREIGN  EXPRESS  RATES. 

The  following  is  a  tariff  of  all  rates  for 
express  packages.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  rates  of  this  kind  are  subject  to  change 
without  notice,  and  they  are  published  solely 
in  the  interests  of  the  shipper.  These  rates 
may  be  considered  to  be  maximum.  Thus  we 
find  another  company  offering  shippings  to 
Italy  as  low  as  40  cents  a  single  pound  to 
Genoa,  60  cents  to  Rome,  and  65  cents  to 
other  railway  stations.  Also  a  rate  of  30 
cents  a  pound  to  Paris  and  25  cents  a  pound 
for  shipments  to  London,  via  Southampton. 
The  rates  9n  say  a  hundred  pounds  do  not 
vary  in  quite  the  same  ratio.  It  is  believed 
that  with  this  tariff  of  rates  the  intending 
traveler  can  make  his  arrangements  as  to  ship- 
ping packages  of  guide  books,  etc.,  rather 
more  intelligently  than  without  it.  Rates  to 
South  Africa,  North  Africa,  Asia,  India,  Japan, 
Australia,  the  West  Indies,  Porto  Rico,  Cen- 
tral America  and  South  America  are  not  in- 
cluded, as  these  rates  vary  so  radically  that  it 
is  impossible  to  get  any  accurate  idea  of  what 
the  shipment  would  actually  cost  without  the 
publication  of  a  more  extensive  table  than 
space  will  permit, 


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I 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


183 


PRINCIPAL  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES  FROM  AUSTRALASIA. 


INTERNATIONAL  UNION  FOR  THE 
The  Internatronal  Union  for  the  Publication 
of  Customs  Tariffs  was  founded  by  an  inter- 
national convention,  July  5,  1890,  and  con- 
cluded between  fifty-two  states  and  semi-inde- 
pendent colonies.  The  object  of  the  union  is 
to  publish  as  promptly  and  as  correctly  as 
possible  all  the  tariffs  of  the  world  i»  gye 


PUBLICATION  OF  CUSTOMS  TARIFFS, 
languages,  viz.,  English,  French,  German, 
Italian,  and  Spanish.  The  bureau  has  its  seat 
at  Brussels,  and  is  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Government  of  Belgium.  The  members  of 
the  bureau  are  delegates  from  the  principal 
countries  whose  language  is  used  w  the  pubh> 


184 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MONETARY  SYSTEMS  AND  APPROXIMATE  STOCKS  OP  MONEY,  IN  THE  AGGREGATE 


Mor> 

I 

Stock  of  gold 

Countries. 

tary 
stand- 
ard. 

Monetary  unit. 

Popula- 
tion. 

In  banks 
and  public 
treasuries. 

In  circu- 
lation. 

Total. 

1 

United  States  

Gold 

Dollar.. 

Thousands. 
93,200 

Thousands. 
$1,331,300 

Thousands. 
$378,  700 

Thousands. 
$1,710  000 

9 

Austria  Hungary  .  . 

do.. 

Crown  . 

50  500 

271.600 

85,500 

357  KK> 

•1 

Belgium 

do 

Franc 

7  300 

24  300 

4 
5 
fl 

British  Empire: 
Australia  
Canada  

...do.. 
...do  . 

Pound  sterling  — 
Dollar  

4,300 
6,200 

184,500 
108,200 

14,600 

199,100 
108,200 

7 

United  Kingdom 

..do. 

Pound  sterling 

45,000 

314,200 

335,800 

1050  000 

V 

India  

.do 

Pound  sterling  and 

295,000 

13,200 

13  200 

0 

South  Africa 

do 

rupee. 
Pound  sterling 

7  800 

50  400 

15  000 

65  400 

1ft 

Straits    Settle- 

do 

Pollar 

1  600 

2  200 

2  200 

11 

ments.2 
Bulgaria  

...do.  . 

Lev  

4,000 

6,100 

6,100 

U 

Cuba         

.  do 

Peseta 

2,100 

42,000 

13 
11 

Denmark  

Egypt 

...do... 
do 

Crown  

Piaster 

2,700 
11  300 

19,700 
8  300 

18,200 
174  600 

37,900 
t  182  900 

IT 

Finland 

do 

Markkaa 

2  900 

4  200 

2  900 

7  100 

Ifi 

France  

do 

Franc  .  . 

39,  300 

632,900 

525,  100 

71,  158,000 

17 

Germany        

do 

Mark            

63,600 

185,900 

1S 

Greece 

do 

Drachma 

2,600 

19,700 

1,900 

21  000 

1r< 

Haiti 

do 

1  500 

1,300 

''ft 

Italy 

do 

Lira 

33  900 

264  100 

•'1 

Japan  

..  do 

Yen        

52,900 

110,800 

15,500 

126,  301) 

•» 

Mexico           

do 

Peso 

13,600 

28,600 

28,600 

29| 

Netherlands 

-   do 

Florin 

5,800 

50,200 

19,200 

69  400 

84 

Norway 

do 

2  300 

9,200 

4,600 

13  800 

•>•. 

Portugal 

do 

Milreis 

5  400 

8  600 

8  600 

96 

do 

Lei 

6  800 

19  700 

27 

•>S 

Russia  

Servia 

...do... 
do 

Rouble  
Dinar 

154,000 
2,800 

634,100 
5,100 

327,300 

961,400 

Of( 

Siam 

do 

Tical 

7  000 

100 

30 
31 

South  American 
States: 
Argentine  

do 

Peso              .  . 

7,000 

244,400 

244,  400 

89 

Bolivia... 

do 

Boliviano 

2,300 

2,500 

2,500 

'VI 

Brazil 

do 

Milreis 

20,500 

98  500 

98,500 

34 

Chile  

.'..do... 

Peso  .  .  . 

3,500 

500 

500 

35 

Colombia  

...do... 

Dollar  

4,300 

M 

Ecuador  

.do.. 

Sucre  

1,500 

2,400 

2,100 

4,500 

37 

3S 

Guiana: 
British  

do 

Pound  sterling  . 

300 

100 

100 

SP 

Dutch     . 

do 

100 

100 

100 

41) 

French  

...do... 

Franc  

100 

100 

100 

41 
42 
43 

Paraguay  
Peru  
Uruguay...  . 

...do... 
...do... 
do 

Peso  
Sol  
Peso 

800 
4,500 
1,100 

300 
8,300 
15,500 

"'3,'  966" 

300 

12,200 
15,500 

44 

4ri 

Venezuela  
Spain 

...do... 
do 

Bolivar  
Peseta 

2,600 
19  700 

400 

106,800 

2,900 

3,300 
100,800 

40 

Sweden  

.do... 

Crown  

5,400 

21,600 

3,200 

24,800 

47 
4S 
49 

Switzerland  
Turkey  
C  e  n  t  r.a  1  American 

...do... 
...do... 
Silver' 

Franc  
Piaster  

3,300 
24,000 
5  300 

30,000 
15,500 
1,500 

34.700 
130,400 
100 

64,700 
151,900 
1,000 

States. 

Total... 

1,031.700 

4,857,000 

2,102,200 

G,  500,  700 

. 

1  Estimates  for  the  United  Kingdom  prior  to  that  for  1910  were  for  coin  only;  these  figures  include 
$100,000,000  for  bullion  in  the  Bank  of  England. 

2  Includes  Straits  Settlements,  the  Malay  States,  and  Johore. 

s  Except  Costa  Rica  and  British  Honduras  (gold  standard  countries). 

« This  estimate  is  based  upon  a  calculation  made  by  Messrs.  P.  Arminjon  and  B.  Michel  in  1908,  who 
estimated  the  stock  of  gold  in  the  country  at  from  33,000,000  to  41,000,000  Egyptian  pounds.  The  mean  of 
these  figures  was  adopted  in  this  table  last  year.  Since  their  estimate  was  made  the  net  imports  of  gold 
into  Egypt  to  Dec.  31,  1910,  have  amounted  to  528,919,061,  but  as  there  is  said  to  be  a  consid2rable 
absorption  of  gold  for  ornaments,  no  change  in  the  estimate  of  the  monetary  stock  has  been  made. 

a  This  amount  has  been  reduced  to  a  gold  basis;  that  is,  100  pesos  equal  1  United  States  gold  dollar. 

«  Gold  conversion  value. 

i  Estimate  ol  A.  De  Foville,  1909. 

8  This  Is  the  amount  in  the  currency  reserves.  Fred.  J.  Atkinson,  accountant-general  of  India,  in 
1908,  estimated  the  active  rupee  circulation  at  2,040,000,000  rupees;  small  silver  coin  at  140,000,000  rupees. 

NOTE.— The  blank  spaces  in  this  table  signify  that  no  satisfactory  information  is  available. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


185 


AND  PER  CAPITA,  IN  THE  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES  OP  THE  WORLD,  DECEMBER  31, 1910. 


Stock  of  silver. 

Uncovered 
paper. 

Per  capita. 

1 

2 
3 

I 

u 
7 
5 

9 

10 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
IS 
19 
2J 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
2S 
29 
30 

31 
32 

33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
33 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
43 
49 

Full  tender. 

Limited 
tender. 

Total. 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Paper. 

Total. 

Thousands. 
$568,300 

fcn. 

12,400 

NU. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
101,000 

Nil. 
Nil. 

Thousands. 
$161,200 
129,100 
2,600 

10,000 
6,700 
116,800 
45,000 

20,000 
37,500 

4.800 
5,000 
8,000 
15,800 
500 
63,700 
243,900 
3,000 
1,500 
1,400 
125,100 
4,000 
33,300 
3,400 
37,200 
200 
73,500 
1,500 

Thmuands. 
$729,500 
129,100 
15,000 

10  000 

'o',700 
116,800 
140,000 

20,000 
37,500 

4,800 
5,000 
8,000 
15,800 
500 
411,100 
243,900 
3,000 
2,500 
24,100 
125,100 
56,000 
33,300 
3,400 
37,200 
200 
78,500 
1,500 
49,400 

9,400 
500 
25,000 
2,800 

Thousands. 
$784,fiOO 
liS.-VX) 
135,300 

$18,35 
7.07 
3.33 

46.30 
17.45 
14.44 
.05 

8.38 
1.37 

1.53 
20.00 
14.04 
16.19 
2.45 
29.46 
2.93 
8.31 
.87 
7.79 
1.36 
2.10 
11.97 
6.00 
1.59 
2.90 
6.24 
1.82 
.01 

36.21 
1.09 
4.80 
.14 

$7.83 
2.56 
2.05 

2.33 
.     1.08 
2.60 
.49 

2.56 
23.44 

1.20 
2.38 
2.96 
1.40 
.17 
10.47 
3.83 
1.15 
1.67 
.71 
2.36 
4.12 
5.74 
1.48 
6.89 
.03 
.51 
.54 
7.06 

1.34 
.22 
1.22 
.80 

$8.41 
2.84 
18.53 

$34.59 
12.47 
23.91 

48.63 
30.92 
19.60 
.67 

10.94 
29.50 

5.18 
22.38 
22.00 
18.18 
6.58 
45.60 
11.10 
18.92 
8.00 
13.88 
5.41 
9.98 
28.10 
9.83 
21.92 
8.53 
6.75 
4.25 
7.37 

82.55 
3.04 
15.81 
16.20 
2.33 
5.20 

3.33 
6.00 
8.00 
41.63 
3.24 
19.55 
7.34 
18.09 
12.18 
31.39 
7.43 
4.05 

76,800 
115,300 
38,900 

12.39 
2.56 
.13 

7,500 
9,800 

4.60 
2.45 

"  "s.'oo' 

.59 
3.96 
5.67 
4.34 
9.46 
5.46 
5.38 
1.69 
3.76 
10.39 
2.35 
13.44 
5.60 

Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
347.400 
fcil. 

13,500 
6,700 
11,500 
223,000 
276,100 
24,600 
8,200 
182,300 
89,300 
51,200 
60,300 
5,400 
72,600 
38,100 

1,000 
22,700 
Nil. 
52,000 

Nil. 
Nil. 

Nil. 

5,300 
2,100 

•315,000 
4,000 
•200,  700 
53,400 
MO,  000 
2,000 

500 
200 
600 
33,000 

1.89 
.30 

45.00 
1.73 
9.79 
15.26 
2.33 
1.33 

1.67 
2.00 
6.00 
41.25 

49,400 

NU. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 

NU. 
NU. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
NU. 

9,400 
500 
25,000 
2,800 

1,300 

400 
300 
100 

1,300 

400 
300 
100 

3.00 

.33 
1.00 
1.00 
.38 
2.71 
14.09 
1.27 
5.42 
4.59 
19.60 
6.33 
.30 

.87 

1.33 
3.00 
1.00 

2,400 
4,300 
11,500 
173,700 
8,600 
13,500 
26,400 
5,400 

2,400 
4,300 
11,500 
173,  700 
8,600 
13,500 
26,400 
5,400 

.53 

3.91 
4.42 
8.82 
1.59 
4.09 
1.10 
1.01 

1,700 

4.300 
76JOOO 
32,400 
25,400 

1.55 
1.65 
3.85 
6.00 
7,70 

NU. 

Nil. 
Nil. 

14,500 

2.74 

1,154,200 

1,445,300  i        2,599,500 

3,155,500 

Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint. 


186 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


INTEREST  TABLES. 

SIMPLE  INTEREST.* 


•In  order  to  find  the  amount  of  interest  at  1  1-2,  2  1-2,  3  1-2  per  cent ,  etc.,  divide  the  amount  given  at 
twice  the  interest  (i.  e.,  3,  5,  7  per  cent  ,  etc.)  by  2. 

COMPOUND  INTEREST  TABLE  NO.  1. 
SHOWING  THE  RATE  AT  WHICH  $1  WILL  INCREASE   WHEN   AT  COMPOUND  INTEREST. 


Years. 

•« 

,, 

5% 

6% 

7% 

Years. 

3% 

4% 

6% 

6% 

7% 

£••••::  

1.0300 
1  0609 

1.0400 

1.0500 

1.0600 

.0700 

11    

1.3842 

1.5394 

1.7103 

1.8983 

2.1048 

a  ; 

1  0927 

1  1249 

18856 

2  4098 

4 

1  1255 

5  :::::::::::: 

1.1592 
1  1940 

1.2166 
1  2663 

1.2763 
1  3401 

1.3382 
1  4185 

4025 

15   

1.5580 
1  6047 

1.8009 
1  8730 

2'.0789 
2  1828 

2:3960 
2  5403 

2:7590 
2  9522 

7    
8   

1.2299 
1.2668 

1.3159 
1  3686 

1.4071 
1  4774 

1.5036 
1  5J»38 

.6058 

17   

1.6528 
1  7034 

1.9480 
2  0258 

2.2926 
2  4060 

*%® 

?•#§& 

9   

1.3048 

1  4233 

1  5513 

1  6984 

8384 

1  7535 

2  1068 

2  5269 

30256 

3.6165 

10  

1.3439 

1.4802 

1.6289 

1.7908 

1.9671 

20   

1.8061 

2.1911 

2.6633 

3.2071 

3.8697 

COMPOUND  INTEREST  TABLE  NO.  9 
SHOWING  THE  INCREASE  OF  $1  IF  INVESTED  AT  COMPOUND   INTEREST  FOR  100  YEARS. 


Invest- 
ment. 


Per 

C«Bt, 


Amt.   in 
100  yrs. 


Invert-        Per 

znent.        Cent 


Per 

Cent, 


Amt,   in 
100  yrs. 


Invest-)    Per 
Cent. 


Amount  in 
100  years. 


10. 

60.50 


1          24 


21,174,400.00 

15,145,000.00 

2,551,799,404.00 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


187 


YEARS  IN  WHICH  HONEY  WILL  DOUBLE  AT  SEVERAL  BATES  OF  INTEREST. 


Rate  of 
Int. 

,  Simple  Interest. 

Compound  Interest. 

Rate  of 
Int. 

Simple  Interest. 

Compound  Interest. 

|fc$ 

100  years  
5O  years  
40  years  
33  years  and  4  months 
28  years  and  208  days. 
25  years  

69  years  and  245  days.  .  . 
35  years  
28  years  and  26  days  .  .  . 
23  yean  and  164  days.  . 
20  years  and  94  days  .  .  . 
17  years  and  246  days.  . 

105? 

20  years  
16  years  and  243  days. 
14  years  and  104  days. 
12  years  and  183  days. 
11  years  and  40  days.. 

14  years  and  75  days. 
11  years  and  327  days. 
10  years  and  89  days. 
9  years  and  2  days. 
8  years  and  16  days. 

4V6/2  

22  years  and  81  days. 

15  years  and  273  days.  . 

. 

*n              <^ra" 

TAALES  OF  WAGE. 

MONTHLY  WAGE  TABLE. 


Days 


11 

1  year 


$10 


$12 


$13 


$14 


$15 


$16 


2.31 
2.77 
3.23 
3.69 
4.15 
4.62 
5.08 
5.44 
6.00 
6.46 
6.92 


31 
;.77 
9.23 
9.69 
10.15 
10.62 
11.08 
11.54 
12.00 
24.00 
36.00 
48.00 


84.00 
96.00 
108.00 
J20.00 
132.00 
144.00 


$17 


$18 


$19 


YEARLY  WAGE  TABLE. 


Month. 


1.06 

il 

1.44 
1.53 
1.63 

iil 


11.* 

ill 


Per 
Week.     1 


Per 
Day. 


Per     I      Per 
Year.   |  Month. 


WEEKLY  WAGE  TABLE. 


Hours 


$9.00    $10.00    $11.00    $12.00    $13.00    $14.00 


188 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Trade  Discount  Table 

From  the  Business  Man's  Pocket  Book,  by  permission  of  the  owners  of  the  copyright 

The  International  Text  Book  Company,  proprietors  of  the  International 

Correspondence  Schools  of  Scranton.  Pa. 


Rate  Per  Cent. 

Equiv- 
alent 

Net 

Rate  Per  Cent. 

Equiv- 
alent 

Net 

.0250 
.0494 
.0738 
.0969 
.1201 
.1421 
.1225 
.1444 
.1660 
.1872 
.2103 
.0500 
.0738 
.0975 
.1201 
.1426 
.1640 
.1000 
.1225 
.1450 
.1664 
.1878 
.2081 
.1900 
.2103 
.2305 
.2497 
.2710 
.1500 
.1713 
.1925 
.2127 
.2329 
.2521 
.2350 
.2541 
.2733 
.2915 
.3115 
.2000 
.2200 
.2400 
.2590 
.2780 
.2962 
.2800 
.2980 
.3160 
.3331 
.3520 
.2500 
.2688 
.2871 
.2875 
.3053 
.3231 
.3063 
.3236 
.3410 
.3583 

.9750 
.9506 
.9262 
.9031 
.8799 
.8579 
.8775 
.8556 
.8340 
.8128 
.7897 
.9500 
.9262 
.9025 
.8799 
.8574 
.8360 
.9000 
.8775 
.8550 
.8336 
.8122 
.7919 
.8100 
.7897 
.7695 
.7503 
.7290 
.8500 
.8287 
.8075 
.7873 
.7671 
.7479 
.7650 
.7459 
.7267 
.7085 
.6885 
.8000 
.7800 
.7600 
.7410 
.7220 
.  7038 
.7200 
.7020 
.6840 
.6669 
.6480 
.7500 
.7312 
.7129 
.7125 
.6947 
.6769 
.6937 
.6764 
.6590 
.6417 

25 
25, 
25, 
25, 
25, 
27 
27< 
27. 
27i 
27i 

8: 

27 
27< 
27i 
27< 
27- 
27J 
27 
27 
30 
30 
30. 
30 
30, 
30, 
30 
30, 
30. 
30, 
30 
30. 
30, 
30, 
30, 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32i 
32 
32- 
32i 
32$ 

and  10  . 

.3250 
.3419 
.3588 
.3756 
.392J 
.2750 
.2931 
.3108 
.3113 
.3285 
3457 
.3294 
.3462 
.3629 
.3797 
.3475 
.3638 
.3801 
.3964 
.4128 
.3000 
.3175 
.3346 
.3350 
.3516 
.3683 
.3525 
.3687 
.3849 
.4011 
.3700 
.3858 
.4015 
.4173 
.4330 
.3250 
.3419 
.3584 
.3588 
.3748 
.3909 
.3756 
.3912 
.4068 
.4224 
.3925 
.4077 
.4229 
.4381 
.4533 
.3500 
.3663 
.3821 
.3825 
.3979 
.4134 
.3988 
.4138 
.4288 
.4439 

.6750 
.6581 
.6412 
.6244 
.6075 
.7250 
.7069 
.6892 
.6887 
.6715 
.6543 
.6706 
.6538 
.6371 
.6203 
.6525 
.6362 
.6199 
.6036 
.5872 
.7000 
.6825 
.6654 
.6650 
.6484 
.6317 
.6475 
.6313 
.6151 
.5989 
.6300 
.6142 
.5985 
.5827 
.5670 
.6750 
.6581 
.6416 
.6412 
.6252 
.6091 
.6244 
6088 
.5932 
.5776 
.6075 
.5923 
.5771 
.5619 
.5467 
.6500 
.6337 
.6179 
.6175 
.6021 
.5866 
.6012 
.5862 
.5712 
.5561 

and  2} 

10  and  24r.  
10  and  5  . 

and  5..  . 

5  and  2  j 

•  10,  and  74.... 
10,  and  10  

5,  and  5  

5,  5.  and  2*  
and  10  

and  2$  .  . 

10  and  24  .  . 

24,  and  24,   - 

10,  and  5  . 
10,  5,  and  2*  
10  and  10 

'  and  5  .... 

5  and  24, 

5  and  5 

i  and  74, 

and  2} 

,  74,  and  24.... 
,  7*  and  5 

and  5  

5,  and  24 

,  74.,  and  7*.....  . 
and  10.  . 

5,  and  5....  

5,  5,  and  24, 

10  and  2\ 

,  10,  and  5 

)and  2$... 

,  10,  and  7$  

)  and  5 

),  5,  and2i  
).  5,  and  5  
).  5,  5,  and  24,  
)and  10  
),  10,  and  24.  .  

and  24,... 

24  and  24 

and  5  

5,  and  24. 

),  10,  and  5.... 

5  and  5 

),  10,  5.  and  2*.... 
),  10,  and  10  , 
i  

and  74  . 

74.  and  24.  

74  and  5 

5  and  2}... 

7}  and  7J 

5  and  5 

and  10  •  
10.  and  2i  
10  and  5 

>,  5,  and  24... 

>,  5,  and  5... 

>,  5,  5,  and  24..  . 

10  and  74. 

>  and  10.  .  . 

10  and  10 

>,  10,  and  24.  

>,  10,  and  5  

and  2*..  , 

>,  10.  5,  and  2$  
>,  10,  and  10  

,  24,  and  2$ 

>  

5  and  24 

>and  24,  

5  and  5 

>  and  5  

and  74... 
,  74.,  and  2*  
7£  and  5 

)  5  and  24, 

>,  5,  and  5... 

>,  5.  5,  and  24...  . 

7$  and  74, 

•  and  10  
-,  10,  and  24,  
,  10,  and  5.  . 

and  10  
.  10,  and  24.  
10  and  5 

,  10,  5,  and  24,  
,  10  and  10  

,  10,  and  7J  

,  10,  and  10  

35 

and  2J... 

35 
35, 
35 
35, 
35, 
35  i 
35, 
35, 
35, 

ind  2\ 

.  24,  and  24.  
and  5  

2\  and  24,  .. 

ind  5 

,  5,  and  24.  

5  and  24,  

,  5,  and  5..  . 

5  and  5 

and  7J  
,  74  and  24. 

ind  74  . 

74,,  and  24,  
74,  and  5  
7!  and  74  . 

,  74.  and  5... 

,  7|,  and  7i  

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


189 


Trade  Discount  Table— (Continued) 


Rate  Per  Cent. 


Equiv- 
alent 


Net 


Rate  Per  Cent. 


Equiv- 
alent 


Net 


35  and  10 

35,  10,  and  24 

35.  10.  and  5 

35,  10,  and  74 

35,  10,  and  10 

37' 

and  24........ 

24.  and  24 

and  5 

5,  and  2* 

5,  and  5 

and  74 

and  24 

and  5 

,.  and  7* 

and  10 

10,  and  24 

10,  and  5. 


ana 

•1 


10,  and  74.  ..  . 
10,  and  10.  ..  . 


37 
40. 

40  and  24 

40,  2*.  and  2*.. 

40  and  5 

40,  5,  and  2*... 

40,  5,  and  5 

40  and  7* 

40,  7$,  and  2*.. 
40,  74,  and  5... 
40,  74.  and  7*.. 

40  and  10 

40,  10,  and  2$.. 

40,  10,  and  5... 

40,  10,  and  7$.. 

40,  10,  and  10.. 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 

42 


and  24 

2*.  and  24. 

and  5 

,  5.  and  2$.. 

5.  and  5... 
and  74 

7$,  and  2\. 

7*.  and  5.. 

7$,  and  74. 
and  10 

10,  and  24. 
,  10,  and  5.. 


.4150 
.4296 

.4443 
.4589 
.4735 
.3750 
.3906 
.4058 
.4063 
.4211 
.4360 
.4219 
.4364 
.4508 
.4654 
.4375 
.4516 
.4656 
.4797 
.4938 
.4000 
.4150 
.4296 
.4300 
.4443 
.4585 
.4450 
.4589 
.4728 
.4866 
.4600 
.4735 
.4870 
.5005 
.5140 
.4250 
.4394 
.4534 
.4538 
.4675 
.4811 
.4681 
.4814 
.4947 
.5080 
.  4825 
.4954 
.5084 


.585CF 
.5704 
.5557 
.5411 
.5265 
.6250 
6094 
.5942 
.5937 
.5789 
.5640 
.5781 
.5636 
.5492 
.5346 
.5625 
.5484 
.5344 
.5203 
.5062 
.6000 
.5850 
.5704 
.5700 
.5557 
.5415 
.5550 
.5411 
.5272 
.5134 
.5400 
.5265 
.5130 
.4995 
.4860 
.5750 
.5606 
.5466 
.5462 
.5325 
.5189 
.5319 
.5186 
.5053 
.4920 
.5175 
.5046 
.4916 


42*.  10,  and  74. 
424,  10  and  10.. 

45 

45  and  24 

45,  24,  and  24.. 

45  and  5 

45,  5,  and  24... 

45,  5,  and  5 

45  and  74 

45.  7*.  and  24.. 
45,  74,  and  5... 
45,  74,  and  74.. 

45  and  10 

45.  10,  and  24.. 
45,  10,  and  5... 
45.  10,  and  74. . 
45,  10,  and  10.. 

47 \  and' 24.'."! 
474,  24,  and  24. 

and  5 

5,  and  24.. 

5  and  5 

474  and  74..  . 
and  24. 
and  5. 
.„  and  74. 

and  10 

10,  and  24. 
10,  and  5.. 
10,  and  74. 
10,  and  10. 


474,  74, 
474  74. 
47  ,  74, 


47 
47 
47 
47 
47 
50 

50  and  24 

50,  24,  and  2$. 
50  and  5.....". 
50,  5,  and  2*.. 
50,  5,  and  5.'. . 

50  and  74 

50,  74,  and  24. 
50,  74,  and  5 . . 
50,  74,  and  74. 

50  and  10 

50.  10,  and  24. 
50,  10,  and  5.. 
50,  10,  and  74. 
50,  10,  and  10. 


.5213 
.5343 
.4500 
.4638 
.4772 
.4775 
.4906 
.5036 
.4913 
.5040 
.5167 
.5295 
.5050 
.5174 
.5298 
.5421 
.5545 
.4750 
.4881 
.5009 
.5013 
.5138 
.5262 
.5144 
.5265 
.5387 
.5509 
.5275 
.5393 
.5511 
.5629 
.5748 
.5000 
.5125 
.5247 
.5250 
.5369 
.5488 
.5375 
.5491 
.5606 
.5722 
.5500 
.5613 
.5725 
.5838 
.5950 


.4787 
.4657 
.5500 
.5362 
.5228 
.5225 
.5094 
.4964 
.5087 
4960 
.4833 
.4705 
.4950 
.4826 
.4702 
.4579 
.4455 
.5250 
.5119 
.4991 
.4987 
.4862 
.4738 
.4856 
.4735 
.4613 
.4491 
.4725 
.4607 
.4489 
.4371 
.4252 
.5000 
.4875 
.4753 
.4750 
.4631 
.4512 
.4625 
.4509 
.4394 
.4278 
.4500 
.4387 
.4275 
.4162 
.4050 


THE  SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


ANCIENT 

The  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  so-called , 
or  rather  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Ancient 
World,  were  as  follows:  The  Pharos  of 
Alexandria;  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes;  The 
Great  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus;  The  i 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon;  The  Pyramids; 
The  Tomb  of  Mausolus;  and  the  Great  Statue 
of  Jupiter  at  Olympia.  All  of  the  Seven 
Wonders  were  situated  on  the  shores  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean.  If  the 
Greek  writers  had  been  better  acquainted 
with  the  north  of  Europe  or  the  south  of 
Asia,  they  would  probably  have  made  a 
different  selection. 


MODERN 

The  Seven  Wonders  of  the  Modern  World* 
according  to  the  poll  of  a  thousand  scientists 
in  America  and  Europe,  are,  in  the  order  of 
importance,  with  the  votes  cast;  Wireless 
telegraphy,  244  votes;  telephone,  185;  aero- 
plane, 167;  radium,  165;  spectrum  analysis, 
126;  X-ray,  111.  The  Panama  Canal  was 
given  100  votes;  anesthesia,  94,  and  synthetic 
chemistry,  81.  Only  one  ballot,  bearing  the 
name  of  one  of  the  most  distinguished  authori- 
iif<  on  chemistry  of  Munich.  Germany,  was 
chocked  for  the  seven  title?,  while  six  ballots 
showed  the  selection  of  six  of  tbe  final  seven. 


190 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK, 


THE  PHAROS  OF  ALEXANDRIA. 


THE  GREAT  TEMPLE  OF  DIANA 
AT  EPHESUS. 


Courtesy  of  "The  Sphere, 


THE  COLOSSUS  OF  RHODES. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


191 


THE  HANGING  GARDENS  OF  BABYLON. 


Courtesy  of   "The  Sphere." 
THE  STATUE  OF  JUPITER  AT  OLYMPIA 


THE  TOMB  OF  MAUSOLUS. 


192 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Courtesy   of   "The   Sphere.' 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  EGYPT. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  exercises  per- 
sonal supervision  of  public  business  relating 
to  the  agricultural  industry.  He  appoints  all 
the  officers  and  employees  of  the  department 
with  the  exception  of  the  Assistant  Secretary 
and  the  Chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau,  who  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  directs  the 
management  of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions,  and 
offices  embraced  in  the  department.  He  exer- 
cises advisory  supervision  over  agricultural 
experiment  stations  which  receive  aid  from 
the  National  Treasury. 

BUREAU    OF    ANIMAL    INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  conducts 
the  inspection  of  animals,  meats,  and  meat- 
food  products  under  the  act  of  Congress  of 
June  30,  1906,  and  has  charge  of  the  inspection 
of  import  and  export  animals.  It  makes  special 
investigations  in  regard  to  dairy  subjects. 

FOREST   SERVICE. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry  gives  practical  ad- 
vice in  the  conservative  handling  of  forest 
lands;  investigates  methods  of  forest  planting, 
and  gives  practical  advice  to  tree  planters; 
investigates  the  control  and  prevention  of 
forest  fires,  and  other  forest  problems. 

BUREAU    OF    CHEMISTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  makes  such  inves- 
tigations and  analyses  as  pertain  in  general  to 
the  interests  of  agriculture,  dealing  with  fertil- 
izers and  agricultural  products.  It  inspects 
the  conditions  of  manufacture,  transportation, 
and  sale  of  food  and  drug  products  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  whether  such  products 
are  adulterated  or  misbranded  within  the 
meaning  of  the  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of 
June  30,  1906.  Also  inspects  imported  and 
exported  food  products. 


BUREAU    OF   SOILS. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils  has  for  its  object  the 
investigation  of  soils  in  their  relation  to  crops, 
the  mapping  of  soils,  and  the  investigation, 
mapping,  and  reclamation  of  alkali  lands. 

BUREAU    OF    PLANT    INDUSTRY. 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  studies  plant 
life  in  all  its  relations  to  agriculture.  It  in- 
cludes vegetable,  pathological  and  physiologi- 
c-il,  botanical,  pomological  and  grass  and 
forage  plant  investigations. 

BUREAU    OF    ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  Bureau  of  Entomology  obtains  and  dis- 
seminates information  regarding  injurious  in- 
sects affectins;  field  crops,  fruits,  small  fruits, 
and  truck  crops,  forests  and  forest  products, 
and  stored  products. 

BUREAU    OF    BIOLOGICAL   SURVEY. 

The  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  investi- 
gates the  economic  relation  of  birds  and  mam- 
mals and  recommends  measures  for  the  preser- 
vation of  beneficial  and  the  destruction  of 
injurious  species.  It  also  studies  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animals  and  plants 
and  maps  the  natural  life  zones  of  the  country. 

OFFICE    OF    EXPERIMENT    STATIONS. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  repre- 
sents the  department  in  its  relations  with  the 
agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations, 
which  are  now  in  operation  in  all  the  States, 
and  directly  manages  the  experiment  stations 
in  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  Guam. 
It  seeks  to  promote  the  interest  of  agricultura  J 
education  and  investigation  throughout  the 
United  States. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


MERCHANT    MARINE, 


NUMBER  AXD  NET  AND  GROSS  TONNAGE  OF  STEAM  AND  SAILING  VESSELS  OF  OVER 
100  Toxs,  OF  THE  SEVERAL  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD,  AS  RECORDED  IN  LLOYD'S 
REGISTER  FOR  1911-12. 


Flag. 

Steam. 

Sail. 

Total. 

British: 
United  Kingdom  

Number. 
8,487 
1,414 

Net  tons. 
10,519,076 
788,580 

Gross  tons. 
17,292,715 
1,350,934 

Number. 
847 
694 

Net  ton  *  . 
579,982 
195,  193 

Number. 
9,334 
2,108 

Tonnage. 
17.872.697 
1,546,127 

Colonies..     . 

Total 

9,901 

11,307,656 

18,643,649 

1,541 

775,175 

11,442 

19.418,824 

American  (United  States): 
Sea  

1,115 

579 
76 

1.117,446 
1,666.524 
28,379 

1,  '715,  427 
2,201,866 
45,087 

1.647 
35 
14 

1,093,257 
99,757 

2,884 

2,762 
614 
90 

2,808,684 
2,301,623 
47,971 

Lakes  

Philippine  Islands 

Total 

1,770 

2,812,349 

3,962,380 

1,696 

1,195,898 

3,466 

5,158,278 

Argentinian 

212 
377 
154 
342 
98 
66 
57 
551 
559 
890 
1,856 
322 
5 
479 

42 
1,373 
16 
98 
22 
649 
5 
13 
526 
975 
162 
38 
8 

46 

91,890 
528,588 
184,963 
161,245 
71,646 
55,  678 
37,085 
406,866 
635,155 
887.985 
2,494.922 
349.581 
2,017 
620.276 
760,867 
21,334 
928,084 
10,979 
46,246 
16,680 
414,975 
2.204 
8,307 
463,751 
476.  166 
85,507 
30,770 
2,420 

15,549 

154.851 

844,981 
284.662 
263,211 
112,589 
86,550 
59,988 
692,718 
1,029,596 
1,542,568 
4,092,015 
560,475 
3.387 
1,026,823 
1,200,975 
34,733 
1,537,873 
20,130 
77,945 
31,688 
710,951 
3,673 
13,499 
758,097 
808,898 
141.778 
49,918 
4,232 

26,739 

67 
5 
6 
67 
42 

""9" 
303 
100 
588 
343 
98 

22,228 
1,507 
3,723 
17,297 
37,427 

""2."  563' 
60,036 
28,691 
434,294 
374.865 
25,395 

"si.i.'ess" 

2,245 
3,878 
616,458 
19,909 
27,507 
285 
184,307 

279 
382 
160 
409 
140 
66 
66 
854 
659 
1,478 
2,199 
420 
5 
1,077 
866 
58 
2,070 
56 
199 
23 
1,191 
5 
13 
591 
1,440 
341 
52 
13 

67 

177,079 
846,488 
288,385 
280,508 
150,016 
86,550 
62,551 
752.  754 
1,058,287 
1,976,862 
4,466,880 
585,870 
3,387 
1,340,508 
1,203,220 
38,611 
2,154,331 
40.039 
105,452 
31,973 
895,258 
3,673 
13,499 
775,551 
931,482 
202,692 
59,902 
4,911 

33,333 

Austro-Hungarian  
Belgian         

Brazilian 

Chilean 

Chinese  

Cuban  

Danish  

Dutch 

French 

German 

Greek 

Haitian  

Italian  .           

598 
5 
16 
697 
40 
101 
1 
542 

Japanese    . 

Mexican 

Norwegian 

Peruvian  

Portuguese  

Roumanian  
Russian  

Sarawak  

Siamese  ... 

Spanish 

65 
465 
179 
14 
5 

21 

17,454 

122,584 
60,914 
9,984 
679 

6,594 

Swedish 

Turkish 

Uruguayan  
Venezuelan  

Other    countries:  Bulgaria, 
Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Ec- 
uador, Egypt,  Honduras, 
Liberia,  Nicaragua,  Oman, 
Panama,  Persia,  Salvador, 
Samos,  Zanzibar,  etc  

Total  

22,473 

23,931,751 

38,781,572 

7,614 

4,365,582 

30,087 

43,  147.  154 

For  valuable  information  relative  to  ocean  travel  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  "Scientific 
American  Handbook  of  Travel,"  published  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc.,  and  compiled  and  edited  by 
Albert  A.  Hopkins.  It  is  the  standard  book  on  the  subject,  and  the  tables,  etc.,  in  this  Chapter 
bring  it  up  to  date. 

193 


194 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MERCHANT  MARINE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


On  June  30,  1911,  the  merchant 
marine  of  the  United  States,  including 
all  kinds  of  documented  shipping,  com- 
prised 25,991  vessels  of  7,638,790 
gross  tons.  Of  this  number  16,881, 
having  gross  tons  of  3,559,805,  were 
operating  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
coasts ;  3,834  vessels,  with  a  tonnage 
of  954,425,  were  operating  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast.  The  power  and  material 
of  these  vessels  were  as  follows:  Sail- 
ing vessels — Wood,  8,067,  gross  tons 
1,345,515;  metal,  137,  gross  tons  252,- 
308;  total,  8,204,  with  a  gross  ton- 


nage of  1,597,823.  Of  steam  vessels 
11,300,  having  a  tonnage  of  1,125,562, 
were  made  of  wood,  and  2,007,  with 
a  tonnage  of  3,948,507,  were  built  of 
metal,  making  a  total  of  13,307  ves- 
sels, having  a  tonnage  of  5,074,069. 
There  are  also  659  wooden  canal  boats 
having  a  tonnage  of  72,370,  and  3,659 
wooden  and  162  metal  barges,  having 
a  combined  tonnage  of  894,528,  mak- 
ing a  grand  total  of  7,638,790  tons. 
During  the  year  1,422  vessels,  having 
a  gross  tonnage  of  291,162.  were  con- 
structed. Of  this  number  112  metal 
vessels  had  a  tonnage  of  195,964. 


THE  "TITANIC"  LEAVING  HER  BUILDER'S  FOR  HER  MAIDEN  AND  ONLY  VOYAGE. 


The  largest  floating  dock  in  the  world  is  to 
be  built  at  Kiel.  It  will  have  a  lifting 
capacity  of  40,000  tons.  Its  length  will  be 
656  feet,  its  width  141  feet;  and  its  sub- 
mergible  depth  35i  feet.  Hamburg  plans 
to  have  three  docks,  the  smallest  of  which  is 
now  being  built,  of  35,000,  34,000  and  20,000 
pounds  lifting  capacity.  Their  lengths  will 
be  720,  733§  and  51  li  feet,  respectively; 
their  widths,  108i,  108£  and  97  feet;  and  their 
submergible  depths,  33,  33  and  26  feet.  The 
docks  at  Medway  and  Portsmouth  will  each 
have  a  lifting  capacity  of  32,000  tons;  a 
length  of  680  feet;  a  width  of  113  feet;  and  a 
submergible  depth  of  36  feet.  Montreal's 
docks,  when  completed,  will  have  a  lifting 
capacity  of  25,000  tons;  a  length  of  600  feet; 
a  width  of  100  feet;  and  a  submergible  depth 
of  27£  feet.  Pola  intends  to  build  a  dock  with 


a  lifting  capacity  of  22,000  pounds;  length 
584  feet;  width,  11H  feet,  and  submergible 
depth,  27  feet.  Rio  de  Janeiro  has  a  dock 
with  lifting  capacity,  22,000  tons;  length, 
550  feet;  width,  100  feet,  and  submergible 
depth,  30  feet. 


Shipbuilding  statistics  for  1911  in  the 
United  States  accounted  for  1,702  new  mer- 
chant ships  of  all  descriptions,  aggregating 
243,792  gross  tons,  as  compared  with  1,208 
ships  of  203,158  gross  tons  built  during  1910. 
Thirty-five  steel  vessels  were  built  on  the 
Great  Lakes,  including  two  of  8,603  gross  tons, 
the  largest  vessels  in  the  lake  service.  Four- 
teen steel  vessels,  of  30,039  gross  tons,  were 
built  for  the  Atlantic  service. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


195 


MERCANTILE  FLEETS— BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN. 


LINES. 

Head  Office. 

ToUl 
Tonnage. 

Over 

30 

knots 

KMOTS. 

Under 
xa 

knots. 

Total. 

20 

19 

18 

17 

z6 

15 

M 

13 

12 

Hamburfr 

908,000 
7x8,000 

482,000* 
472,000 
465,000 

386*000 
322,000 
320,000 
293,000 
287,000 
282,000 
276,000 
266,000 
263,000 
242,000 
239,000 
238,000 
228,000 

2X2  OOO 

4 
3 

X 
2 

I 

X 

X 

2 
2 

5 

6 

4 

4 

4 
ii 

i 

I 

14 
ii 

45 
27 

8? 

55 
6 

166 
133 

,8 

xxs 

64 

70 
94 

78 

9* 
70 
S* 
24 

64 
56 
47 
43 
So 
81 

69 
70 

4« 

25 
37 
50 
53 

109 

120 
32 

34 

24 

20 

»7 

30 

35 

21 

35 
13 

P 

30 
42 

61 
33 
"7 
33 
45 
74 

22 

*3 

XO 
10 

67 

29 

33 

*7 

Bremen 

White  Star  

Liverpool   

Pittsburgh  S  S  Co 

Cleveland 

British  India  Steam  N.  Co.... 
P  &  0  Steam  N  Co 

4 
3 

XX 

7 

4 
3 

IO 
20 
25 

1 

3 

X 

3 

7 

22 

7 

X 

5 

22 

4 
iS 

25 

i 

12 

33 

10 

13 

22 
6 

4 

55 
3 

XX 

xo 

6 
82 

London 

2 

I 

X 

16 

"  Blue  Funnel  '•  Line 

Liverpool 

Liverpool   
Paris  

3 

X 

I 

2 

8 

TT 

4 

2 

6 

Compagnie  Generate  Trans. 
Union-Castle  Line  

London   

Messageries  Maritimes  
Furness,  Withy  &  Co.,  Ltd.... 
Nippon  Yusen  Kaishu 

Paris  
WestHartlepool... 
Tokio 

i 

9 

10 

Liverpool    

3 

2 

... 

4 

i 

I 
6 

2 

9 

30 

21 

2 

3 

i 

7 

7 

'3 

16 

XI 

13 

23 
4 
»4 
5 
13 

12 

9 
13 

XX 

13 

5 
»5 

22 

40 

P 
1 

4« 

6 

4 
50 
53 

Leyland  

Liverpool   

Harrison  .  

Liverpool 

Austrian  Lloyd 

Trieste    . 

2 

3 

3 

16 

8 

7 

Clan 

31asgow  

... 

- 

... 

Royal  Mail  S  P  Co 

Lamport  <fe  Holt  -  .... 

Liverpool      .   .   .   . 

4 

i 
3 

10 

4 

Hamburg-South  American  ... 
Wilson 

Hambur^ 

2 
X 

4 

5 

i 

Hull 

I 

I 
I 

i 
5 

2 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway  
Union  S.S.  Co.  of  N.  Zealand. 
Elder,  Dempster  &  Co.,  Ltd. 
Kosmos  .-.       

Montreal    
Dunedin  

192,000 
X92,000 
X9O,OOO 
X90,OOO 
188,000 
186,000 
183,000 
l82,OOO 
l68,OOO 
163,000* 

154,003 
153-000 
148,000 
146,000 
146,000 

146,000 
i45.ooo 

2 
I 

2 

I 

Liverpool     

Hamburg   .  . 

Deutsche-Australische  
Allan 

Hamburg 

Glasgow  

... 

... 

2 

2 

4 
3 

I 

X 

4 

3 

6 
17 

Pacific  Steam  N  Co 

Maclay  &  Mclntyrs  

Glasgow         ...   . 

R  Ropner  &  Co  

West  Hartlepool  ... 

Anglo-American  Oil  Co.,  Ltd. 
Osaka  S.  K.,  Ltd  
Forenede  Dampskibs  Selskab 
Unione  Austriaca  di  Nav.    ... 
Chargeurs  Reunis  
Gilchrist  Transportation  Co. 
Societa   Anonima  Nazionale 
di  Servizi  Marittimi  
Nederland  Line  

(  )saka 

... 

2 

7 
5 
9 

7 
3 
5 
xo 

100 

xoo 

15 

Copenhagen  
Trieste    ... 

I 

5 

2 

4 

3 

2 
I 

2 
2 
X 

Paris  
Cleveland,  Ohio    ... 

Rome     .      ... 

IT 

1 

18 

ax 

12 

7 

4 

Amsterdam   
London 

R 

Bucknall  S.S.  Lines,  Ltd  
Hugh  &  W.  Nelson,  Ltd  
New  Zealand  Shipping  Co.  ... 
Burrell  &  Son  

3 

10 

14 
6 
4 

Li  verpool 

131,000 
131,000 
130,000 
130,000 
128,000 
128,000 
125,000 
123,000 
122,000* 

122,000 

5 

Glasgow     

W.  Wilhelmsen  

Tonsburg     ..   .   . 

Anchor  ~. 
Prince 

Glasgow  
N  e  wcastle  -on-Tyn  e 
Rotterdam     
Liverpool   .... 

I 

2 

I 

i 

5 

8 
13 

3 

21 

8 
24 
20 
'7 

Holland-American  

T 

T 

•1 

Booth  

I 

5 

i 

2 

Andrew  Weir  &  Co  
Wm.  Ruys&Sons  
Anglo-Saxon  Petroleum  Co. 
China  Nav.  Co.,  Ltd  
Moor  Line  

Glasgow 

Rotterdam 

o 

5 

London   

London   
Xewcastle-ou-  Tyne 
\ew  York    .     .  . 

117,000 

x  16,000 
116,000 
1x6,000 
114,000 
1x1,000 
107,000 

105,000 
105,000 
104,000 
103,000 
102,000 
100,000 

100,000 

-... 

American-Hawaiian  S.S.  Co. 
Edward  Hain  &  Son  

f, 

St  Ives 

. 

33 

47 

is 

3 
59 

Deutsche  Levante  Linic  
Koninklijke  Paketvaart  M..~ 
Houlder  Bros.  &  Co.,  Ltd.  ... 
Southern  Pacific  Co  

Hamburg   

Amsterdam   
London   

... 

- 

X 

2 

t« 

New  York      

3 

II 

3 

Red  Star  Line  

Antwerp  .  . 

Orient  Line  

London 

... 

... 

9 

X 

... 

X 

•t, 

Lloyd  Brazileiro  

Rio  de  Janeiro  
Cardiff     

Thomas  (Evan)  Radcliffe&Co. 
C.  T.  Bowring  &  Co.,  Ltd.  ... 
Nav.  Gen.  Italiana  

Liverpool    

a 

3 

z 

28 
«4 

Genoa  

6 

5 

Courtesy  of  "Whitaker's  Almanack.' 


•  Steanxand  Sail. 


196 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  "IMPERATOR." 


The  "  Imperator,"  the  largest  ship  yet  con- 
structed and  built  for  the  Hamburg-American 
Company  at  the  Vulcan  Yards,  Hamburg,  i.s 
900  feet  long,  has  a  beam  of  96  feet  and  a 
molded  depth  of  62  feet.  She  will  have  nine 
decks  above  the  water  line,  and  the  boat  deck 
will  accommodate  52  life-boats  besides  rafts. 
The  trucks  of  the  masts  will  be  246  feet/  above 
the  keel,  exceeding  that  of  the  loftiest  vessel 


LARGEST  VESSEL  AFLOAT. 


afloat.  The  funnels  will  be  09  feet  long,  :ui<l 
the  oval  openings  will  measure  29  feet  by 
18  feet.  The  rudder  alone  weighs  90  tons, 
and  the  diameter  of  the  rudder  stock  is  2  y2  feet. 
The  ship  will  be  driven  by  turbines  of  70,000 
horse-power,  which  will  be  developed  on  four 
shafts.  One  of  the  immense  rotors,  containing 
50,000  blades,  weighs  1M5  tons,  and  is  capable 
of  developing  over  22,000  horse-power.  The 
casing  is  18  feet  in  diameter  and  25  feet  long. 
The  shafting  of  all  four  propellers  is  1  %  feet 
in  diameter.  The  propellers,  which  are  made 
of  turbadium  bronze,  are  16  feet  8  inches  in 


diameter.  The  estimated  speed  of  the  ship 
is  22  1^  knots  and  she  will  be  equipped  with 
water-tube  boilers. 

The  subdivision  of  the  "Imperator"  below 
the  water  line  has  b^en  carried  out  under  tho 
supervision  of  the  Germanic  Lloyd's  and  the 
Immigration  authorities.  It  consists  of  :\ 
series  of  intersecting  transverse  and  longitudi- 
nal bulkheads.  Transversely,  the  ship  is  sub- 
divided by  twelve  bulkheads,  which  are  c.-ir 
ried  two  decks  above  the  water  line,  with  the; 
exception  of  the  collision  bulkheads  forward, 
which  extend  four  decks  above  the  same 
level.  These  bulkheads  are  intersected  by 
longitudinal  bulkheads,  which  subdivide  the 
boiler  and  engine  rooms,  the  tinder  water  por- 
tion of  the  ship  being  divided  altogether  into 
twenty-four  separate  watertight  compart- 
ments. The  coal  bunkers  are  placed  above 
the  boiler  rooms,  and  along  the  sides  of  the 
ship. 

Careful  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
navigating  department  of  the  "Imperator." 
Two  experienced  first  officers  will  be  on  duty, 
one  of  whom  will  devote  his  efforts  solely  to 
the  navigation  and  safety  of  the  ship.  Not 
only  will  all  possible  devices  and  aids  be  in- 
stalled, but  careful  attention  to  all  the  require- 
ments of  travel  at  sea,  and  the  laws  of  tin- 
nations  regarding  same,  will  be  observed  by 
the  officers  of  the  ship. 

The  "Imperator"  will  have  a  passenger 
carrying  capacity  of  4,250  and  a  crew  number- 
ing about  1,100,  including  cooks,  stewards, 
etc..  and  will  probably  make  her  maiden  trip 
to  New  York  in  the  early  summer  of  1913. 

UNITED  STATES  GEOGRAPHIC 
BOARD. 

The  United  States  gc9graphic  board  passes 
on  all  unsettled  questions  concerning  geo- 
graphic names  which  arise  in  the  departments 
of  the  government,  as  well  as  determining, 
changing  and  fixing  place  names  within  the 
United  States  and  its  insular  possessions.  The 
decisions  of  the  board  are  to  be  accepted  by 
all  departments  as  standard  authority.  The 
board  has  advisory  powers  with  respect  to  the 
preparation  of  maps  in  the  various  offices  and 
bureaus  of  the  government. 


The  budget  of  Holland  for  1912  allots  r 
considerable  sum  for  the  study  of  the  problem 
of  draining  the  /uyder  Zee.  For  over  forts- 
years  various  plans  have  been  suggested. 


THE  NINE  DECKS  ABOVE  WATER  LINE  OF  THE  "IMPERATOR. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


197 


SPEED  OF  VESSELS. 


Flag. 

Speed  in  knots. 

Total. 

25 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

British 

2 

1 

4 
3 

5 

1 
3 

5 

16 

8 

1 

34 
1 

29 

f 

18 
10 
3 

55 
4 
1 
14 
23 
1 
2 

66 
15 
7 
7 

39 
9 

4 

130 
25 
18 
10 
42 
11 
7 

235 
26 
10 
36 
34 
21 
4 

373 
94 
21 
43 
53 
9 
12 

963 
174 
61 
135 
218 
57 
31 
24 
4 
1 
82 
10 

48 
7 
3 
1 
3 
11 
7 
5 
1 

German  

Dutch 

French  

1 

2 
2 

1 

5 
2 

1 
3 
1 

2 
7 

United  States 

Russian  

Spanish  

* 

4 

1 

Italian 

4 

1 

10 
3 

4 

3 

14 

18 
5 

15 
1 

20 

Belgian 

1 

Austro-Hunga- 

3 

5 
1 

2 

14 

20 
3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Chilean 

11 

1 

1 

'6 
4 
1 

Norwegian  



Total  

2 

1 

7 

10 

9 

29~ 

16 

51 

68 

125 

171 

289 

418 

650 

1,846 

Copyright,    1912,    by 


COMPARISON  OF  LARGE  VESSELS  UP  TO  1911. 


Courtesy    of    "The    Sphere. 


THE  SEARCHLIGHT  OX  THE  LTN'F.R. 


193 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE    WORLD'S    FASTEST    MERCHANT 

SHIPS  Now  IN  SERVICE. 

(Vessels  of  22  Knots  and  over) 


Built 

Tons 
gross 

Speed 
knots 

BRITISH  (25  Ships)  : 
Ben-My-Chree  (turbine)  . 
Brighton  (turbine)  
Campania 

1908 
1903 
1893 
1897 
1905 
1«M)7 
1897 
1<>()5 
1897 
1904 
1907 
1904 
1907 
1897 
1905 
1911 
1908 
1906 
1906 
1906 
1903 
1897 
1907 
1905 
1906 

1909 
1892 
1S93 
1910 

1896 
1905 

1909 
1909 
1909 

1910 
1906 
1911 

1902 

1897 
1907 
1901 

2,651 
1,129 
12,950 
2,641 
1,216 
1,695 
2,140 
1,680 
2,641 
1,950 
31,550 
2,174 
31,937 
2,641 
1,671 
1,750 
2,528 
2,529 
2,456 
2,531 
1,676 
2,641 
1,689 
1,951 
1,713 

1,750 
1,367 
1,451 
1,750 

1,474 
1,747 

2,885 
2,885 
2,885 

27,000 
13,753 

19,361 

14,349 
19,503 
14,908 

25.34 
22 
22 
23.55 
22 
22 
22 
22.9 
23.5 
22.3 
25.88 
23.14 
26.06 
23.5 
22.9 
23.07 
22.50 
22.50 
22.50 
22.50 
22.25 
23.5 
22 
23.53 
22 

24 
22 
22 
24 

22 
24 

22.50 
22.50 
22.50 

23.27 
22 
23 

23.25 

22.50 
23.50 
23 

Connaught  

Dieppe  (turbine)  
Empress  (turbine)  
Empress  Queen  (pad.)..  . 
Invicta  (turbine)  

Leinster  .  .  .... 

Londonderry  (turbine)  .  . 
Lusitania  (turbine)  
Manxman  (turbine)  
Mauretania  (turbine)  
M  unster  ...  

Onward  (turbine)  
Riviera  (turbine)  
St.  Andrew  (turbine)  
St.  David  (turbine)  
St.  George  (turbine)  .... 
St.  Patrick  (turbine)..  .  . 
The  Queen  (turbine)  
Ulster  
Victoria  (turbine)  
Viking  (turbine)  
Viper  (turbine)  

BELGIAN  (6  Ships): 
Jan  Breydel  (turbine).  .  . 
Leopold  II.  (pad.)  
Marie  Henriette  (pad.)  .  . 
Pieter  de  Coninck  (turb.) 
Princesse  Clementine 
(pad  )  

Princesse  Elisabeth 

DUTCH  (3  Ships): 
Mecklenburg  

Oranje  Nassau  . 

Prinses  Juliana  

FRENCH  (3  Ships): 
France  
La  Provence  
Newhaven  (turbine)  .... 

GERMAN  (4  Ships): 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  II  
Kaiser  Wilhelm  der 
Grosse  

Kronprinzessin  Cecilie.  .  . 
Kronprinz  Wilhelm  

Courtesy  of   "Shipping  World  Year  Book.' 

A  HUMILIATING  NEWS  ITEM. 
NO  U.  S.  FLAG  ON  THE  THAMES 


NOT   A   VESSEL   FLYING    IT    ENTERED   THE    PORT 
OF    LONDON    LAST    YEAR. 

By  Marconi  Transatlantic  Wireless  Telegraph 

to  The  New  York  Times. 
LONDON,  May  8.— The  Pall  Mall  Gazette 
publishes  as  a  startling  fact  a  report  by  the 
Medical  Officer  for  the  Port  of  London  that 
no  vessel  flying  the  Stars  and  Stripes  arrived 
in  the  Thames  iu  the  whole  of  last  year. 


TIME  AND  WATCH  ON  BOARD  SHIP. 

WATCH.  For  purposes  of  discipline,  and 
to  divide  the  work  fairly,  the  crew  is  mus- 
tered in  two  divisions — the  Starboard  (right 
side,  looking  forward)  and  the  Port  (left). 
The  day  commences  at  noon,  and  is  thus 
divided : — 

Afternoon  Watch  noon  to  4  p.  m. 

First  Dog  '  4  p.m.  to  6  p.m. 

Second  Dog       '  6  p.m.  to  8  p.m. 

First  '  8  p.m.  to  midnight. 

Middle  '  12  p.m.  to  4  a.m. 

Morning  '  4  a.m.  to  8  a.m. 

Forenoon  '     .          8  a.m.  to  noon. 

This  makes  seven  WATCHES,  which  enables 
the  crew  to  keep  them  alternatively,  as  the 
Watch  which  is  on  duty  in  the  forenoon  one 
day  has  the  afternoon  next  day,  and  the  men 
who  have  only  four  hours'  rest  one  night  have 
eight  hours  the  next.  This  is  the  reason  for 
having  Dog  Watches,  which  are  made  by  di- 
viding the  hours  between  4  p.m.  and  8  p.m. 
into  two  Watches. 

Time. — Time  is  kept  by  means  of  "Bells," 
although  there  is  but  one  bell  on  the  ship,  and 
to  strike  the  clapper  properly  against  the 
bell  requires  some  skill. 

First,  two  strokes  of  the  clapper  at  the  in- 
terval of  a  second,  then  an  interval  of  two 
seconds;  then  two  more  strokes  with  a  sec- 
ond's interval  apart,  then  a  rest  of  two  sec- 
onds, thus: — 

BELL,    ONE   SECOND;  B.,   TWO   SECS .;  B.    s. ; 
B.  ss.;  B.  s.;  B.  ss.;  B. 

1.  Bell  is  struck  at  12.30,  and  again  at  4.30 
6.30,  8.30p.m.;  12.30,  4.30,  and  8.30  a.m. 

2  Bells  at  1  (struck  with  an  interval  of  a 
second   between   each — B.  s.   B.),    the   same 
again  at  5,  7,  and  9  p.m.;  1,  5,  and  9  a.m. 

3  Bells  at  1.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.)   5.30,  7.30, 
and  9.30  p.m.;  1.30,  5.30,  and  9.30  a.m. 

4  Bells  at  2  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.)   6  and  10 
p.m.;  2,  6,  and  10  a.m. 

5  Bells  at  2.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.) 
and  10.30  p.m.;  2.30,  6.30,  and  10.30  a.m. 

6  Bells  at  3  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.) 
and  11  p.m.;  3,  7,  and  11  a.m. 

7  Bells  at  3.30  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s, 
B.   ss,    B)   and    11.30  p.m.;  3.30,   7.30,    and 
11.30  a.m. 

8  Bells  (B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,  B.  s,  B.  ss,. 
B,  s.  B.)  every  4  hours,  at  noon,  at  4  p.m. 
8  p.m.,  midnight,  4  a.m.,  and  8  a.m. 

DEPTH  OF  THE  SEA. 


Yards  depth. 
Average.      Max. 

Atlantic 4,026 

Pacific 4,252 

Indian 3,658 

Arctic 1,690 

Antarctic 3,000 

Mediterranean 1,476 

Irish 240 


110 


7,750 
9,310 
6,040 
5,300 
3,950 
2,860 
710 
300 


English  Channel 

German 9b 

Levant 72 

Adriatic 45 

Baltic 43 

The  Southern  Ocean  below  Cape  Horn 
reaches  a  depth  of  5,500  yards,  and  off  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  5,700  yards.  The  average 
depth  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  is  1,200  yards. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


199 


200 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LOWEST  OCEAN  RATES. 

To  and  from  New  York,  English  and  Continental  Ports. 
(Subject  to  change  without  notice.) 


Lines. 

1st  Class 
to  or  from 
Europe. 

2d  Class 
to  or  from 
England. 

2d  Class 
to  or  from 
Continent. 

American  Line 
SSs.  New  York,   St.   Paul,   St.   Louis  and   Phila- 
delphia   
PHILADELPHIA-LIVERPOOL  STEAMERS 
SSs   Haverford  and  Merion 

$95  .  00 
52  50 

$52  .  50 

$60  .  00 

50  00 

Atlantic  Transport  Line 
SSs.  Minneapolis,  Minnetonka,  Minnehaha,  Min- 
newaska 

85  00 

Anchor  Line 
SSs.  Columbia  Caledonia  and  Cameronia 

75  00 

50  00 

SS     California 

70  00 

50  00 

Austro-  Americana 
Kaiser  Franz-Joseph  I 

80  00 

65  00 

SS.    Martha  Washington  
SSs   Laura  Alice  Argentina  and  Oceania 

75.00 
70.00 

65.00 
50  00 

Cunard  Line 

SSs.  Lusitania  and  Mauretania  
SS     Campania 

127  .  50 
105  .  00 

65.00 
55  00 

70.00 
60  00 

SSs.  Carmania  and  Caronia  
BOSTON-LIVERPOOL  SERVICE 
SSs  Franconia  Laconia 

100.00 
92  50 

57  50 
52  50 

62  .  50 
57  50 

Ivernia   and    Saxonia  
MEDITERRANEAN  SERVICE 
SSs.  Franconia  and  Laconia  

85  .  00 
100.00 

50.00 

55  .  00 
65.00 

SSs   Caronia  and  Carmania                 

105  00 

65.00 

SSs   Ivernia  and  Saxonia 

85  00 

65   00 

SS.    Carpathia  

82.50 

65.00 

SS     Pannonia. 

75  00 

55  00 

French  Line 
SS     France           .                            ... 

100  50 

70.00 

SS.    La  Provence  

110.00 

65  .  00 

SSs.  La  Savoie  and  La  Lorraine  
SSs   La  Touraine  and  Espagne 

100.00 
90  00 

62.50 
60  00 

SS.    Rochambeau  
SSs  Chicago  and  Niagara   

57.50 
55.00 

SSs  Floride  and  Caroline 

47  50 

Fabre  Line 
SS     Sant'  Anna  and  Canada 

70  00 

55  00 

SS.    Madonna  
SSs   Roma  and  Germania 

75.00 
75  00 

55.66 

Hamburg-  American  Line 
SSs.  Amerika  and  Kaiserin  Aug.  Victoria 

115  00 

GO  00 

65.00 

SSs.  Cleveland,  Cincinnati  and  Victoria  Luise  
SSs.  Moltke  and  Bluecher  
SSs.  President  Lincoln,  President  Grant  and  Ham- 
burg   

97  .  50 
95.00 

90.00 

57.50 
55  .  00 

55  .  00 

60.00 
60.00 

60.00 

SSs   Graf  Waldersee  and  Pennsylvania 

57  50 

MEDITERRANEAN  SERVICE 
SS.    Moltke  

95  00 

65  .  00 

SS.    Hamburg           .  .              .    . 

90  00 

65  00 

SS.    Batavia  

65.00 

Holland-  America  Line 
SS     Rotterdam 

107   50 

57   50* 

62   50 

SS.    New  Amsterdam  
SS.    Noordam  and  other  ships 

95.00 
85  00 

55  .  00* 

57.50 
55  00 

Italian  Royal  Mail  Lines 
SSs.  Verona  and  Ancoma 

80  00 

65  00 

SSs.  Duca  d'  Aosta,  1  -uca  degli  Abruzzi,   Duca  de 
Geneva        

80  00 

65  .  00 

SSs.  America  Europa  and  Oceania 

80  00 

65  00 

PHILADELPHIA-MEDITERRANEAN  SERVICE 
All  steamers               .... 

80  00 

Lloyd  Sabaudo 
SS.    Tomaso  di  Savoia     

75  00 

65.00 

All  other  steamers  

70.00 



65.50 

New  York  to  Plymouth  only. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


201 


LOWEST  OCEAN  RATES— Continued. 


Lines. 

1st  Class 
to  or  from 
Europe. 

2d  Class 
to  or  from 
England. 

2d  Class 
to  or  from 
Continent. 

North  German  Lloyd 
SSs.  Kronprinzessin  Cecilie  and  Kaiser  Wilhelm  II  . 
SSs.  Kronprinz    Wilhelm,     Kaiser    Wilhelm    der 
Grosse 

125.00 
122  50 

65.00 
65  00 

70.00 
70  00 

SS     George  Washington 

115.00 

60  00 

65  OO 

SS     Prinz  Friedrich  Wilhelm 

100  00 

57  5O 

62  50 

SS     Grosser  Kurfuerst  

95.00 

55.00 

60  00 

SS     Barbarossa  and  other  ships                

90.00 

55  00 

60  00 

MEDITERRANEAN  SERVICE 
SS     Berlin                   

100.00 

65  00 

Ail  other  steamers 

90  00 

65  00 

Red  Star  Line 
SS     Lapland 

97  50 

57  50 

60  00 

SSs.  Finland,  Kroonland  and  Vaderland  

85.00 

55.00 

55  00 

PHILADELPHIA-ANTWERP  SERVICE 
\11  steamers 

55  00 

Russian-  American  Line. 
SSs   Russia  Kuvsk  and  Czar  *                            .... 

Scandinavian-  American  Line 
\11  steamers       

77  50 

White  Star  Line 
SS     Olympic       

130  00 

65  00 

70  00 

SS     Adriatic 

110  00 

57  50 

SS.    Oceanic 

110  00 

57  50 

62  50 

SSs   Majestic                                  .           

95  00 

52  50 

60  00 

SSs   Baltic  Cedric  and  Celtic 

100  00 

55  00 

BOSTON-LIVERPOOL  SERVICK 
SS     Arabic 

85  00 

50  00 

SS     Cymric           .             

52  50 

MEDITERRANEAN  SERVICE 
SS.    Canopic  

85  00 

65  00 

SS     Cretic 

82  50 

65  00 

*  The  minimum  first  class  fare  from  New  York  to  Rotterdam  is  $65.00  and  to 
Libau  $75.00.  Second  class  fare  from  New  York  to  Rotterdam  is  $48.00  and  to 
Libau  $50.00.  The  minimum  first  class  fare  from  Libau  to  New  York  is  $70.00  and 
second  class  fare  $57.50. 

The  above  are  the  lowest  or  minimum  rates  from  port  to  port.  Through  rates  to 
London  or  Paris  should  be  made  by  adding  to  the  above  rates  the  following  railroad 
rates  of  class  and  from  desired  port: 

From  Liverpool  to  London:  1st  Class,  $7.00.  In  connection  with  2d  Class 
ocean  tickets  a  3d  Class  railroad  ticket  is  furnished  for  $2.50.  Fishguard  to  London, 
1st  Class,  $8.25,  and  3d  Class,  $2.50,  in  connection  with  2d  Class  ocean  tickets. 

From  Liverpool  to  Paris:  1st  class  $21.00;  Fishguard  to  Paris  $22.25.  In  con- 
nection with  2d  Class  ocean  tickets,  transportation  is  provided  from  Liverpool  and 
Fishguard  on  payment  of  $7.50. 

From  Plymouth  to  London:     1st  Class.  $7.50;    2d  Class.  $4.75;    3d  Class,  $3.75. 

From  Dover  to  London:     1st  Class,  $4.75;    2d  Class,  $3.15. 

From  Southampton  to  London:    1st  Class.  $2.75;   2d  Class,  $1.75;   3d  Class,  $1.40. 

From  Cherbourg  to  Paris:     1st  Class,  $8.75;    2d  Class,  $6.25;    3d  Class,  $3.60. 

From  Havre  to  Paris-     1st  Class,  $5.60:    2d  Class.  $4.00:    3d  Class,  $2.50. 

From  Boulogne-sur-Mer  to  Paris:     1st  Class,  $5.50;    2d  Class,  $3.70. 

PACIFIC  MAIL  STEAMSHIP  COMPANY.— PANAMA  LINE. 

Between  San  Francisco  and  Mazatlan,  San  Bias,  Manzanillo,  Acapulco,  Salina  Cruz, 
Ocos,  Champerico,  San  Jose  de  Guatemala,  Acaiutla,  JLa  Libertad,  La  Union,  Amapala, 
Corinto,  San  Jose  del  Sue,  Punta  Arenas,  Balboa  (Panama). 

San  Francisco  and  Panama,  8120.  Round  Trip,  S216.  Steerage,  $60.  San  Francisco 
and  New  York,  $120.  Steerage,  $65.  San  Francisco  and  New  Orleans,  $120.  First  class  only. 

New  express,  passenger  and  freight  service  direct  for  Panama  and  New  York,  calling 
only  at  San  Pedro  (Los  Angeles)  en  route.  San  Francisco  to  Panama,  $85.  Round  Trip,  $150. 
To  New  York,  $120.  To  New  Orleans,  $120. 

PACIFIC  COAST  STEAMSHIP  COMPANY.' 

Between  Seattle,  Wash.,  Victoria  and  Vancouver,  B.  C.,  and  Ketchikan,  Metlakatla- 
Rudyerd  Fiord,  Wrangelli,  Juneau,  Douglas,  Treadwell  Gold  Mines,  Skagway,  Haines,  Sitka- 
Glacier,  and  Taku  Galcier,  Alaska.  Round  trip  fares,  from  Seattle,  Tacoina,  Victoria,  or 
Vancouver,  $100  and  upwards. 


202 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM  NEW  YORK.* 


AMERICAN    LINE. 


Steamships. 


Year 


Gross 
Tonnage 


Indie. 
H.-P. 


Length 


New  York  (Rebuilt  1903) 1888  10,798 

St.  Louis 1895  11,629 

St.  Paul 1895  11,629 

Philadelphia 1899  10,786 

ANCHOR    LINE. 

Columbia...  ~77~7T.  1901  8,400 

Caledonia 1904  9,400 

California 1907  9,000 

Cameronia 1910 10,500 

ATLANTIC    TRANSPORT    LINE. 

Minneapolis 1900  13,448 

Minnehaha 1900  13,443 

Minnetonka 1902  13,440 

Minnewaska 1909 14,317 

AUSTRO-AMERICAN    LINE. 

Laura...        1907  6422~ 

Alice      1907  6,122 

Argentina 1907  5,526 

Oceania 1907  5,497 

Martha  Washington 1909  8,312 

Kaiser  Franz-Joseph  I |  1912  12,567 


16,000 
17,500 
17,000 
16,800 


576 
554 
554 
576 


8,40.0 
10.20X) 

7,000 
12,000 


503 
515 

485 
532 


9,500 
9,500 
9,500 
9,500 


616 
616 
616 
616 


4,500 
4,500 
3,600 
3,600 
7,500 
13,000 


415 
415 
416 
390 
460 
.500 


COMPANIA  TRANSATLANTICA. 

Cadiz  and  Barcelona  Service.) 


Antonio  Lopez 

Manuel  Calvo 

Buenos  Ayres 

Monte-Video 

Montserrat 


1891 
1892 

1887 
1889 

1880 


6,300 
6,000 
5,500 
5,500 
4.500 


5,000 
6,000 
4,800 
5,000 
4.500 


430 

419.8 

410.6 

410 

371 


CUNARD    LINE. 

(Queenstown  and  Liverpool  Service.) 


Campania 

Mauretania 

Lusitania 

Caronia 

Carmania 

Franccmia 

Lacqnia 

Aquitania  (Building). 


1893 
1907 
1907 
1905 
1905 
1911 
1911 


13,000 
32,000 
32,500 
20,000 
20,000 
18,150 
18,098 
50,000 


30,000 
70,000 
70,000 
21,000 
21,000 
14,000 
14,000 


620 
790 
785 
675 
675 
600 
600 
885 


CUNARD    LINE. 

(Mediterranean  and  Adriatic  Service.) 


Ultonia... 
Carpathia. 
Pannonia. 
Saxonia . . . 
Ivernia . . . 


1898 
1903 
1904 
1900 
1900 


10,200 
13,600 
10,000 
14270 
14^10 


10,400 
10,400 


500 
540 
501 
580 
580 


*  Tables  copyright  1912  by  Munn  <fe  Co,,  Inc. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


203 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM  NEW  YORK.— Continued. 

FABRE    LINE. 

(Various  points,  including  Naples,  depending  on  season  of  year.) 


Steamships. 

Year. 

Gross 
Tonnage 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length. 

1902 

5,291 

6,000 

426 

1903 

5,103 

6,000 

426 

Madonna  

1905 
1907 

5,633 
6,827 

6,200 
7,200 

450 

460 

1910 

9,350 

10,000 

500 

Canada  

1912 

9,350 

10,000 

500 

FRENCH    LINE. 


1890 

9  161 

12  000 

536 

1899 

11  874 

22  000 

580 

1900 

11  889 

22  000 

580 

La  Provence  

1906 
1906 

14,744 
11  112 

30,000 
9  200 

624 
con 

1911 

I-?  gjs 

13  000 

=40 

France  

1912 

23,666 

40,000 

720 

HAMBURG-AMERICAN    LINE. 


Pennsylvania 

1896 

13  333 

5  500 

ccy    a 

Patricia     

1897 

13  273 

6  000 

560 

Pretoria          •            .  . 

1898 

13  234 

5  400 

CCTk 

Bulgaria*  

1898 

11  077 

4  000 

501*  6 

Graf  Waldersee   .  . 

1899 

13  193 

5  500 

KfiT) 

1899 

11  464 

4  000 

Victoria  Luise     .... 

1900 

16  509 

14  000 

fiSfi  fi 

Hamburg*  

1900 

10  532 

9  000 

498 

Bluecher       

1901 

12  334 

9  500 

525  6 

Moltke*   

1902 

l'?  335 

9  500 

525 

1905 

22  225 

15  500 

fiQO 

Kaiserin  Auguste  Victoria  

1906 

24  581 

17  500 

700 

President  Lincoln    

1907 

18  100 

7  500 

615 

President  Grant  

1907 

18  100 

7  500 

615 

1908 

18  000 

9  300 

fiftO 

Cincinnati         

1908 

18000 

9  300 

600 

Imperator  (Building)  

1913 

50.000 

900 

HOLLAND-AMERICA    LINE. 

(Netherlands-  American  Steam  Navigation 


Co.) 


Potsdam  

1900 
1901 

12,600 
12  546 

7,500 

7  590 

560 

=cn 

Noordam  

1902 
1906 

12,540 
17  250 

7,500 
10  000 

560 
fi1  ^ 

Rotterdam   

1908 

24  170 

14  000 

668 

(Building)  

32,500 

21,000 

740 

ITALIA    LINE. 


(Societa  di  Navigazione  a  Vapore.     Naples,  Genoa,  New  York  Service.) 


Ancona 
Verona 


908 
1908 


10,000 
10,000 


7600 
7,600 


520 
520 


LA   VELOCE    LINE. 

(Navigazione  Italiana  a  Vapore.) 


Oceania.  .  .  . 

1908/9 

12  000 

9  000 

MIC 

America 

1909 

12  000 

Q  ono 

Europa  ,  

1906 

8,000 

9,000 

425 

NAVIGAZIONE     GENERALE    ITALIANA     LINE. 

(Florio  Rubattino). 


Duca  d'Aosta 

1909 

12  000 

9  000 

eoc 

Duca  di  Geneva  

1908/9 

12  000 

9  000 

5^5 

Duca  degli  Abruzzi  

i      1908 

12^000 

9,000 

525 

204 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM   NEW   YORK— Continued. 


LLOYD    ITALIANO 


Steamships. 


Florida 

Luuisiana 

Indiana 

Virginia 

Cordova 

Mendpza 

Principessa  Mafalda. 


Year. 


1905 
1906 
1905 
1906 
1905 
1905 
1909 


Gross 
Tonnage 


5,018 
4,983 
4,996 
5,181 
4,933 
6,847 
9,210 


Indie. 
H.-P. 


Length 


381.4 

393 . 7 

393 . 7 

381.4 

411.4 

420 

485 


NORTH    GERMAN    LLOYD. 

(Bremen  Service.) 


Friedrich  der  Grosse 

Bremen 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse 

Rhein 

Grosser  Kurfiirst 

Main 

Kronprinz  Wilhelm 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II 

Prinzess  Alice 

Kronpr'n  Cecilie 

Prinz  Fr.  Wilhelm 

George  Washington 

Columbus. .. 


1896 
1896 
1897 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1901 
1903 
1904 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1914 


10,568 
11,570 
14,349 
10,058 
13,245 
10,067 
14,908 
19,500 
10,911 
20,000 
17,500 
25,570 
40,000 


7,200 

8,000 

28,000 

5,500 

9,700 

5,500 

35,000 

43,000 

9,000 

45,000 

14,000 

20. 000 

25,000 


NORTH    GERMAN    LLOYD. 

(Mediterranean  Service.) 


Koenigin  Luise 1896                  10,711  7,000 

Barbarossa 1896                  10,915  7,000 

Koenig  Albert 1899                  10,643  9,000 

Prinzess  Irene 1900                  10,881  9,000 

Berlin 1908 19.200  16,500 

RED   STAR    L1XE 

Vaderland 1900 ~  \l~9QO~~ 

Zeeland 1901                  11,905  9,800 

Finland 1902                  12,188  9,300 

Kroonland 1902                  12,185  9,400 

Lapland.^. .  __  „  . ... 1 909 IM94^  _  J^>°°_ 

RUSSIAN-AMERICAN  LINE. 

Russia...         1909  16,000 10,000 

Kursk 191 1                   16,000  10,000 

Czar 1912 16.000  10.000 

SCANDINAVIAN-AMERICAN  LINK. 

C.  F.  Tietgen..77.7.                   1897"               8^500^  "~5^0CT 

Oscar  II 1901                   10,000  8,000 

Hellig  Olav 1902                  10,000  8,000 

United  States..... 1903                  10,000  8,000 

Frederick  VIII.  (Building) :  ._. 1912              _12-°_°°_  10.000 

WHITE    STAR    LINE. 

Majestic...                                             ..I      1890                  iiU47  16,000" 

Oceanic 1899                  17,274  28,000 

.Canopic 1900                   12,097  8,730 

Celtic 1901                  20,904  14,000 

Cedric 1902                  21,035  14,000 

Baltic 1904                  23,876  15,000 

Adriatic 1907                   24,541  17,000 

Laurentic 1909                  14,892  14,000 

Megantic..... j      1909                   14.87S  11,000 

Olympic. I      1911  45,324  


546 
569 
649 
520 
582 
520 
663 
707 
524 
707 
613 
733 
800 


544 
546 
525 
525 
613 


580 
580 
577 
577 
620 


475 
45!) 
425 


485 
515 
515 
515 
540 


582 
705 
594 
697 
697 
726 
726 
565 
565 
882 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


205 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM    PORTS  OTHER 
THAN  NEW  YORK. 


CUNARD    LINE. 

(Boston-Liverpool  Service. 1 


Indie. 
H.-P. 


Steamships. 


Year 


Gross 
Tonnage. 


Length. 


Franconi-i. 
Laconia . . . 


1911 
1912 


18,098 
18,149 


14,000 
14,000 


GOO 
600 


ALLAN    LINE. 


Pwfeian 77  .  .  .  7 1881  5,395 

Numidian ,  1891  4,836 

Mongolian 1891  4,838 

Carthaginian 1884  4.444 

Siberian 1884  3.846 

Hungarian 1902  4.508 

Hibernian 1902  4.505 

Ontarian 1900  4,309 

Orcadian .  .  .  1893 3.546 

LEYLANU     LINK. 

Devonian  7. 1900  ~!67435~~ 

Winifredian 1899  10,422 

Canadian 1900  9,300 

Bohemian 1900  8,55o 

Cestrian 1896 8.912 

WHITE    STAR    LINE- 

Cy^irlcTT 1898  137096~~ 

Cretic - 1902  13,518 

Arabic 1903 15,801 

WHITE    STAR    LINK. 

(Australian  Service.) 

Gothic..^                                      rT7777:i  ~  1893  7,768 

Belgre 1903 9.767 

NORTH    GERMAN     LLOYD    S.  S.     CO. 

(Baltimore-Bremen  Service.) 

Rhein. 1899  10,058 

Breslau 1901  7,524 

Neckar 1901  9,835 

Main 1900  10,0o8 

Oldenburg .",.002 

Cassel 1901  7.553 

NORTH    GERMAN     LLOYD    S.  8.    CO. 

(Galveston-Bremen  Service.; 

Chemnit^Tr  7777777;      1961"  37200 

Frankfurt .  I      1899     I  3.2(«) 

ALLAN    LINE. 

(Montreal  Services.) 

Victorian 77  1904  F67629 

Virginian 1905  10,754 

Tunisian 1900  10,576 

Corsican 1907  11,419 

Hesperian 1908  10,920 

Grampian 1907  10,947 

Ionian 1901  8268 

Pretorian 1901  6,508 

Corinthian 1899  6,229 

Sicilian 1899  6.229 

Sardinian 1875  4,349 

Pomeranian 1882  4,207 

Alsatian  (Building) 1913  17,000 

Albvnian  (Building) 1913  17  000 


774 
5S2 
5S2 
475 
46  i 
446 
446 
35-> 
32S 


440 
400 
400 
386 
372 
388 
385 
385 
361 


4,702 
4,505 
4,120 
4,019 
3,520 


7,700 
7.300 
9,200 


4,460 
4,000 


571 
571 
549 
529 
529 


599 
601 
615. 


504 
505 


5,500 
3.400 
6,000 
5,500 
3.600 
3,400 


520 
428 
520 
520 

428 
428 


7,542 
7,431 


849 
917 
803 
825 
604 
800 
447 
447 
316 
550 
18,000 
18,000 


430 
431 


520 
520 
500 
500 
485 
485 
470 
436 
430 
430 
400 
381 
560 
560 


206 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS  FROM  PORTS  OTHER  THAN 
NEW  YORK— Continued. 

CANADIAN   PACIFIC   RAILWAY    CO. 


Steamships. 

Year. 

Gross 
Tonnage. 

Indie. 
H.-P. 

Length. 

Empress  of  Britain 

1906 

14  500 

3  168 

548  8 

Empress  of  Ireland  

1906 

14,500 

3,168 

548.9 

Royal  Mail  Steamers  "Empress  of  Britain"  and  "Empress  of  Ireland"  leave  Quebec  in 
Summer  and  St.  John  in  Winter.  Other  vessels  of  the  line  carry  second  only,  second  and 
steerage  only,  and  steerage  only.  Their  names  are  therefore  omitted  here. 


WHITE    STAR-DOMINION. 


Laurentic 

1(»0() 

14  892 

484 

Megantic  

1909 

15,000 



550 

Canada 

1896 

9  413 

6  641 

514 

Dominion 

1894 

7  036 

3  514 

456 

Teutonic  

1889 

9,984 

16,000     1 

582 

DONALDSON    LINE. 

(Montreal  to  Glasgow.) 


Athenia 

1904 

8  668 

5  600 

A78 

Cassandra 

1906 

8  135 

5  555 

455 

Saturnia  

Building 

MONTREAL    SERVICES— THOMSON    LINE. 

(Mediterranean  Service. ) 


Tortona  

1909 

7,907 

5,400 

460.6 

PHILADELPHIA    STEAMSHIP    SERVICES  AMERICAN   LINE. 

Haverford  . 

1901 
1902 

11,635 
11,621 

4,157 
3.953 

547 

547 

Merion  

RED    STAR    LINE. 

Marquette 

1898 
1897 
1898 

7,058 
6,918 
6,848 

3.700 
3.700 
3.700 

502 
490 
490 

Menominee  
Manitou  

CUNARD  LINE. 

(Montreal  —  London.) 

1911 
1909 

9,111 
7,907 

482 
465 

Ansonia  

FRENCH  LINE. 

(Quebec— Havre  Service.) 


1908 
Iy08 
1908 

9,614 
7,029 
7,220 

8.250 
3,400 
4.200 

504 
437 
437 

Floride  

Caroline  

(New  Orleans  —  Havre  Service.) 

Louisiane  .4  

1908 
1905 
1907 
1907 

5,399 
5,455 
5,579 
5,276 

3,000 
3,000 
2.300 
3,000 

403 
417 
409 
409 

Virginie  
Mexico  

These  tables  include  the  principal  lines  engaged  in  European  trade.  There  are  other  lines, 
however,  carrying  passengers,  but  which  are  omitted  on  account  of  infrequent  or  irregular 
services,  or  failure  to  respond  to  copies  of  proof  sheets  sent  out  for  correction.  The  Editor 
takes  no  responsibility  for  the  list  as  printed,  though  more  than  ordinary  care  has  been  used 
in  its  compilation  and  correction.  It  should  also.be  borne  in  mind  that  "Lowest  Ocean 
Rates"  means  only  the  lowest  fares  at  any  season  of  the  year.  During  the  rush  or  "high" 
season  these  fares  usually  apply  only  to  a  very  few  inside  rooms,  and  plans  should  not  be  based 
on  this  schedule  without  consulting  the  steamship  company  or  a  reputable  tourist  agency  to 
find  if  any  minimum  accommodations  are  available.  In  the  fall  and  winter  seasons  superior  rooms 
can  usually  be  obtained  at  minimum  rates  without  difficulty.  If  you  live  out  of  town  do  not 
wait  until  reaching  New  York,  Boston  or  Philadelphia  before  attempting  to  secure  passage. 
If  you  are  going  in  July  engage  your  passage  in  January  if  possible.  There  will  be  little 
difficulty  in  canceling  accommodations  if  plans  have  to  be  changed. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


207 


RATES  TO  EUROPEAN  PORTS  FROM  CANADA.* 


ALLAN  LINE. 

MONTREAL  AND  QUEBEC  TO  LIVERPOOL. 
First  class  passage  from  St.  John  or  Halifax, 
872.50    and    up;     Montreal    or    Quebec    and 
Liverpool.     $80.00    and    up.     Second    class, 
$50.00  and  up. 

MONTREAL  TO  GLASGOW. 

First  class,  $70.00  and  up;  second  class, 
$50.00  and  up.  One  class  cabin,  $47.50  and 
up. 

CANADIAN  PACIFIC  RAILWAY  Co. 

MONTREAL  AND  QUEBEC  TO  LIVERPOOL. 

First  class,  $92.50  from  Quebec;  $85.00 
from  St.  John,  and  upwards:  second  class, 
$53.75  and  up.  One  class  cabin  (second  class) 
$50.00  and  up. 


CUNARD  LINE. 

MONTREAL  TO  LONDON  AND  SOUTHAMPTON  TO 
MONTREAL. 

Cabin  (called  second),  $46.25  and  up. 

DONALDSON  LINE. 
MONTREAL  TO  GLASGOW. 
Cabin     (called    second),    $47.50    and    up. 
British    third    class,    East,    $31.25;     prepaid 
West,  $31.25. 

WHITE  STAR — DOMINION  LINE. 

MONTREAL  AND  QUEBEC  TO  LIVERPOOL. 

First  class,  summer  season,  $92.50  and  up; 
winter  season,  $85.00  and  up;  second  class, 
$53.75  and  up.  One  class  cabin,  $47.50  and 
up. 


RATES  TO  WEST  INDLA.N,  SOUTH  AMERICAN  PORTS,  ETC.t 


THE  BOOTH  STEAMSHIP  Co.,  LTD. 

NEW  YORK  AND  PARA,  MANAOS,  VIA  BARBADOS. 

. — Saloon — Third 
Single    ReturnClass 

Barbados $50       $90       $25 

Para 80       140         45 

Manaos 100       175         50 

Iquitos,  Peru 140       245         75 

CANADIAN  SOUTH  AFRICAN  LINE. 

MONTREAL  OR  ST.  JOHN,  N.  B.,  TO  CAPE  TOWN, 

PORT  ELIZABETH,    EAST  LONDON,   DURBAN, 

AND  DELAGOA  BAY. 


First   class — Cape    Town,    $110. 
$135. 


Durban, 


COMPANIA  TRANSATLANTICA. 

NEW  YORK,  HAVANA,  VERA  CRUZ  AND  PUERTO 
MEXICO 

To      To     To 
Havana  Vera  Puerto 
Cruz  Mexico 

First  rlass $37     $60     $60 

Second  class 26       40       40 


ELDER,  DEMPSTER  LINE. 
MONTREAL  TO  NASSAU,  HAVANA  AND 

MEXICAN  PORTS. 

Nassau $35     Havana $  40 

Tampico 60 — return 105 

Vera  Cruz 60— return 105 

Mexico  City 65— return 115 

Progreso 60 — return 115 


INSULAR  LINE,  INC. 

NEW  YORK  AND  PORTO  RICO. 

Rates  of  Passage.  First  class — To  or  from 
New  York  and  Porto  Rico,  $35  and  $40. 

LAMPORT  &  HOLT  LINE. 

Direct  service  from  New  York  to  Brazil  and 
Argentine.  Steamers  call  at  Bahia,  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Santos.  Through  tickets  issued 
t?  Paranagua,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Monte- 
video, Buenos  Ayres.  All  vessels  call  at 
Barbados  and  Trinidad  northbound. 


Round  trip  25  per  cent,  discount. 

HAMBURG-  AMERICAN    LINE  —  ATLAS 
SERVICE. 

—  Intermediate  — 
S.S.  Byron 
Minimum                      and 
1st         "V"         Tenny-      3d 
Class  Steamers      son      Class 
Bahia    $150          $75          $60         $45 

—1st  Class—     —  2d  Class- 
One      Round        One    Round 
way        trip          way       trip 
Kingston               Oct.    1    to    May    31 
or    Santiago     ...  $45  00      $85  50    $30  00    $57  00 
Colon     75  00      142  50      45  00      85  50 

Rio    de    Janeiro  ..     150           75           60           45 
Santos     165            80            65            50 
Paranagua     165            92            77            62 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul    180           95           80           65 
Porto     Alegre     .    ..     185            97            82            67 
Montevideo     190           90                         60 
Buenos    Ayres    ...     190           90                         60 

Puerto     Colombia.     80  00      152  00      45  00      85  50 
Cartagena     80  00      152  00      45  00      85  50 
Santa    Marta     ....     80  00      152  00      45  00      85  50 
Port-Limon    80  00      152  50      45  00      85  50 
Port   au   Prince    .  .     60  00      100  00      35  00      60  00 
Jc-remie                           60  00 

P.osario     200            93                           65 

Children    under    12    years    of   age,    half    fare; 
under   two    years,    free,       Servants     in     saloon, 
two-thirds    fare. 

*  "»"  All    rates   are    subject    to    change    without 

Kingston^  $75,    round    trip 
Santiago   ) 
Colon     .                                         ...$115 

notice,  and  any  tourist  agent  will  give  accurate 
figures  as  to  cost.     On  Aug.   1,   1912.   the  rates 
quoted  as  printed  were  believed  to  be  correct. 

208 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


KATES  TO  WEST  INDIAN  AND  SOUTH  AMERICAN  PORTS— Continued. 


MUNSON  STEAMSHIP  LINE. 

NEW  YORK  AND  CUBA. 

One  Round 

First  Cabin.                          way.  trip. 

New  York  to  Nipe $30.00 

New  York  and  Nuevitas 30.00  $57.00 

New  York  and  Puerto  Padre.    45.00      

New  York  and  Gibara 45.00  85.50 

New  York  and  Banes 45.00      

.INTERMEDIATE. 

New  York  to  Nipe $22  00 

New  York  to  Nuevitas 22.00  $41.80 

New  York  to  Puerto  Padre. . .    30.00  

New  York  to  Gibara 30.00  

NEW  YORK   &   CUBA   MAIL   S.S.   Co. 
(WARD  LINE.) 

NEW  YOKK-HAV ANA-MEXICO  SERVICE. 

To  1st  Class. 

Havana $35.00  and  up 

Progreso 50.00 

Mexico  City 62.20 

Vera  Cruz 55.00 

Children  under  3  years,  not  exceeding  one  to 
a  family  free;   each  additional  child  half  fare. 

Children  8  to  12,  accompanied  by  an  adult, 
half  fare. 

NASSAU. 

1st  2d 

To  Class        Class 

Nassau $40.00      $15.00 

NEW  YORK  &  PORTO  Rico  S.S.  Co. 

NEW  YORK  AND  SAN  JUAN,   PONCE  AND 
MAYAGUEZ,   PORTO  RICO. 

First  class  $45  and  up.     Excursion  $81  and 
up.     Second  class  $25  and  up. 

PANAMA  RAILROAD  STEAMSHIP  LINE. 

COLON CANAL      ZONE PANAMA,      SAN      FRAN- 
CISCO,   MEXICO,    CENTRAL   AND   SOUTH 
AMERICA. 

New  York  to  Canal  Zone  (Colon) $75  00 

New  York  to  San  Francisco 120.00 

PENINSULAR  AND  OCCIDENTAL  S.S. 

COMPANY. 
KEY  WEST,  CUBA  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES,  PORT 

TAMPA KEY  WEST HAVANA  LINE. 

One  Round 

Between                                Way.  Trip. 

Port  Tampa  and  Havana $25.40  $42. 10 

Key  West  and  Port  Tampa. ..     12.90  2110 

Key  West  and  Havana 12.50  21.00 

The  above  rates  include  meals  and  berth 
while  at  sea. 

SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  STEAMERS. 

NEW  ORLEANS  AND  HAVANA  SERVICE. 

Fares  between  New  Orleans  and  Havana. 

First  cabin $25.00 

Round  trip,  either  direction 45.00 

Steerage 12.50 

TRINIDAD  LINE. 

NEW  YORK,  GRENADA  AND  TRINIDAD,  B.W.I. 

Trinidad  or  Grenada — first  class $50.00 

Trinidad  or  Grenada — excursion 90.00 


QUEBEC  S.S.  Co.,  LTD. 

NEW   YORK   TO    BERMUDA   AND   WINDWARD 
ISLANDS. 

Bermuda  Service. 

Cabin  passage,  round  trip,  $25  and  up,  ac- 
cording to  steamer  and  <iate  of  sailing.      (Sub- 
ject    to     change.)     Steerage     passage,     $15; 
excursion,  $18.     Alien  Tax  $4  additional. 
West  India  Service. 

New  York  to  St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  St. 
Kitts,  Antigua,  Guadeloupe,  Dominica, 
Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  Barbados  and  De- 
merara. 

Cabin  passage,  $45  to  $75.  Return  ticket-!, 
good  for  6  months,  $90  to  $150.  Steerasre 
$25  to  $30.  U.,8.  Alien  Tax  $4  additional. 

RED  "D"  LINE. 

TO    PUERTO    RICO    AND    VENEZUELA,    NEW    YORK 
TO     LA     GUAYRA,      PUERTO     CABELLO, 
CURACAO  AND  MARACAIBO. 

s.s.  "CARACAS"  AND  "PHILADELPHIA" 

1st  Class 

Upper    Saloon      3d 
Deck       Deck       Class 

New    York    and    San    Juan.. $40.00    $35.00    $2000 
New    York    and    La    Guayra 
'     by    most    direct    route....  65.00      60.00      30.00 

New    York    and    Curacao 65.00      60.00      30.00 

New  York  to  Puerto  Cabello  70.00      65.00      35.00 
La    Guayra    and    New    York 

(via    Puerto    Cabello) 75.00      70.00      40.00 

Puerto  Cabello  to  New  York  65.00      60.00      30.00 
s.s.  "ZULIA"  AND  s.s.  "MARACAIBO" 

1st  Class    2d  Class 

New    York    and     Mayaguez $35.00          $25.00 

New    York    to    La    Guayra 60.00  40.00 

New    York    and     Curacao 60.00  40.00 

New    York    and    Maracaibo 75.00  50.00 

No    second    class    passengers    carried    on    the 
S.S.    "Caracas."    "Philadelphia,"  or  "Merida." 
Round  trip  10  per  cent,    reduction.     Good  for 
12   months. 

THE  ROYAL  MAIL  STEAM  PACKET 
COMPANY. 

NEW  YORK  AND  SOUTHAMPTON  VIA  CUBA, 
JAMAICA,  COLON,  CARTAGENA,  PUERTO 
COLOMBIA  (SAVANILLA),  TRINIDAD  (TRANSFER 
HERE  FOR  VENEZUELA,  BRITISH  GUIANA  AND 
WINDWARD  AND  LEEWARD  ISLANDS),  BAR- 
BADOS, ST.  MICHAELS  (AZORES)  AND  CHER- 
BOURG, RETURNING  TO  NEW  YORK  BY  SAME 
ROUTE  REVERSED.  . 

First  Class  Second  (Mass 

New    York    to    Single  Return  Single     Return 

Antilla     (Cuba).. $42. 50  $80.75  $30.00  $57.00 

Kingston     45.00  85.50  30.00  57.00 

Colon     75.00  142.50  45.00  85.50 

Cartagena     80.00  152.00  45.00  85.50 

Puerto  Colombia 

(Savanilla)      ...   80.00  152.00  45.00  85.50 

Trinidad      85.00  153.00  55.00  99.00 

Barbados     90.00  162.00  60.00  108.00 

Cherbourg        ).. 175.00  300.00  > 

Southampton  J   ..200.00  350.00) 

CUBA. 

Santiago  and  Camaguey,  $45  first  class,  $30 
second  class;  Havana,  $55  first  class;  Havana 
via  Santiago,  $58.50  first  class. 

BERMUDA.  SERVICE 

New  York  to  Bermuda,  first  class,  round 
trip,  $25  and  up. 


125.00      h  200. 00 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


209 


RATES  TO  WEST  INDIAN  AND  SOUTH  AMERICAN  PORTS— Continued. 


UNITED  FRUIT  COMPANY. 

YORK JAMAICA PANAMA COSTA 

AND  COLOMBIA  SERVICES. 


Per  Adult 
Between 
New  York  and 
Kingston  

First  ( 
One 
Way. 
$45.00 

^abin. 
Round 
Trip. 
$85.50 
142.50 
152.00 
152.00 
152.00 
152.00 

Colon                      

75  00 

80  00 

Puerto  Colombia  

80.00 

Santa  Marta  
Limon  .  .  . 

80.00 
.    80.00 

BETWEEN    PHILADELPHIA    AND    PORT   ANTONIO, 
JAMAICA. 

One  Round 

Way.  Trip. 

First  cr.bin $40.00  $76.00 

Second  Cabin 

With  meals  at  second  table.  .     30.00  57.00 

BOSTON COSTA  RICA  SERVICE. 

Fare,  Boston  to  Limon,  one  way,  $60.00; 
round  trip,  $114.00. 


NEW      ORLEANS- — GUATEMALA COSTA 

PANAMA  SERVICE. 

One 
Way 
Cabin 

1st 
Class 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Belize,  British  Honduras. .  .  $25.00 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Livingston,  Guatemala.  . . .    30.00 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Barrios,  Guatemala 30.00 

Between    New    Orleans    and 

Cortez,  Spanish  Honduras.    30.00 
Between    New    Orleans    and 

Limon,  Costa  Rica 50.00 

Between  New  Orleans  or  Mo- 
bile   and    Bocas   del   Toro, 

Panama. 50.00 

Between    New    Orleans    and 

Colon,  Panama 50.00 


Round 
Trip 
Cabin 

1st 
Class 

$45.00 
37.00 
57.00 
57.00 
95.00 

95.00 
95.00 


RATES  TO  PACIFIC  AND  TRANS-PACIFIC  PORTS. 

CANADIAN-AUSTRALIAN  ROYAL  MAIL  LINE. 


ONE-WA 

Y    FARES. 

BOU1 

VD-TBIP  I 

ARFS. 

VANCOUVER,   It.  C., 

Tint 

Servants 
Aceom- 

Second 

FIRST 

CABIN. 

SECOITD 
CAB  or> 

To 

Cabin. 

KSSS. 

Cabin. 

Steerage. 

Four 

Months. 

•SS& 

Twelve 
Months. 

.HONOLULU,  Hawaiian  Islands  
SUV*.  Fiji  Islands 

175  00 
200  00 

MO  00 

111  50 

$50  00 
125  00 

$30  00 
80  00 

tilt  N 

WOO  00 

(INN 

200  N 

4ITKL\\D  New  Zealand 

200  06 

133  5t 

125  00 

84  04 

IN  N 

200  N 

SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales  
BRISBANE,  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  rail  
via  Sydney  and  steamer  
SOCKHAMPTON,  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  
MELBOURNE,  Victoria,  via  Sydney  and  rail  
"           ria  Sydney  and  Intercolonial  steamer.  .  . 
ADELAIDE,  South  Australia  via  Svdncy  and  rail 

200  00 
212  90 

213  85 
224  25 
213  15 
211  50 
219  50 

133  50 
146  40 
147  IS 
157  75 
146  65 
145  00 
153  00 

125  00 
113  55 
138  U 
149  25 
134  65 
138  50 
137  84 

80  00 
88  55 

85  15 
91  60 
89  75 
85  15 
92  80 

300  00 
319  50 
123  04 

141  40 

119'54 

lists 

129  M 

204  N 
212  90 

m  oo 

241  40 
214  60 
218  45 
219  SO 

*  via  Sydney  and  Intercolonial  steamer 
FREMANTLE,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  Intercolonial  steamer 
ALBANY,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  Intercolonial  steamer.  . 
HOBART,  Tasmania,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  
APIA,  Samoan  Islands,  via  Suva  and  steamer  

220  70 
246  00 

246  00 
212  05 
200  00 

154  20 
179  SO 
179  50 
145  Si 
131  SO 

145  70 
171  00 
171  00 
11C  55 
125  00 

90  25 

105  55 
105  55 
87  30 
80  04 

332  20 
36900 
169  04 
319  30 
14004 

tun 

2S9  04 

289  04 
21114 

200  00 

PORT  LYTTLETON  (Christ  Church),  New  Zealand,  via  Auckland 
DUNEDIN,  New  Zealand,  via  Auckland  and  steamer  

218  45 

223  00 

151  85 
156  50 

143  45 
148  00 

91  55 
93  85 

110  15 

OT.is 

214  IS 

217  25 

UNION  STEAMSHIP  CO.   OF  NEW  ZEALAND.   (Ltd.) 


ONI 

.-WAY  FA 

KES. 

ROUND-TI 

IIP  FARES. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALT. 

<££ 

Ca*nd 

Third 

Cabin. 

Second 
Cabin 

To 

l£SL 

Four 

Months. 

PAPEETE,  Tahiti  
RAROTONGA,  Cook  Islands  

tin  oo 

$40  44 

«44  04 

$135  04 

$111  N 

APIA,  Samoan  Islands,  via  Auckland  and  steamer  
SUVA,  Fiji  Islands,  via  Auckland  and  steamer  
AUCKLAND,  New  Zealand,  via  Wellington  
WELLINGTON,  New  Zealand  
PORT  LYTTLETON.  (Christ  Church).  New  Zealand  via  Wellington 
DUNEDIN.  New  Zealand,  via  Wellington  
HOBART,  Tasmania,  via  Wellington  
SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales,  via  Wellington  and  steamer  
BRISBANE,  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  rail  
MELBOURNE,  Victoria,  via  Sydney  and  rail  
ADELAIDE,  South  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rail  
FREMANTLE,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rail  ,  

247  40 
217.00 
194  50 
178  75 
184  00 
18925 
213  75 
200  00 
211  25 
211  25 
211  50 
255  N 

:  189  50 
179  50 
117  04 
121  25 
128  50 
131  75 
138  75 
125  00 
133  75 
134  75 
117  75 
INN 

107  00 
96  00 
75.  N 
75  04 
78  54 
82  00 
88  25 
80.00 
88  75 
90  40 
92  75 
147  54 

198  75 
378  75 
293  75 
237  50 
276  75 
285  00 
122  00 
300  00 
119  SO 
111  SO 
129  25 
182  75 

•S18  75 
•298  75 
213  75 
187  50 
196  75 
205  00 
222  00 
200  00 
213  00 
214  75 
219  SO 
241  N 

»fim  cabm  on  steamship  beyond  Auckland,  New  Zealand. 

210 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RATES  TO  PACIFIC  AND  TRANS-PACIFIC  PORTS— Continued. 

NIPPON  YUSKN  KAISHA   (Japan  Mall  Steamship  Co.) 


ONE-WAY  FARES. 

BOUND-TRIP  FARES. 

From 

SERVANTS 

ACCOMPANYING 

FIRST  CABIN. 

SERVANTS  ACCOMPANYING 
FAMILIES 

SECOND  CABIN. 

SEATTLE,  WASH., 

Tint 



Second 

Inter- 

Asiatic 

Other  than  Asiatic 

Asiatic. 

Other 

Four 

Twelve 

Four 

Twelve 

To 

than 

Asiatic 

Month.. 

Months 

Four 

Twelve 

Twelve 

Months. 

Months. 

Asiatic. 

Months. 

Months 

Months 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan  

$128.00 

$85  00 

$4250 

©MS  00 

® 

$4S  60 

$187  60 

$220  oo 

$1«  50 

$150  00 

$84  00 

@$1».60 

©$150.00 

KOBE,  Japan  

117.  M 

87  50 

42  50 

©  87  50 

© 

43  50 

in  so 

moo 

111  50 

152  50 

85  00 

132  50 

©152  SO 

MOJI,  Japan  

130  00 

90  00 

42  50 

8>  90  00 

®' 

43  50 

moo 

227  50 

US  00 

157  50 

85  00 

©  135  00 

©167.60 

NAGASAKI,  Japan,  via  Kobe. 

137  50 

95  00 

42  50 

9  92  50 

fa 

43  50 

M7  50 

240  00 

145  00 

167  50 

85  00 

142  50 

©  162  50 

SHANGHAI,  China  

140  00 

100  00 

42  50 

100  00 

© 

43  50 

210  00 

145  00 

150  00 

175  00 

85  00 

©•150.00 

©  17S.H 

HONG  KONG  

150  00 

105  00 

42  50 

105  00 

® 

43  50 

225  00 

981  50 

167  SO 

185  00 

K  00 

157  50 

185  00 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands.. 

150  80 

105  00 

42  50 

105  00 

® 

48  50 

225  00 

262  50 

157  60 

185  00 

86  00 

157  SO 

®  18500 

imahips  Yokohama  Maru  and  Shidzuoka  Maru. 
BANK  LINE  (Ltd.) 


From 
SEATTLE  OR  TACOMA,  WASH..  OR 
VANCOUVER,  B.  C., 

To 

ONE-WAY  FARES. 

ROUND-TRIP  FARES. 

First 
Cabin. 

SERVANTS 
ACCOMPANYING 

Asiatic 
Steerage. 

FIRST  CABIN. 

SERVANTS  ACCOMPANYING 
FAMILIES. 

Four 

Months. 

Twelve 
Months. 

Other  than  Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

Other 
than 
Asiatic. 

Asiatic 

Four 
Months. 

Twelve 
Months 

Twelve 
Months. 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan        .  .     . 

$100  00 

104  00 
106  50 
110  00 
115  00 
115  00 
115  00 

$86  00 
87  50 
90  00 
95  00 
100  00 
105  00 
105  00 

$4260 

42  50 
42  50 
42  50 
42  50 
42  60 
42.50 

$48  50 

43  50 
42  50 
43  50 
47,50 
47  50 
47  50 

$150  00 
156  00 
ISO  75 
16500 
172  50 
172  SO 
172  SO 

$175  00 
182  00 
186  40 
19250 
201  25 
201  25 
201.25 

$127  SO 
182  SO 
US  00 
146  00 
150  00 
157  50 
167.60 

$150  00 
152  SO 
157  50 
16750 
176  00 
185  M 
186  00 

$86  00 
85  00 
86  00 
85  00 
85  00 
86  00 
86  00 

KOBE,  Japan  
MOJI,  Japan  
NAGASAKI,  Japan,  via  Kobe  
SHANGHAI,  China 

HONG  KONG  
MANILA,  Philippine  Islands  

OCEAN  STEAMSHIP  CO.   (Ltd.)   AND  CHINA  MUTUAL  STEAM  NAVIGATION  CO-   (Ltd.) 


From 

ONE-WAY 
FARES. 

To 

Asiatic 
Steerage. 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan  
KOBE,  Japan  
MOJI,  Japan  .-  
NAGASAKI,  Japan  !  

$41  50 
UN 
4S  60 
48  60 

51  00 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands  ,  

51  CO 
61  00 

CANADIAN  PACIFIC  RY.  CO.'S  ROYAL  MAIL  STEAMSHIP  LINE. 


ONE-WAY    FARES. 

ROUND-TRIP  FARES. 

SERVANTS  ACCOMPANYING 

FAMILIES. 

From 

ACCOMPANYING. 

FAMILIES. 

Other  than  Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

VANCOUVER,  B.  C.. 

First 

Inter- 

Second 

Asiatic 

Cabin. 

mediate 

Class 

Steerage. 

Four 

To 

T^a" 
Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

Four 

Months 

Twelve 

Months. 

Four 

Months 

Twelve 
Months 

Months 

Twelve 
Months 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan  

-$20000 

$13335 

$5000 

©$10000 

$$7000 

€$5100 

©$4860 

®$soooo 

$35000 

$20000 

$»S85 

$10000 

KOBE,  Jnpon.  

@207.50 

13835 

5000 

©10400 

(?)  74.00 

®  51.00 

©  48  SO 

©  812.50 

©86500 

20885 

24335 

10000 

MOJI,  Japan...-  

©11000 

©  80  00 

®  48.50 

NAGASAKI,  Jipan  

©228.50  ' 

©148.85 

©5000 

® 

®  80  00 

®  61.0* 

® 

©88400 

39375 

@222.70 

®2$S.SO' 

©10000 

SHANGHAI,  Ch^na  

••  225  00 

16000 

5000 

©11500 

®  85.00 

©  51.00 

©  5100 

»S3750 

©89875 

225.00 

26250 

10000 

HONG  KONG  

©225.00 

15000 

6000 

©11500 

-8500 

©  61.00 

©  61.00 

©SS7.60 

©898.76 

mm 

26250 

10000 

MANILA,  Philippine  Islands  via 

Hong  Kong  

©225.00 

160.00 

6,0, 

©11500 

®  85.00 

©  51  00 

©  5100 

©SS7.60 

39375 

225.00 

26250 

10030 

©Fares  apply  only  via  steamships  Empress  of  Japan  and  Empress  of  India. 

©Tires  apply  only  via  steamship  Monttaglt 
®Fnrcs  apply  onlv  via  steamships  Empret*  of  Japan.  Empress  of  India,  and  Monteagle. 
©Canceled;  no  (are  in  effect. 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


211 


RATES  TO  PACIFIC  AND  TRANS-PACIFIC  PORTS— Continued. 

M ATSON  NAVIGATION  CO. 


From 

ON 

E-WAY  FABE! 

i. 

BOUND-TBIP 
FABES. 

SAN  FBANCISCO,  CAJL, 

First 

Servants 

First  Cabin. 

Cabin. 

FamUies. 

Four  Months. 

Islands.                                                          

MS  M 

•MM 

•MM 

•110  M 

GBEAT  NOBTHEBN  STEAMSHIP  CO. 


Frooi 
SEATTLE.  WASH., 

ONE-WAY   FABES. 

BOUND-TBIP  FABES. 

* 

SERVANTS 
Ac  com  pan  y  i  ng 

Second 
Cabin. 

Third 
Cabin. 

Asiatic 
Steerage 

FIRST  CABIN 

SERVANTS  ACCOMPANYING 
FAMILIES. 

SECOND 
CABIN. 

Other 
than 
Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

Months 

Twelve 
Months. 

Other  than  Asiatic 

Asiatic. 

Twelve 
Months 

Four 
Months. 

Four 
Months 

Twelve 
Months. 

YOKOHAMA,  Japan  
KOBE,  Japan  
NAGASAKI,  Japan.  
SHANGHAI,  China  
HONG  KONG  ......   
MANILA,  Philippine  Islands,  via 
Hong  Kong  

•SM  M 
MTM 

mso 

SS5M 

nsM 
SSVM 

•1SSSS 

138  35 
148  35 
ISO  00 
ISO  00 

ISO  00 

•MM 
MM 
MM 
MM 
MM 

M  M 

(IN  M 

104  00 
110  00 
US  M 

115  M 

us  M 

•TIM 

74  M 
MM 
85  00 

85  00 

M.M 

•SI  M 

SIM 
SIM 
SIM 
SIM 

SIM 

•MIM 

S1SM 
SMM 

m  so 

SSTM 

SSTM 

•SMM 
MSM 

393  75 
393  75 
SM  75 

SSS  TS 

•SM  M 

MS  SS 

•Ml 
ns  M 
ns  M 

SSSM 

•ns  ss 

243  35 
MSM 
MS  M 
•Ml 

MSM 

(INN 

1M  M 
100  M 
INN 
IN  M 

INN 

•MIM 
SM.N 
SMM 
SMM 
SMM 

no  oi 

PACIFIC  MAIL  STEAMSHIP  CO.  OE  TOYO  KISEN  KAISHA. 


From 
SAN  FBANCISCO,  CAL-. 

Tw 

ONE-WAY  FABES. 

BOUND-TRIP  FABES. 

First 

Cabin 

SERV 
ACCOHP 

KAMI 

ANTS 
ANTIXO 

Inter- 
mediate 

Class. 

Asiatic 

Steerage 

FIRST  CABIN. 

SERVANTS  ACCOXPANTINO 

Other  than  Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

Other 
Than 
Asiatic. 

Asiatic. 

Months 

Twelve 
Months 

Four 
Months. 

Twelve 
Months. 

Four 
Months 

TES2 

HONOLULU,  Hawaiian    Island",  via  ] 
Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.  only...  J 
©YOKOHAMA,  Japan  
(TKOBE,  Japan  
©NAGASAKI,  Japan  

MMI 

MM 

•Ml 

ns  M 
2*500 
nsM 

ns  M 

<g*M.M 
US  SS 
1MSS 
1U3S 

ISO  00 
150  00 

ISO  M 

*3000 

M.M 
MM 
MM 
MM 
MM 

MM 

®MSM 
SIM  00 
••104  M 
110  00 

:  115    00 
:  115    00 

115  00 

-4MH 

TOM 
74  00 
MM 
MM 

•   M.M 

SS  00 

awt.Mv 

SIM 
SIM 
SIM 
SIM 
SIM 

51  00 

@«US.M 

@iioce 

SMM 
SIS  SO 

SS4M 
SSTM 
SS7  SO 

SIT  SO 

}  

(ISO  M 
MS  M 
19S7S 

SSJ  75 
MS.TS 

MI  75 

$90  00 

SM  M 
MS  SS 

ns  70 

ns  M 
ns  M 

nsM 

•SSS  SS 
248  SS 
SM  M 

K3  so 

SMM 
SUM 

-MOM 
100  M 
IN  M 
INN 

1M  00 
,10000 

INN 

©MANILA,  Philippine  Islands,  via  Naga- 
saki direct  or  Hong  Kong.   

®In  constructing  tbrourh  fares  tla  San  Francisco  and  the  Paclflc  Mall  Steamship  Co.  or  Tt»ro  Klsen  Kalsha,  the  foUowing  deduc- 
way  and  round-trip  basing  (ares  of  the  Steamship  lines  named  to  all  points,  except  Honolulu,  as  shown  above: 


Ing  I 

wul  b«  made  from  the 
Deduct  $2  83  wl 
San  Francisco 


railway  tickets  aid  S3.  20  whja  excursion  railway  tickets  are  issued  from  New  York  or  Philadelphia  to 


lilway  tickets  are  issued  from  Baltimore  or  Washington  to  San  Francisco. 

ite  eienr;l»a  rtlliri/  ticket  i  to  San  Francisco  In  one  direction  either  going  or  return- 
er, or  Victoria. 

Fares  will  not  apply  via  Steamships  Per  tin  and  Nile  of  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co. 

Faflt  apply  only  "ia  stlim'hips  Ckina.  Penia,  and  Nile  of  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co  .  and  Nippon  Hani  of  Toyo  Risen  Kaisha. 
Parts  apply  only  via  steamship  C«ina  with  intermediate  accommodations. 

OCEANIC  STEAMSHIP  CO. 


ONE-WAY    FABES. 

BOUND-TBIP  FABES. 

From 

First 

Second 

SAN  FBANCISCO,  CAL.. 

f£jy£ 

Second 

Third 

Cabin 

Cabin 

I 

Cabin. 

Cabin. 

Four 

Four 

•To 

Months. 

Months 

HONOLULU,  Hawaiian  Islands  

W5M 

MO  00 

•110  M 

PAPEETE.  Tahiti  

• 

® 

® 

® 

PAGO  PAGO,  Samoan  Islands  

1M  M 

«110  M 

g    M  00 

240  M 

»1(S  M 

SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales  

MO  M 

125  00 

80  00 

Ml  00 

200  00 

BRISBANE,  Queensland,  via  Sydney  and  rail  
M  CLBOfRVV.,  Victoria,  via  Sydney  and  rail  

21J  00 
215  25 

131  75 

1S4  75 

88  75 
59  75 

319  SO 
319  50 

213  00 
214  75 

AUCKLAND,  New  Zealand,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  

213  25 

138  25 

91  75 

319  74 

219  75 

WELLINGTON,  New  Zealand,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  

21S  25 

118  2S 

97  75 

319  75 

219  75 

ADELAIDE,  South  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  rsil  

219  SO 

137  7S 

102  75 

329  25 

219  50 

FRKM  ANTLE,  West  Australia,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  

244  00 

169  00 

9114  M 

3*5  75 

265  75 

IIOBART,  Tasmania,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  

211  75 

1J136  M 

96  50 

317  SO 

217  50 

PORT  LYTTLETON  (Chri«t  Church),  New  Zealand,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  

217  SO 

142  SO 

181  M 

3M  SO 

228  SO 

DUNEDIN,  New  Zealand,  via  Sydney  and  steamer  

ns  M 

®MTM 

103  2i 

315  M 

ns  M 

$  First  cabin  on  Intercolonial  steamer  beyond  Sydney.   New  South  Wales. 
i) Fares  will  not  apply  for  femal*  or*  steamships  Sonoma  and  Ventura. 
i)Canceled:  no  fare  in  effect. 


212 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


(1)  Wood  Paddle-boats. 

(2)  Iron 


FROM  STEAM  PACKET  TO  STEAM  PALACE. 

(5)  Steel  Twin-Screw  Steamers, 


(3)  Iron  Screw  Steamers. 

(4)  Steel      " 


Date 

Name  of  Steamer. 

Owners. 

Remarks. 

1833 
1838 

1840 
1849 
1854 
1856 

1858 

1856 
1862 

Royal  William.  .  .(1) 

Sirius  
Great  Western  
Royal  William...  .  (2) 
Britannia  
Atlantic  

Quebec  &  HalifaxS.N.Co.  -j 

British  and  Amer.S.N.Co.  . 
Great  Western  S.N.Co.  . 

From  Pictou  (N.S.),  1st  to  cross  the 
Atlantic. 
From  Cork,  1st  departure  from  V.  K. 
Bristol,  1st  built  for  Atlantic. 
Liverpool,  1st  departure. 
Liverpool,  1st  carriedBritish  mails. 
New  York,  1st  carried  U.S.  mails. 
Glasgow,  1st  steamer  of  Line. 
1st 
Hamburg,  1st 
Last  Sailing  of  Line. 
From  Bremen  to  New  York. 

Transatlantic  SS.  Co  
Cunard  Line  

Collins 

Canadian  
Tempest  
Borussia 

Allan         "      
Anchor     ' 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 

BremeYi  

Norddeutscher  Lloyd  

Persia                      (2) 

Cunard  

1st  Cunard  iron  paddle  steamer. 
Last 

Scotia  

1845 
1850 
1858 
1868 
1869 
1871 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1879 
1882 

1883 

1879 
1881 

1884 
1886 

1888 

1889 

1890 
1892 

1893 

1895 

1897 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1907 

1911 

1913 

Great  Britain.  .  .  .  (3) 
City  of  Glasgow  
GREAT  EASTERN 

Great  Western  S.N.Co.  .  .  . 
Inman  Line  

1st  Atlantic  iron  screw  steamer. 
1st  to  carry  steerage  passengers. 
Paddle  wheels  and  propeller. 
1st  Atlantic  ss.  with  comp.  engines. 
1st                            "  steam  steering  gear. 
1st  with'midship  saloon,  &c. 
1st  sailing  of  Line  to  Liverpool. 
1st  to  exceed  5,000  tons,  Great  Eastern 
1st  with  electric  light.             [excepted. 
Watertight  compartments  floated  her. 
1st  "ocean  greyhound." 
Sunk    outside   New  York;    every  one 
saved  by  N.  D.  Lloyd  ss.  Fulda. 

Italy  
City  of  Brussels. 
Oceanic  (1st)  
Pennsylvania  
Britannic  
City  of  Berlin  
Arizona.  .    . 

National  Line 

Inman       " 

White  Star  Line  

American       "      .*  .  .  . 

White  Star    "      
Inman              '      
Guion.  .          " 

Alaska 

j    "                  "(1)  ( 

g 

1  Cunard        "  (2)  f 

Buenos  Ayrean.  .  (4) 
Servia  

City  of  Rome  

America  
I  Umbria  f 

Allan  Line  
Cunard  "    

1st  Atlantic  steel  steamer. 
1st  Cunard 

Fitted  with  three  funnels. 
1st  and  last  express  ss.  of  Line. 
1st  with  20  knots  speed. 
1st  triple-expansion  express  ss. 

t  Inman  (1)  Line  .               1 

1  Anchor(2)    "      f 
National           '      .  . 

Cunard           " 

1  Etruria  j 
Aller  

Norddeutscher  Lloyd  

j  City  of  NewYork(S) 
)  City  of  Paris  
j  Teutonic  1 
1  Majestic  C 
Fiirst  Bismarck  
La  Touraine.  .  . 

Inman  &  International(  1)  (_ 
American  Line  (2)    ......  1 

White  Star  Line 

1st  twin-screw  ocean  expresses. 
1st  to  exceed  10,000  tons.G.E.excepted 
Designed  as  mercantile  cruisers. 

1st  under  6£  days  from  Southampton. 
Record  Havre  to  New  York,  6f  days. 
Lucania:  highest  day's  run  562  knots. 
Liverpool  to  New  York  records. 
Largest  express  steamers  ever  built  in 
America. 
Record  day's  run,  580  knots.       [tons. 
Balanced  engines,  1st  to  exceed  15,000 
Fastest  ocean  steamer  in  the  world. 
1st  to  exceed  20,000  tons. 

Largest  express  steamer  in  the  world. 
Largest  ss.  in  the  world  —  726x76x49. 
1st  fitted  with  turbine  engines. 
Fastest    in  the    world.      Fitted    with 
turbine  engines.    Record  day's  run, 
Mauretania.  676  knots. 
Lir^est   ocean   liner    in    commission, 
October  1,  1912. 
Will  be  the  largest  vessel  in  the  world. 

Hamburg-American  Line  . 
Compagnie  Generate  Trans. 
Cunard  Line                       / 

/  Campania 

\  Lucania  
/St.  Paul  
\St.  Louis  
KaiserWilhelmd.Gr. 
Oceanic  
Deutschland  
CELTIC  

KRONPRINzWlLHELM 

Kaiser  Wilhelm  II. 
Baltic.  
Victorian  
Lusitania.  
Mauretania  

American                            / 

Norddeutscher  Lloyd.  .  .  . 
White  Star  Line  
Hamburg-  American  Line.. 
White  Star  Line  
Norddeutscher  Lloyd  
Norddeutscher  Lloyd  
White  Star  Line  

Cunard  Line                      f 

White  Star  Line  / 
Hamburg-American  Line  . 

Olympic  

Imperator   

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


213 


DEPTHS  OF  PORTS  -OF  THE  WORLD. 


Port. 

Channel 
(mean 
high 
water) 

Quay 
(mean 
high 
water) 

Port. 

Channel 
(mean 
high 
water). 

Quay 
(mean 
high 
water). 

Amsterdam  (canal) 
Holland  
Antwerp,  Belgium  
Baltimore   Md 

Feet. 

30 
37 
31 

Feet. 

30 
37 
31 

Libau,  Russia  
Liverpool,  England  
London,  England  
Manchester  Ship  Canal 

Feet. 
22 
55 
42 
28 

Feet. 
29 
33 
43 
28 

Boston,  Mass  

36 

36 

Marseille,  France 

55 

39 

Boulogne,  France  

29 

34 

Montreal,  Canada  

30 

35 

Bremen,  Germany  
Bremerhaven,  Germany 

18 
34 

18 
34 

Naples.  Italy  
New  Orleans   La 

33 
30 

30 

40 

Brindisi,  Italv  

32'. 

:      32 

New  York,  N.  Y... 

42 

50 

Cherbourg,  France  

42 

50  ; 

Norfolk    Va 

30 

30 

Copenhagen,  Denmark.  . 

26 
34 

26  j 
34 

'  Ostend,  Belgium  
Philadelphia   Pa 

31 
29 

38 

QO 

Galveston,  Tex  

30 

28 

Portland^  Me  

38 

38 

Genoa,  Italy  
Glasgow,  Scotland  
Greenock,  Scotland  
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  .  .  . 

,60 
.30 
36 
83 

33 
38 
39 
45 

Rotterdam,  Holland  
St.  Johns,  Newfoundland 
San  Francisco,  Cal  
Seattle,  Wash 

29 

48 
39 
(*) 

29 
54 
39 
30  to  50 

Hamburg,  Germany  
Havre,  France  

32 
42 

35 
30 

Southampton,  England.  .  . 
Stettin,  Germany... 

41 

23 

43 
23 

Kaiser      William      Canal. 

Stockholm,  Sweden  

25 

22 

Germany  

29 

Suez  Canal,  Egypt  

28 

Kev  West,  Fla  

30 

30 

Toulon,  France  

t26 

t23 

Konigsberg  Canal,  Ger...  . 

21 

Trieste    Austria 

30 

28 

Leghorn,  Italy  

22 

26 

*  Deep  water. 


THE  "OLYMPIC"  LEAVING  HER  DOCK  AT  BELFAST. 


MILESTONES  OF  MARITIME  PROGRESS. 


1833 — Sails  to  wooden  paddles. 
1843— Wood  to  iron  hulls. 
1850 — Paddles  to  screw-propellers. 
1856 — Simple  to  compound  engines. 


1879— Iron  to  steel  hulls. 

1889 — Simple  to  twin-screw. 

1906 — Triple-expansion  to  turbine  engines. 

1907 — Quadruple-screw  propellers. 


214  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Courtesy   of   "The   Sphere." 

IF  ONLY  WE  COULD  FLY  THE  ATLANTIC. 
ONE  WAY  BY  WHICH  THE  ICEBERG  DANGER  WOULD  BE  AVOIDED. 


This  diagram  tells  its  own  story  of  how  we  have  conquered  time  and  space,     Th<?  problem. 
gl  flying  to  America  is  now  welj  wj^in.  the  bounds  of  possibility, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


215 


STEAMSHIP  RECORDS. 

Compiled  and  Revised  by  A.  W.  Lewis,  Chief  of  the  Ship  News  of  the  "Associated  Press 

•» 

QUEENSTOWN   RECORDS    SINCE  1880. 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  MAURETANIA. 

WESTWARD. 

(Cunard  Line.) 

Date.       Steamer.               Line.               d.  h.  m. 

WESTWARD. 

1880    Arizona                      Guion                    7    10    47 

Date.                                                 d.     h. 

m. 

1882    Alaska                        Guion                    7      6    43 

1907,  Dec.      From  Queenstown             6         0 

55 

1884    Oregon                        Cunard                  6      9    42 

1909,  July     From  Queenstown             4        15 

55 

1885     Etruria                        Cunard                   6      5    SI 

1909,  Sept.     From  Queenstown             4        10 

51 

1887    Umbria                       Cunard                  6      4    42 

1910,  Sept.    From  Queenstown             4        10 

*41 

1888    Etruria                       Cunard                  6      1    55 

*  Record. 

1889    City    of    Paris         Inman                    5    19    18 

EASTWARD. 

1891    Majestic                     White  Star           5    18      8 
1891    Teutonic                     White  Star          5    16    31 
1892    City    of   Paris          American              5    14    24 
1894    Campania                   Cunard                  5      9    27 

1907,  Dec.      To  Queenstown                  4        22 
1909,  June    To  Queenstown                  4        17 
1909,  Sept.     To  Queenstown                 4       13 

29 
21 
•41 

1894    Lucania                      Cunard                  5      7    23 
1895    Campania                  Cunard                  596 
1898    Etruria                       Cunard                  5   -20    55 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  LUSITANIA. 
(Cunard  Line.) 

1907    Lusitania                   Cunard                  4    18    40 

WESTWARD. 

1907    Mauretania               Cunard                  5      0    55 

1907,  Nov.     From  Queenstown             4        18 

40 

1908    Lusitania                   Cunard                  4    15      0 

1908,  Aug.     From  Queenstown             4        15 

0 

1909    Mauretania                Cunard                  4    15    55 

1909,  Sept.     From  Queenstown             4        11 

*42 

1909    Lusitania                  Cunard                  4    11  *42 

*  Record. 

1909    Mauretania                Cunard                  4    10    51 
1910    Mauretania               Cunard                  4    10  *41 

EASTWARD. 
1S07,  Nov.     To  Queenstown    -    -        4        22 

50 

QUEENSTOWN    RECORDS   SINCE    1882. 

1908,  Oct.      To  Queenstown                  4        22 
1909,  Oct.      To  Queenstown                  4        15 

43 
52 

EASTWARD. 

1911,  Jan.      To  Queenstown                  4        15 

*50 

1882    Alaska                        Guion                    6    18    37 

1884    America                     National               6    14      3 

RECORD  OF 

1884    Oregon                        Cunard                  6    11      9 
1887    Etruria                       Cunard                  6      4    36 
1889    City   of  Paris           Inman                   5    23    38 
1889    City  of  Paris          Inman                   5    22    50 

S.  S.'  KRONPRINZESSIN  CECILIE 
(North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 
WESTWARD. 

1891    Teutonic                     White  Star          5    21      3 
1892    City  of  New  York    American              5    19    57 

1938,  Jan.      From  Cherbourg                5        16 
1908,  Aug.     From  Cherbourg                5        u 

0 
9 

1893    Campania                  Cunard                  5    17    27 

1910,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg               5       10 

*23 

1893    Campania                   Cunard                  5    14    55 

EASTWARD. 

'3    Campania                  Cunard                  5    12      7 

1907,  Aug.     To  Plymouth                       5        11 

5 

1893    Lucania                      Cunard                  5    13    30 
1894    Campania                  Cunard                 5      9    18 
1894    Lucania                      Cunard                  5    13    11 

1908,  Sept.    To  Plymouth                       5          8 
1909,  Sept.    To  Plymouth                      5          7 

7 
•25 

1894    Lucania                     Cunard                  5      8    38 
1907    Lusitania                   Cunard                  4    22    50 
1907    Mauretania               Cunard                  4    22    29 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  LA  PROVENCE 
(French  Line.) 

• 

1908    Lusitania                   Cunard                  4    22    43 

WESTWARD. 

1908    Mauretania               Cunard                  4    17    21 

1906,    April  From  Havre  (first  trip)  6          9 

10 

1909    Lusitania                   Cunard                *4    13    41 

1906,  May     From  Havre                       6         3 

35 

1909    Mauretania               Cunard                  4    15    52 

1906,  July     From  Havre                        6          3 

10 

1911    Lusitania                   Cunard               *4    15    50 

1906,     Sept.  From  Havre                        6         2 

15 

1907.  Sept.    From  Havre                        6          1 

*3 

SOUTHAMPTON  RECORDS  SINCE  1890. 

•     EASTWARD. 

EASTWARD. 

1906,  May      To  Havre                             6         4 

40 

1890    Columbia                   Hamburg  Amer- 

1906, June     To  Havre                             6         2 

*48 

ican                 6    15      0 
1893    Fiirst    Bismarck      Hamburg  Amer- 

RECORD OF  S.  S.  FRANCE. 

ican                 6    10    55 

(French  Line.) 

1897    St.   Louis                   American              6    10    14 

WESTWARD. 

1897    Kaiser   Wilhelm  der    Grosse, 
North    German   Lloyd.                    5    17      S 

1912.   April    From    Havre  (first  trip)   5        23 

58 

EASTWARD. 

SOUTHAMPTON  RECORDS  SINCE  1892. 

1912,  May     To   Havre                            5        20 

2 

WESTWARD. 
1892    Lahn                          North  German 
Lloyd              6    22      0 

RECORD  OF  S.  S.  KAISER  WILHELM 

(North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 

II. 

1893    Paris                           American             6      9    37 

WESTWARD. 

1894    New  York                 American              6      7    14 

1903,     April  From  Cherbourg                5        23 

0 

1896    St.  Louis                   American              6      2    "4 

1903,  Aug.     From  Cherbourg                5        15 

10 

1896     St.   Paul                      American 

1P04.  Nov.     From  Cherbourg                5        12 

25 

1S97    Kaiser    Wilhelm    der    Grosse 

1909,  Nov.     From  Cherbourg               5       12 

*3 

(North    German    Lloyd)                5    22    35 
1898    Kaiser  Wilhelm   der  Grosse 

EASTWARD. 
1903,  May     To  Plymouth                     6         1 

30 

(North    German    Lloyd)                 5    ">o    10 
1910    Kaiser  Wilhelm  II 

1903,  Aug.     To  Plymouth                        5        10 
1904,  Oct.      To  Plymouth                      5         8 

42 

Copyright  1912,  by  Munn  <fe  CQM  to<)                                  »  Record., 

216 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STEAMSHIP  REC 
RECORD  OF 
S.  S.  KRONPR1NZ  WILHELM. 
(North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 
WESTWARD. 
Date                                                 d.      h.      ro. 
1901,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg 
(First   trip)  6       10       15 
1901,  Oct.      From  Cherbourg                5       21       10 
1901,  Nov.     From  Cherbourg                5        19          6 
1901,  Dec.      From  Cherbourg                5        15        45 
1902,  Sept.   From  Cherbourg               5       11      *57 
EASTWARD. 
1901,  Oct.      To  Plymouth                     5         9       48 
1901,  Nov.    To  Plymouth                     5         8     *18 

RECORD  OF 
THE  OLD  S.  S.  DEUTSCHLAND 
(  Hamburg-  American  Line.) 
WESTWARD. 
1900,  July     From  Plymouth 
(First  Trip)  5        16        24 
1900,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg                5        12        29 
1901,  Aug.     From  Cherbourg                5        12        23 
1903,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg                5        11        54 
EASTWARD. 
1900,  July     To  Plymouth                      5        15         6 
1900,  Aug.     To  Plymouth                      5        11        45 
1900,  Sept.    To  Plymouth                      5         7        38 
1900,  Sept.    To  Cherbourg       via 
Plymouth  5        13        30 
Her    speedy    machinery    has    been    removed 
and    she    is    now    a    superb    cruising    yacht    of 
comparatively   low   speed   and    is   the    "Victoria 
Luise." 

ORDS—  Continued. 
RECORD  OF 
S.  S.  KAISER  WILHELM  DER  GROSSE. 
(  North  German  Lloyd  Line.) 

EASTWARD. 
Date                                                 d.     h.      nv 
1897,  Oct.      To  Plymouth                     5       15       10 
1897,  Nov.     To  Southampton                5        17          8 
1899,  July     To  Cherbourg                     5       20        55 
1899,     Sept.   To  Cherbourg                      6        17        56 
1900,  Jan.      To  Cherbourg                     5        15        50 
1901,  Oct.       To  Plymouth                      5        10       *0 
WESTWARD. 
1897,  Sept.    From    Southampton 
(First   Trip)  5        22        33 
1898,  April   From  Southampton           5       20       10 
1899,  Mar.     From  Cherbourg                5        21          8 
1899,  Sept.    From  Cherbourg                5        18        15 
1899,  Oct.      From  Cherbourg                5        17        48 
1899,.  Nov.     From  Cherbourg                5        17        37 
1901,  Oct.      From  Cberbourg                5        17        22 
1901,  Nov.     From  Cherbourg                5        16        24 
3902,  April    From  Cherbourg                5        18        45 
1902,  Sept.     From  Cherbourg                5        15      *20 
*Record. 

Up    to    the   end   of   September,    1911,    89 
merchant    steamers    and    yachts    have    been 
launched  which  are  fitted  with  turbine  engines, 
the  gross  tonnage  represented  being  357,000 
tons.     Of  the  merchant  vessels,  50  per  cent, 
are  capable  of  a  speed  of  20  knots  and  up- 
wards.    The  largest  of  the  turbine  ships  is 
the  Mauretania,   with  a  tonnage  of  31,938. 
Then     follow     the     Lusitania,     31,550,     the 
France,    23,400;     Carmania,    19,524;     Chiyo 
Maru,  13,426;    Shinyo  Maru,  13,500;    Tenyo 
Maru,  13,454;   Royal  Edward,  11,117;    Royal 
George,    11,146.     A  combination  of  recipro- 
cating and  turbine  engines  seems  to  be  gaining 
ground.     There  are  already  nine  steamers  of 
nearly  150,000  tons  fitted  with  this  combina- 
tion, the  largest  being  the  Olympic. 

The  Suez  Canal  traffic  in  1910  was  carried 
on   in   4,533    passages.     The    total   net   tons 
carried    were    16,581,898    and    the    receipts 
therefrom  amounted  to  $24,550,235.93.     The 
average  time  required  for  the  passage  was 
16  hours  and  54  minutes. 

PROPORTIONAL  STEAMSHIP  SPEEDS. 


Knots. 

Miles 
Hour. 

Feet 
per 
Minute. 

Feet 
per 
Second 

Miles 
Knots.    per 
Hour. 

Feet 
per 
Minute. 

Feet 
per 

Second. 

1 

1.151 

101.333 

1.689 

13*     15.545 

1,368.000 

22.800 

1* 

1.727 

152.000 

2.533 

14  ;    16.121 

1,418.666 

23.644 

2 

2.303 

202.666 

3.378 

14* 

16.696 

1,469.333 

24.488 

2* 

2.879 

253.333 

4.222 

15 

17.273 

1,520.000 

25.333 

3 

3.454 

304.000 

5.066 

15* 

.17.848 

1,570.666 

26.177 

3* 

4.030 

354.666 

6.911 

16 

18.424 

1,621.333 

27.022 

4 

4.606 

405.333 

6.755 

16* 

19.000 

1,672.000 

27.866 

4* 

5.181 

456.000 

7.600 

17      19.575 

1,722.666 

28.711 

5 

5.757 

506.666 

8.444 

17*  |    20.151 

1,773.333 

29.555 

5* 

6.333 

557.333 

9.288 

18 

20.727 

1,824.000 

30.400 

6 

6.909 

608.000 

10.133 

18* 

21.303 

1,874.666 

31.244 

6* 

7.484 

658.666 

10.972 

19 

21.878 

1,925.333 

32.088 

7 

8.0CO 

709.333 

11.822 

19* 

22.454 

1,976.000 

32.933 

7* 

8.636 

760.000 

12.666 

20 

23.030 

2,026.666 

33.777 

8 

9.212 

810.666 

13.511 

20* 

23.606 

2,077.333 

34.622 

8* 

9.787 

861.333 

14.355 

21 

24.181 

2,128.000 

35.466 

9 

10.363 

912.000 

15.200 

21* 

24.757 

2,178.666 

36.311 

9* 

10.939 

962.666 

16.044 

22 

25.333 

2,229.333 

37.154 

10 

11.515 

1,013.333 

16.888 

22* 

25.909 

2,280.000 

37.998 

10* 

12.091 

1,064.000 

17.732 

23 

26.485 

2,330.666 

38.842 

11 

12.666 

1,114.666 

18.577 

23* 

27.060 

2,381.333 

39.687 

n* 

13.242 

1,165.333 

19.421 

24 

27.636 

2,432.000 

40.532 

12 

13.818 

1,216.000 

20.266 

24* 

28.212 

2,482.666 

41.376 

12* 

-14.394 

1,266.666 

21.111 

25 

28.787 

2,533.333 

42.220 

13 

14.969 

1,317.333 

21.955 

26 

29.938 

2,634.666 

43.  9K) 

Copyright  1912,  by  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


217 


Copyright  1909  by  Munn  &  Co. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  OCEAN  VESSELS  IN  THE  PAST  THREE  CENTURIES. 

The  "  Half  Moon"  of  1609,  if  the  wind  favored,  could  sail  about  6  knots.  The  "Clermont" 
of  1807  made  4i  knots.  The  "Mauretania"  in  1909  crossed  the  Atlantic  at  a  26-knot  gait. 
Ihe  engine  and  boiler  rooms  of  the  Mauretania  could  accommodate  five  Clerraonts  placed  end 
to  end.  The  "Half  Moon"  could  be  placed  athwartship  on  the  deck  above  with  her  hull  and 
masts  entirely  within  the  ship's  structure. 


218 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


DISTANCES  IN  KNOTS  OR  NAUTICAL  MILES. 


Short  Track—  Aug.  24  to  Jan.  14,  East. 
Aug.  15  to  Jan.  14,  West. 
Long  Track  —  Jan.  15  to  Aug.  23,  East. 
Jan.  15  to  Aug.  14,  West. 

EASTBOUND 

WESTBOUND 

Short 
Track 

Long 
Track 

Short 
Track 

Long 
Track 

Ambrose  Channel  Lightship*  and  — 

4,952 
3,323 
2,227 
3,563 
2,744 
998 
3,073 
3,190 
2,751 
29 
3,278 
4,021 
3,168 
3,511 
3,145 
3,033 
2,929 
3,257 
193 
4,116 
3,073 
935 
2,978 
2,814 
2,810 
3,327 
2,880 
3,095 

4,962 
3,432 
2,231 
3,692 
2,869 

4,945 
3,296 
2,221 
3,536 

2,717 

4,954 
3,389 
2,230 
3,629 
2,823 

Antwerp                                                                 

Azores  (Ponta  del  Gada) 

Bremen        .                                                  

Cape  Race  .    .  

3,182 
3,299 
2,876 

3,387 
4,031 
3,178 
3,621 
3,246 
3,158 
3,038 
3,366 

4,i26 
3,182 

3,087 
2,939 
2,935 
3,436 
2,989 
3,204 

3,046 
3,163 
2,724 

3,25i 
4,013 
3,160 
3,485 
3,110 
3,015 
2,902 
3,230 

4,168 
3,046 

2,95i 
2,787 
2,783 
3,300 
2,853 
3,068 

3,139 
3,259 
2,830 

3,344 
4,023 
3,170 
3,578 
3,205 
3,124 
2,995 
3,326 

4,ii8 
3,139 

3',047 
2,893 
2,889 
3,393 
2,946 
3,161 

Dover  

Fastnet                                                               

Flushing                                                                  

Genoa  

Gibraltar                                                           

Havre                                                         

Lizard  Point  .                               .  .          .  .        

London  (Tilbury  Docks) 

Nantucket  Lightship..          .  .        

Naples 

Needles  . 

Newfoundland  (Banks  of) 

Plymouth.    .  .    .                 

Roche's  Point  

Rotterdam  

Scilly  Islands  (Bishop  Rock)  
Southampton  (Docks) 

Philadelphia  to  Delaware  Breakwater,  88  miles. 
Delaware  Breakwater  and  — 
Antwerp 

3,397 
2,825 
3,352 
3,335 
3,116 
3,002 
3,336 
277 
1,009 

3,506 
2,950 
3,461 
3,444 
3,241 
3,111 
3,445 

3,379 
2,807 
3,334 
3,313 
3,098 
2,985 
3,314 

3,472 
2,913 
3,427 
3,409 
3,204 
3,078 
3,410 

Fastnet  
Flushing 

Gravesend  
Liverpool  (Landing  Stage).. 

Lizard  Point  

London  (Tilbury  Docks). 

Nantucket  Lightship  

Newfoundland  (Banks  of)  .  .  . 

Boston  (Dock)  to  Boston  Light,  16  miles. 
Boston  Light  and  — 
Antwerp.  ...                        . 

3,161 
2,064 
2,583 
3,048 

2,882 
2,652 

3,280 
2,078 
2,718 
3,062 
3,017 
2.787 

3,126 
2,064 
2,548 
3,048 
2,947 
2,617 

3,233 
2,078 
2,668 
3,062 
2,967 
2,737 

Azores  (Ponta  del  Gada)  
Brow  Head  

Gibraltar  

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage.  )  

Queenstown 

Montreal  and  — 
Antwerp  

3,150 
2,755 
3,082 
155 

3,254 
2,968 
3,186 

3,150 
2,755 
3,082 

3,254 
2,968 
3,186 

Liverpool  (Landing  Stage)   . 

London  (Tilbury  Docks)  

Quebec 

Portland  to  — 
Halifax 

326 
2,862 

2,985 

2,8i9 

2,935 

Liverpool  

New  Orleans  to  — 
Liverpool  (Landing  Stage) 

4,465 
4,676 

4,465 
4.676 

4,465 
4,676 

4,465 
4,676 

London  (Tilbury  Docka)  

»Ne.w  York  (Battery) 


annel  Lightship, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


219 


MARINE  DISASTERS. 


Among  the  marine  disasters  on  record 
that  have  resulted  in  the  loss  of  life  are: 

1866,  Jan.  11. — Steamer  London,  ou  her 
way  to  Melbourne,  foundered  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay;  220  lives  lost. 

1866,  Oct.  3. — Steamer  Evening  Star  from 
New  York  to  New  Orleans,  foundered;  about 
250  lives  lost. 

1867,  Oct.  29 — Royal  Mail  Steamers  Rhone 
and  Wye  and  about  fifty  other  vessels  driven 
ashore  and  wrecked  at  St.  Thomas,  West  In- 
dies, by  a  hurricane;   about  1,000  lives  lost. 

1870.^— Indian  Line  steamer  City  of  Boston, 
left  New  York  with  117  passengers  and  was 
never  heard  from. 

1871,  July  30.— Staten  Island  ferryboat 
Westfield  exploded  in  New  York  Harbor;  100 
lives  lost. 

1873,  Jan.  22.— British  steamer  ^rthfleet, 
sunk  in  collision  off  Dungeness;  300  lives  lost. 

1873,  Nov.  23. — White  Star  liner  Atlantic 
wrecked  off  Nova  Scotia;  547  lives  lost. 

1873,  Nov.  23. — French  Line  steamer  Ville 
du  Havre,  from  New  York  to  Havre,  in  col- 
lision with  ship  Loch  Earn,  sank  in  sixteen 
minutes;   110  lives  lost. 

1874,  Dec.  26.— -Immigrant  vessel  Cospat- 
rick  took  fire  and  sank  off  Auckland;  476  lives 
lost. 

1875,  May    7.— Hamburg    mail    steamer 
Schiller  wrecked  in  fog  on  Scilly  Isles;    200 
lives  lost. 

1875,  Nov.  4. — American  steamer  Pacific  in 
collision  thirty  miles  southwest  of  Cape  Flat- 
tery; 236  lives  lost. 

1877,  Nov.  24.— United  States  Sloop  of  War 
Huron  wrecked  off  North  Carolina  coast;  110 
lives  lost. 

1878,  Jan.  31. — Steamer  Metropolis  wrecked 
off  North  Carolina;    104  lives  lost. 

1878,  March  24.— British  training  ship 
Eurydice,  a  frigate,  foundered  near  the  Isle  of 
Wight;  300  lives  lost. 

1878,  Sept.  3. — British  iron  steamer  Prin- 
cess Alice  sunk  in  collision  in  the  Thames;  700 
lives  lost. 

1878,  Nov.  25. — Steamer  Pomerania  sunk 
in  midnight  collision  with  a  bark  in  the 
English  Channel;  47  lives  lost. 

1878,  Dec.  18.— French  steamer  Byzantin 
sunk  in  collision  in  the  Dardanelles  with  the 
British  steamer  Rinaldo;  210  lives  lost. 

1879,  Dec.   2.— Steamer  Borusia  sunk  off 
coast  of  Spain;  174  lives  lost. 

1880,  Jan.  31.— British  training  ship  At- 
lanta, left  Bermuda  with  290  men  and  was 
never  heard  from. 

1881,  Aug.  30.— Steamer  Teuton  wrecked 
off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  200  lives  lost. 

1883,  July  3. — Steamer  Daphne  turned  tur- 
tle in  the  Clyde;    124  lives  lost. 

1884,  Jan.  18. — American  steamer  City  of 
Columbus  wrecked  off  Gay  Head  Light,  Mass. ; 
99' lives  lost. 

1884,  April  19. — Bark  Ponema  and  steam- 
ship State  of  Florida  sank  in  midocean  after 
collision;  145  lives  lost. 

1884,  July  23.— Spanish  steamer  Gijon  and 
British  steamer  Lux  in  collision  off  Finistere; 
150  lives  lost. 

1886,  March  14. — Steamship  Oregon,  Cu- 
nard  Line,  run  into  by  unknown  steamer, 
eighteen  miles  east  of  Long  Island,  sank  eight 
hours  afterward;  110  lives  Tost. 


1887,  Jan.  29. — Steamer  Kamnda  in  col- 
lision with  bark  Ada  Melore  off  coast  of  Brazil; 
300  lives  lost. 

1887,  Nov.     15. — British     steamer    Wah 
Young  caught  fire  between  Canton  and  Hong- 
kong; 400  lives  lost. 

1888,  Sept.    13.— Italian-  steamship    Sud 
America  and  steamship  La  France  in  collision 
near  the  Canary  Islands;  89  lives  lost. 

1889,  March    16.— United   States  warship 
Trenton,  Vandalia,  and  Nipsic  and  German 
ships  Adler  and  Eber  wrecked  on  Samoan 
Islands;  147  lives  lost. 

1890,  Jan.  2. — Steamer  Persia  wrecked  off 
Corsica;  130  lives  lost. 

1890,  Feb.  17.— British  steamer  Duburg 
wrecked  in  China  sea;  400  lives  lost. 

1890,  March  1.— British  steamship  Quetia 
foundered  in  Torres  Straits;  124  lives  lost. 

1890,  Sept.  19. — Turkish  frigate  Ertogrul 
foundered  off  Japan;  540  lives  lost. 

1890,  Dec.  27. — British  steamer  Shanghai 
burned  in  China  Sea;  101  lives  lost. 

1891,  March  17. — Anchor  liner  Utopia  in 
collision  with  British  steamer  Anson   off  Gi- 
braltar and  sunk;  574  lives  lost.    - 

1891,  April  16. — British  ship  St.  Catharis 
wrecked  off  Caroline  Island;  90  lives  lost. 

1892,  Jan.  13.— Steamer  Namehow  wrecked 
in  China  Sea;  414  lives  lost. 

1892,  Oct.    28. — Anchor    liner    Romania 
wrecked  off  Corsica;  113  lives  lost. 

1893,  Feb.     8. — Anchor     Line    Trinalria 
wrecked  off  Spain;  115  lives  lost. 

1893,  February.— Steamer  Naronic,  White 
Star  Line,  lost  on  the  Atlantic  and  never 
heard  from;  74  lives  lost. 

1893,  June  22. — British  battleship  Pretoria 
sunk  in  collision  with  the  Camperdown  off 
Syria;  357  lives  lost. 

1894,  Nov.   1. — Steamer  Wairaro  wrecked 
off  New  Zealand;  134  lives  lost. 

1894,  June  25. — Steamer  Norge  wrecked  on 
Rockall  Reef  in  North  Atlantic;  nearly  600 
lives  lost. 

1895,  Jan.  30. — German  steamer  Elbe  sunk 
in  collision  with  British  steamer  Crathie  in 
North  Sea;  335  lives  lost. 

1895,  March  11. — Spanish  cruiser  Reina  Re- 
genta  foundered  in  Atlantic  at  entrance  to 
Mediterranean;  400  lives  lost. 

1897,  March   7.7-Steamship   Ville   de   St. 
Nazaire,  French  Line,  burned  in  a  storm  off 
Cape  Hatteras;  40  lives  lost. 

1898,  July  2. — Steamship  Bourgoyne  ram- 
med British  steel  sailing  vessel  Cromartyshire 
and  sank  rapidly;  584  lives  lost. 

1904,  June  15. — Gen.  Slocum,  excursion 
steamboat,  with  1,400  persons  aboard;  took 
fire  going  through  Hell  Gate,  East  River; 
more  than  1,000  lives  lost. 

1904,  July  3. — Steamship  Norge  foundered 
at  sea;  750  lives  lost. 

1905,  Sept.  12. — Japanese  warship  Mikasa 
sunk  after  explosion  in  Sasebo  Harbor;  599 
lives  lost. 

1907,  Feb.  12. — Steamship  Larchmont  in 
collision  with  Harry  Hamilton  in  Long  Island 
Sound;  183  lives  lost. 

1907,  Feb.  21.— English  mail  steamship 
Berlin  wrecked  off  the  Hpok  of,  Holland;  142, 
lives  lost, 


220 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MARINE   DISASTERS— Continued. 


1907,  Feb.  24. — Austrian  Lloyd  steamship 
Impexatrix,  from  Trieste  to  Bombay,  wrecked 
on  Cape  of  Crete  and  sunk;  137  lives  lost. 

1907,  January.— British  steamship  Pen- 
gwern  foundered  in  the  North  Sea ;  crew  and 
24  men  lost. 

1907,  January.— Prinz  Waldemar,  Ham- 
burg-American Line,  aground  at  Kingston, 
Jamaica  after  earthquake;  3  lives  lost. 

1907,  February. — French  warship  Jean  Bart 
sunk  off  coast  of  Morocco. 

1907,  March. — ^Steamship  Congo  sunk  at 
mouth  of  Ems  River  by  German  steamship 
Nerissa;  7  lives  lost. 

1907,  March. — French  warship  Jena  blown 
up  at  Toulon;  120  lives  lost. 

1907,  June. — Steamship  Aden  sunk  off  So- 
cotra,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa;  78  lives  lost. 

1907,  July. — Steamship  Columbia  sunk  off 
Shelton  Cove,  Cal.,  in  collision  with  steamship 
San  Pedro;  50  lives  lost. 

1908,  Feb.    3.— Steamship    St.    Cuthbert, 
bound  from  Antwerp  to  New  York,  burned  at 
sea  off  Nova  Scotia;  15  lives  lost. 

1908,  April  25. — British  cruiser  Gladiator 
rammed  by  American  liner  St.  Paul  off  Isle  of 
Wight;  30  lives  lost. 

1908,  July. — Chinese  warship  Ying  King 
foundered;  300  lives  lost. 

1908,  Aug.  9. — Steamship  Prudentia  lost  on 
voyage  to  Argentina. 

1908,  Aug.  23. — Norwegian  steamship  Fol- 
gefouden  sunk;  many  lives  lost. 

1908,  Nov.  5. — Steamship  Archimedes  lost 
in  Baltic  Sea;  10  drowned. 


1908,  Nov.  26.— Steamship  Finance  sunk 
by  steamship  Georgic  off  Sandy  Hook;  4  lives 
lost. 

1908,  Nov.  6.— Steamship  Taish  sunk  in 
storm  off  Etoro  Island;  150  lives  lost. 

1908,  Nov.  27.— Steamship  San  Pablo  sunk 
off  Philippine  Islands;  100  lives  lost. 

1908,  Dec.  13. — Stegftnship  Ginsei  Maru 
wrecked  off  Wei-Hai-Wai  and  crew  and  pas- 
sengers drowned. 

1908,  Dec.  4.— Steamship  Soo  City  found- 
ered off  New  foundl'ind;  crew  lost. 

1909,  Jan.  24. — Steamship  Republic  ram- 
med off  Nantucket  by  steamship  Florida;  8 
lives  lost  in  collision;  vessel  sank;  help  re- 
ceived by  wireless. 

1911,  Feb.  2.— Steamship  Abenton  wrecked 
70, lives  lost. 

1911,  April  23. — Steamship  Asia  ran 
aground;  40  lives  lost. 

1911,  Sept  5.— Steamship  Tuscapel  wrecked 
81  lives  lost. 

1911,  Oct.  2.— Steamship  Hatfield  in  col- 
lision and  sunk;  20  lives  lost. 

1911,  April     2. — Steamship      Koombuna 
wrecked;  150  lives  lost. 

1912,  April  15.— Steamship  Titanic,  White 
Star  Line,  struck  an  iceberg  and  sank;  1,517 
lives  lost. 

1912,  March  21.— Steamship  Cachepol  sunk 
after  an  explosion  of  her  boilers,  off  the  west 
coast  of  Peru;  70  lives  lost. 

1912,  April  30. — Coasting  boat  Texas, 
Archipelago  Steamship  Company,  sunk  by  a 
submarine  mine  at  the  entrance  to  Smyrna 
Bay;  69  lives  lost. 


5TEAMING  AT  FULL  SPEED  (22  KNOTS) 


30  SECONDS  LATER 


One  and  one-quarter  her  own  length  In  half  a  minute.     The  dotted  lines  show  the  position  of  the  ship 
thirty  seconds  later. 


ONE  MINUTE  LATER 


JLJL 


If  the  obstacle  were  744  yards  away  at  the  moment  when  sighted  the  vessel  would  be  upon  it  in  one  minute. 

The  two  illustrations  rive  an  idea  of  the  speed  at  which  the  "Titanic"  was  passing 
through  the  ice  fields.  If  the  lookout  had  called  "Iceberg  right  ahead,  Sir,"  the  vessel  would 
have  been  upon  it  in  one  minute  if  the  distance  between  the  bow  and  the  iceberg  was  744  yards, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


221 


OPERATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
LIFE-SAVING  SERVICE. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1911  a 
total  of  1,461  vessels  were  reported  by 
keepers  of  life-saving  stations  as  having  sus- 
tained casualties,  more  or  less  serious,  within 
the  field  of  service  operations.  Of  these  ves- 
sels, 397  were  documented  and  1,064  undocu- 
mented, those  of  the  last-mentioned  class 
consisting  of  launches,  sailboats,  rowboats, 
and  similar  small  craft.  The  documented  ves- 
sels carried  a  total  of  5,771  persons  (including 
passengers  and  crews),  and  were  valued  with 
their  cargoes  at  $11, 110,810.  The  undocu- 
mented vessels  had  on  board  3,075  persons, 
and  were  valued  with  their  cargoes  at  $877,- 
S05.  Thirty-seven  of  the  8,846  persons  aboard 
both  classes  of  vessels  were  lost — 22  from 
those  of  the  class  first-named  and  15  from 
those  of  the  undocumented  class. 

The  foregoing  figures  and  other  important 
data  of  the  year's  tabulation  of  rescue  and 
salvage  operations  are  shown  in  the  following 
summary,  the  data  for  each  of  the  two  classes 
of  vessels  being  given  separately: 

The  total  number  of  vessels  involved  in 
casualties  was  1,461,  and  of  this  number  52 
were  totally  lost.  The  number  of  persons  on 
board  totaled  8,846,  of  which  number  37  were 
lost.  There  were  449  persons  succored  at  the 
various  stations  and  739  days'  succor  afforded. 

The  value  of  the  vessels  involved  in  the 
casualties  was  $9,865,380,  of  which  amount 
$2,123,235  was  estimated  as  the  value  of  the 
cargoes.  The  total  value  of  the  property  in- 
volved was  $11,988,615.  Of  this  amount 
$10,086,975  was  saved  and  $1,901,640  lost. 

Of  course  these  figures  do  not  represent  the 
entire  amount  saved  by  the  service:  a  con- 
siderable portion  was  saved  by  salvage  com- 
panies, wrecking  tugs,  and  other  instrumen- 
talities, often  working  in  conjunction  with  the 
seamen.  It  is  equally  impossible  to  give  an 
approximate  estimate  of  the  number  of  lives 
saved.  Often  a  vessel  with  a  long  passenger 
list  and  a  large  cargo  was  saved  only  by  the 
warning  signals  of  the  patrolmen,  while  in 
many  cases,  either  where  vessels  suffered  ac- 
tual loss  or  where  they  were  warned  of  danger, 
no  loss  of  life  would  have  resulted  even  though 
no  aid  had  been  rendered. 

GENERAL  SUMMARY  OF  OPERATIONS 
SINCE  THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  THE 
PRESENT  LIFE-SAVING  SYSTEM, 
1871-1911. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  present  life- 
saving  system,  the  disasters  at  sea  have  to- 
taled 22,711,  and  the  number  of  persons  in- 
volved 152,038,  this  number  including  persons 
rescued  not  connected  with  vessels  involved 
in  disaster.  The  total  number  of  lives  lost  was 
1,314.  Eighty-five  of  these  were  lost  at  the 
disaster  to  the  steamer  "Metropolis"'  in  1>>77- 
78,  when  service  was  impeded  by  distance,  and 
fourteen  others  in  the  same  year  owing  to 
>imilar  causes.  The  number  of  persons  suc- 
cored at  stations,  inclusive  of  those  not  con- 
nected with  vessels  involved  in  disaster,  was 
23,555,  and  the  days'  succor  afforded,  includ- 


ing succor  afforded  to  persons  not  connected 
with  vessels  involved  in  disaster,  was  53,438. 
The  total  value  of  the  vessels  involved  in 
disaster  was  $220,649,945,  of  which  amount 
$84,371,824  represented  the  cargoes  involved. 
Of  the  $305,021,769  of  property  involved, 
$245,072,867  worth  was  saved  and  $59,948,902 
was  lost. 

UNITED   STATES   STEAMBOAT  INSPEC- 
TION SERVICE. 

This  service  is  now  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  The 
Supervising  Inspector-General  reported  that 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911,  the 
number  of  annual  certificates  of  inspection 
issued  to  domestic  steam,  motor,  sail  vessels 
and  barges,  was  7,867;  number  of  certificates 
issued  to  foreign  steamers,  468;  making  a  total 
number  of  certificates  of  inspection  amount  to 
8,335.  The  number  of  life-preservers  inspected 
was  210,259,  of  which  number  730  were  re- 
jected. The  number  of  marine  boiler  plates 
inspected  at  the  mills  by  assistant  inspectors 
was  3,916.  The  number  of  applicants  exam- 
ined for  color-blindness,  1,317,  of  which  30 
were  rejected  on  account  of  this  visual  defect. 
In  the  year  there  were  7  accidents  caused  by 
fire,  in  which  10  lives  were  lost;  there  were 
19  collisions,  in  which  46  lives  were  lost;  there 
were  11  explosions  or  accidental  escape  of 
steam,  in  which  42  lives  were  lost;  there  were 
11  accidents  caused  by  striking  snags,  wrccx- 
and  sinking,  involving  a  loss  of  114  lives; 
there  were  111  cases  of  accidental  drowning; 
and  69  deaths  bv  miscellaneous  aeriilenT-. 
During  the  year  314,768,885  passengers  were 
carried  on  those  vessels  which  are  required  to 
make  reports.  The  total  lives  lost  were  392. 
u-ill  be  seen  that  802,981  passengers  were 
carried  for  each  life  lost,  whether  of  passenger 
or  crew. 

COAL,   CONSUMPTION  OF  OCEAN 
STEAMERS. 

The  amount  of  coal  consumed  by  a  steam- 
ship increases  much  faster  than  the  rate  of 
increase  of  speed.  This  is  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table,  which  applies  to  a  "typical  ves- 
sel" of  10,000  gross  tons. 


Knots. 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


Tons  of 
Coal  Con- 
sumed 
per  Day. 
44 
53 
65 
79 
96 
117 
144 
173 
209 
254 
305 
371 


Number 

of 

Firemen 
Required. 

15 

18 

22 

26 

32 

39 

48 

58 

70 

85 
102 
127 


Mileage 


42,000 
46,200 
50,400 
54,600 


63,000 
67,200 
71,400 
75,600 
79,800 
84,000 
88,200 


The  expenses  of  a  vessel  on  account  of  coal 
alone  are  thus  seen  to  grow  rapidly  with  iu- 
i   crease  of  speed. 


222 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


AROUND  THE  WORLD  IN  THIRTY-SEVEN  DAYS. 


When  Jules  Verne  wrote  his  fasci- 
nating story,  "Around  the  World  in 
80  Days,"  he  probably  did  not  realize 
that  within  a  comparatively  short 
period  this  trip  could  be  made  in  much 
abbreviated  time.  In  fact  Phineas 
Fogg  could  now  make  the  complete 
circuit  of  the  earth  in  37  days.  The 
International  Sleeping  Car  Company 
has  worked  out  the  proposition  for 
the  editor  as  follows :  Leave  New 
York,  by  the  Twentieth  Century 
Limited  for  Chicago,  then  via  St. 
Paul  to  Vancouver,  so  as  to  make 
an  exact  connection  with  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  express  steamer  across 
the  Pacific ;  from  Yokohama  go  to 
Tsuruga,  from  there  to  Vladivostok. 
The  Trans-Siberian  is  then  taken  to 
Moscow;  London  is  then  reached,  and 
either  the  "Lusitania"  or  the  "Mau- 
retania"  should  be  caught  in  order  to 
make  the  trip  in  38  days.  The  trip 
will  then  be  as  follows :  New  York  to 
Vancouver,  4l/2  days;  Vancouver  to 
Yokohama,  18  days ;  Yokohama  to 
Vladivostok,  including  necessary  lay- 
overs, 2l/2  days  ;  Vladivostok,  one  day  ; 
Vladivostok  to  Moscow,  10  days ;  Mos- 
cow to  London,  2  days ;  London  to 
New  York,  5  days ;  total,  38  days. 

By  recent  improvements  in  connec- 
tions this  could  be  reduced  to  37  days. 

Nellie  Bly  made  the  circuit  of  the 
globe  in  74  days  in  1889.  If  delays 
credited  to  lack  of  transportation  were 
deducted,  she  would  have  made  the 
trip  in  58  days.  Geo.  Francis  Train 
made  the  trip  in  1890  in  67  days  12 


hours  and  3  minutes.  In  1901  Charles 
Fitzmorris  made  the  trip  in  60  days 
13  hours  29  minutes  and  42  2-5  sec- 
onds, in  the  race  of  schoolboys  con- 
ducted by  the  Hearst  papers. 

Fitzmorris  left  Chicago May  20,  1901 

New  York May  22,  1901 

Berlin May  30,  1901 

Moscow June  1,  1901 

Irkutsk June  10,  1901 

Stretensk, Siberia  .June  13,  1901 

Fitzmorris  left  Blagoveschensk...June  21,  1901 

Vladivostok June  27,  1901 

Yokohama July  5,  1901 

Victoria,  B.C....  July  16,1901 

Arrived  in  Chicago July  20,  1901 

In  1903  Henry  Frederick  left  New 
York  for  Hamburg  and  returned  by 
Vancouver,  British  Columbia.  Elapsed 
time,  54  days  7  hours  20  minutes. 
Iu  1907  Col.  Burnley  Campbell  re- 
duced the  time  to  40  days  19  hours 
30  minutes.  In  1911  Andrew  Jager- 
Schmidt  made  a  record-breaking  trip, 
the  elapsed  time  being.  39  days  19 
hours  42  minutes  37  4-5  seconds. 

July  17,  1911,  1:15  P.M.,  left  Paris, 

July  20,  Moscow, 

July  22,  Omsk, 

July  25,  Irkutsk, 

July  28,  Harbin 

July  29,  Vladivostok, 

July  31,  Yokohama, 

Aug.  12,  Vancouver, 

Aug.  18,  Montreal, 

Aug.  19,  New  York, 

Aug.  26,  Paris. 

This  trip  comes  within  three  days 
of  the  theoretical  time  imposed  by  our 
means  of  transportation. 


Courtesy   of    "The   Sphere 


ON  THE  BRIDGE  OF  THE  "  TITANIC." 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


223 


i  Of   MUTTON 


**llt   LUO 


•4.00*    WITH  Jll  TOMAIL 


TIM   riOCCD  FCLWCCA 


RIGS  OF  SAILING  VESSELS. 


While  there  are  not  quite  so  many  different 
rigs  of  sailing  vessels  as  there  are  vessels, 
there  are  a  great  many,  some  of  them  differ- 
ing but  slightly  from  others,  and  there  is 
much  confusion  of  nomenclature,  even 
among  those  who  should  know  better  than  to 
get  the  rigs  mixed  in  their  minds.  To  aid  in 
dispelling  misunderstandings  as  to  the  names 
of  the  rigs  of  vessels,  or  as  to  how  certain 
named  rigs  are  to  be  understood,  the  accom- 


panying illustrations  have  been  prepared, 
showing  a  wide  range  from  the  smallest  and 
the  most  simple  sailing  vessels  to  the  largest 
and  most  complicated. 

In  the  first  place  we  may  make  a  distinction 
by  reason  of  the  number  of  masts,  which 
ranges  from  one  to  five.  The  second  dis- 
tinction may  be  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
sails  are  attached,  extended,  and  maneuvered; 
some  being  on  horizontal  yards  swinging 


224 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


crosswise  of  the  mast,  some  on  yards  which 
lie  obliquely  to  the  horizontal,  others  having 
booms  or  gaffs  attached  at  only  one  end  to 
the  mast,  and  others  again  having  no  sprit  or 
spar  by  which  to  aid  in  their  extension. 
Some  sails  are  triangular,  others  have  four 
well  defined  sides.  Some  vessels  have  all  the 
sails  centered  at  the  masts,  or  are  square 
rigged;  in  others  all  the  sails  are  "fore  and 
aft;"  and  others  again  have  the  sails  on  one 
or  more  masts  of  different  type  from  those  on 
the  other  or  others;  while  in  some,  part  of  the 
sails  on  a  mast  are  of  one  type  and  the  rest  of 
one  or  more  others. 

Referring  to  the  illustrations,  and  consider- 
ing only  the  number  of  masts:  A  to  I  inclusive 
have  but  one;  J  to  X  inclusive,  two;  and  the 
rest  have  three.  There  are  vessels  having 
four  and  even  five  masts,  but  these  do  not 
require  illustration  as  the  sails  on  the  other 
mast  or  masts  are  of  the  same  general  type  as 
those  on  the  three. 

Of  sails  we  have  as  distinct  types  No  5  A, 
which  is  a  leg  of  mutton,  having  a  boom  to 
extend  its  lower  edge;  5  B,  which  is  a  square 
sail,  having  its  upper  edge  extended  by  a 
vard  and  found  also  at  4  and  5  L,  M  and 
N,  4  V,  W,  X,  Y,  Z,  AA  and  BA;  5  X,  Z,  AA 
and  BA,  and  6  AA  and  BA.  All  these  square 
sails  have  no  yard  to  extend  them  on  their 
lower  edges. 

In  vessels  F  and  J  there  will  be  seen  to  be 
one  long  yard  at  an  angle  to  the  mast  and 
haying  its  lower  end  made  fast  to  a  convenient 
point  oelow.  This  is  called  a  lateen  rig. 

In  vessels  D,  E,  G,  H,  I,  O,  P,  Q,  R,  S, 
T,  U,  V,  W,  Y,  all  sails  marked  5  are  bent  to 
the  mast  at  their  inner  edge,  and  extended  by 
a  boom  below  and  a  gaff  above.  These  are 
fore  and  aft  sails.  Other  fore  and  aft  sails, 
bent  to  stays  and  not  to  any  mast,  boom  or 
yard,  are  the  stay  sails  seen  in  vessels  D,  E,  I, 
J,  K,  M,  N,  and  on  all  the  others  from  P  on, 
inclusive.  The  particular  sail  on  vessel  A  is 
a  leg  of  mutton  sail;  on  B,  a  lug  sail  or  lug;  on 
C,  a  split  lug,  differing  from  that  on  B  by  one 
portion  being  .bent  to  the  mast  as  well  as  to 
the  yard  above.  In  vessel  K  may  be  seen  a 
"sliding  gunter,"  the  upper  portion  of  which 
is  extended  by  a  spar  which  is  hoisted  along- 
side of  the  mast,  constituting,  practically,  a 
sliding  topmast;  the  sail  being  bent  to  both 
halves  of  the  mast  proper.  On  vessel  L  there 
is  a  dipping  lug,  and  on  M  a  three-quarter  lug. 

In  S  we  see  a  schooner  the  topsails  of  which, 
marked  12  and  13,  are  extended  by  the  top- 
mast and  the  gaff;  these  being  called  gaff- 
topsails;  while  in  T  they  have  at  their  lower 
edges  comparatively  short  spars  called  clubs, 
by  which  they  may  be  more  flatly  strained 
than  where  the  attachment  is  made  directly 
to  the  corner  (or  clew)  of  the  sail.  In  BB  we 
see  the  topsails  double;  that  is,  instead  of 
there  being  only  one  sail  to  the  topmast,  as 
in  AD,  9,  10,  11,  they  are  double,  the  upper 
half  being  bent  to  the  regular  yard  above,  and 
the  other  to  a  yard  which  is  hoisted  on  the 
mast;  the  object  being  to  enable  the  sail  area 
to  be  more  readily  reduced  than  by  reefing 
one  large  sail. 

Taking  the  different  rigs  in  order  as  lettered, 
A,  is  a  leg  of  mutton,  B  a  lug,  C  a  split  lug,  D 
a  sloop  (having  a  single  mast  and  only  fore 
and  aft  sails),  E  a  sloop  having  a  gaff  topsail, 
F  a  lateen  rig,  G  a  skipjack  (haying  no  bow- 
sprit and  no  staysail  nor  topsail),  H  a  cat- 


boat  (which  differs  from  the  skipjack  only  in 
the  hull),  I  the  cutter  as  known  in  the  United 
States  Navy  (distinguished  by  being  sloop 
rigged,  with  a  square  topsail  instead  of  a  gaff 
topsail  or  a  club  topsail),  J  a  lateen  rigged 
felucca,  K  a  sliding  gunter  (having  practically 
a  sliding  topmast  to  which  as  well  as  to  the 
mast  the  sail  is  bent),  L  a  dipping  lug,  M  a 
three-quarter  lug,  N  a  standing  lug  (one 
lower  corner  of  the  sail  being  secured  to  the 
mast,  and  the  lower  edge  being  extended 
without  a  boom),  O  a  pirogue  (having  no  bow- 
sprit, no  staysails,  and  no  topsails,  and  being 
fitted  with  a  lee  board  as  shown),  P  a  sloop 
yawl  (having  a  small  mast  stepped  astern  and 
bearing  a  leg  of  mutton  sail),  Q  a  sloop  yawl 
with  a  jigger. 

R  is  a  schooner  haying  two  masts,  both 
fore  and  aft  rigged;  this  one  having  no  top- 
sails and  only  one  staysail;  S  a  schooner  with 
gaff  topsails  (sometimes  called  a  gaff  topsail 
schooner),  T  a  schooner  with  club  topsails 
(sometimes  called  a  club  topsail  schooner), 
U  a  topsail  schooner  (having  a  square  top- 
sail on  the  foremast  and  a  gaff  topsail  on  the 
mainmast),  V  a  hermaphrodite  or  modified 
brig  (two  masted  and  having  the  foremast 
square  rigged  and  the  mainmast  fore  and  aft 
rigged),  W  a  brigantine  (having  two  masts, 
the  foremast  being  square  rigged  and  the 
mainmast  having  square  topsails  and  but  a 
mainsail  extended  by  gaff  and  boom),  X  a 
brig  (a  two  masted  vessel  square  rigged  on 
both  masts),  Y  a  barkentine  (having  three 
masts,  the  foremast  being  square  rigged  and 
the  other  two  fore  and  aft  rigged),  Z  a  bark 
(having  three  masts,  the  forrmast  and  main- 
mast being  square  rigged  and  the  mizzenmast 
fore  and  aft  rigged),  AA  a  full  rigged  ship 
(having  three  masts,  all  square  rigged),  and 
BA  a  full  rigged  merchant  ship  (having  double 
topsails  as  before  explained). 

The  sails  as  illustrated  on  all  the  vessels 
shown  bear  the  same  numbers  for  the  same 
name  throughout.  In  all,  1  is  the  flying  jib, 
2  the  jib,  3  the  foretopmast  staysail,  4  the 
foresail,  5  the  mainsail,  6  the  cross  jack  sail, 
7  the  spanker,  8  the  jigger,  9  the  fore  topsail, 
10  the  main  topsail,  11  the  mizzen  topsail,  12 
the  fore  gaff  topsail,  13  the  main  gaff  topsail, 
14,  the  main  topmast  staysail,  15  the  mizzen 
topmast  staysail,  16  the  lower  fore  topsail,  17 
the  lower  main  topsail,  18  the  lower  mizzen 
topsail,  19  the  upper  fore  topsail,  20  the  upper 
main  topsail,  21  the  upper  mizzen  topsail,  22 
the  fore  topgallant  sail,  23  the  main  top- 
gallant sail,  24  the  mizzen  topgallant  sail,  25 
the  fore  royal,  26  the  main  royal,  27  the 
mizzen  royal,  28  the  main  skysail,  29  the  main 
topgallant  staysail,  30  the  mizzen  topgallant 
staysail,  31  the  jib  topsail,  32  the  fore  trysajl, 
33  the  staysail,  34  the  gaff  topsail,  35  the  main 
royal  staysail. 

There  are  other  kinds  of  sails  not  shown,  as 
for  instance  studding  sails,  which  are  extend- 
ed by  yards  on  square  rigged  vessels,  and 
other  staysails  than  those  shown  may  be  set 
when  the  wind  is  light  and  they  can  be  used 
to  advantage  to  catch  any  wind. 

There  are  other  rigs  which  embody  the 
features  of  those  already  shown,  such  for 
example  as  the  three  masted,  four  masted, 
and  five  masted  schooners,  the  four  masted 
and  five  masted  ships  and  the  four  masted 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


225 


shipentine,  all  of  which  are  an  extension  of  the 
rigs  shown. 

BUOYS. 

In  the  United  States  -it  is  customary  to 
mark  channels  with  red  and  black  buoys. 
As  the  channel  is  entered  from  the  sea  the 
red  buoys  are  on  the  starboard,  or  right  side, 
and  the  black  buoys  on  the  port.  Usually 
there  is  a  difference  in  form  between  the  two 
sets  of  buoys.  The  starboard  or  red  buoys 
are  of  the  type  known  as  "nun"  buoys, 


sometimes  called  "nut"  buoys,  the  part  that 
projects  out  of  the  water  being  conical  in 
form.  The  port  or  black  buoys  are  of  the 
typo  known  as  "can"  buoys,  the  part  that 
projects  out  of  the  water  having  the  form  of  a 


BUOY 


plain  cylinder  or  else  a  sligntly  tapered 
cylinder.  In  winter  weather  in  waters  where 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  great  deal  of  ice,  "spar" 
buoys  are  used  instead  of  "can"  and  "nun" 


buoys,  the  "spar  "  buoys  having  the  shape  of 
a  spar  as  the  name  implies.  In  Europe  buoys 
are  not  as  consistently  used  as  in  the  United 
States  and  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  summarize 
here  the  significance  of  the  different  buoys  in 
various  European  ports.  At  night  certain 
channels  are  marked  by  "light"  buoys;  that 
is,  buoys  fitted  with  acetylene,  Pintsch  gas, 
or  electric  lights. 


NAUTICAL    TERMS 

Abaft:  Toward  the  stern  or  end  of  the  vessel. 

Aft:  Toward  the  stern  or  end  of  the  vessel. 

Alleyway:  The  ship's  passageway. 

Altitude:  This  is  the  angular  distance  of 
the  pole  above  the  horizon. 

Bower  Anchor:  This  is  an  anchor  which  is 
ready  for  immediate  vise. 

Bulkhead:  A  longitudinal  or  transverse 
partition. 

Cart:  A  sea  map. 

Deadlight:  This  is  a  covering  of  wood  or 
metal  used  in  severe  weather  to  protect  glass 
portholes  or  windows. 

Equinox:  This  is  the  equal  length  of  the  day 
and  night  occurring  toward  the  end  of  March 
and  September. 

Ebb-Tide:  Falling  tide. 

Forward:  Toward  the  bow  or  front  of  the 
vessel. 

Fore-and-aft:  This  refers  to  the  length  of 
the  ship. 

Fo'castle:  This  was  formerly  the  seamen's 
quarters,  but  in  the  modern  vessel  they  are 
quartered  almost  anywhere  near  their  work. 

Fathom:  Six  feet. 

Flood-Tide:  Rising  tide. 

Galley:  This  is  the  kitchen. 

Height  of  tide:  This  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  level  of  high  water  and  that  of  low 
water. 

Larboard:  The  opposite  of  starboard;  port 
is  the  later  and  more  preferred  term. 

Lee-side:  This  is  the  side  away  from  the 
wind. 

Latitude:  Distance  directly  North  or  South 
of  the  Equator. 

Longitude:  Distance  directly  East  or  West 
of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich. 

Lights  of  vessels:  These  are  the  port  and 
starboard  lights,  red  and  green,  respectively, 
besides  a  white  light  in  the  foretop. 

Mid-ship  :  This  means  the  point  which  is 
equidistant  between  the  bow  and  the  stern. 

Neap-tide:  This  is  low  tide  caused  by  the 
sun  and  moon  being  farthest  apart; 

Port:  This  is  the  left-hand  side  of  the  ship 
looking  toward  the  bow. 

Porthole:  A  stateroom  window  secured  in  a 
massive  metal  ring  adapted  to  be  closed 
tightly. 

Starboard:  This  is  the  right-hand  side  of 
the  ship  looking  toward  the  bow. 

Scuppers:  Channels  for  water,  usually  at 
the  outer  edge  of  the  deck. 

Soundings:  Depth  of  water  in  fathoms. 

Spring-tide:  This  is  high  tide  caused  by  \he 
sun  and  moon  being  on  the  meridian  together. 

Sheet-anchor:  This  is  a  spare  anchor  which 
is  reserved  for  emergencies. 

Thwartship:  Crosswise  to  the  ship. 

Weather-side:  This  is  the  side  of  the  ship 
toward  the  wind. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK! 


227 


IT  LS  BETTER  TO  BE  SAFE  THAN  SORRY. 
Testing  temperature  of  sea  water. 

PROVISIONING  THE  "  KRONPRINZ  WILHELM"  FOR  A  SINGLE 
TRANSATLANTIC  TRIP. 


The  Book  of  Genesis  does  not  record 
the  tonnage  of  the  huge  vessel  which 
finally  stranded  on  Mount  Ararat,  af- 
ter finishing  the  most  wonderful  voy- 
age ever  described  in  the  annals  of 
mankind.  But  it  is  quite  safe  to  as- 
sume that  the  dimensions  of  the  Ark, 
that  old-time  floating  storehouse,  are 
exceeded  in  size  by  the  largest  of 
steamships  now  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

Not  the  least  striking  evidence  of 
the  size  of  these  modern  monsters  of 
the  deep  is  afforded  by  the  vast  quan- 
tities of  food  which  must  be  taken 
aboard  for  a  single  six-day  trip  across 
the  Atlantic.  For  the  1,500  passen- 
gers and  the  several  hundred  men  con- 
stituting the  crew,  carloads  of  food 
and  whole  tanks  of  liquids  are  neces- 
eary.  To  enumerate  in  cold  type  the 
exact  quantities  of  bread,  meat,  and 
vegetables  consumed  in  a  weekly  trip 
would  give  but  an  inadequate  idea  of 
the  storing  capacity  of  a  modern  line.r. 
We  have,  therefore,  prepared  a  picture 
which  graphically  shows  by  compari- 
son with  the  average  man  the  equiva- 
lent of  the  meat,  poultry,  and  bread- 
stuffs,  as  well  as  the  liquors  used. 
Each  kind  of  food  has  been  concen- 
trated into  a  giant  unit,  compared 
with  which  the  figure  of  the  average 
man  seems  punv. 

On  the  "Kronprinz  Wilhelm,"  of  the 
North  German  Lloyd  Line,  which 
steamship  we  have  taken  for  the  pur- 
pose of  instituting  our  comparisons, 
some  19,800  pounds  of  fresh  meat  and 


14,300  pounds  of  salt  beef  and  mut- 
ton, in  all  34,100  pounds  of  meat,  are 
eaten  during  a  single  trip  from  New 
York  to  Bremen.  This  enormous  quan- 
tity of  meat  has  been  pictured  in  the 
form  of  a  single  joint  of  beef,  which, 
if  it  actually  existed,  would  be  some- 
what less  than  10  feet  high,  10  feet 
long,  and  5  feet  wide.  If  placed  on 
one  end  of  a  scale,  it  would  require 
about  227  average  men  in  the  other  end 
to  tip  the  beam. 

For  a  single  voyage  the  "Kronprinz 
Wilhelm"  uses  2,640  pounds  of  ham. 
1,320  pounds  of  bacon,  and  506  pounds 
of  sausage — in  all,  4,466  pounds. 
Since  most  of  this  is  pork,  it  may 
well  be  pictured  in  the  form  of  a  ham. 
That  single  ham  is  equivalent  in 
weight  to  374  average  hams.  It  is 
7%  feet  high,  3  feet  in  diameter  and 
2  feet  thick. 

The  poultry  eaten  by  the  passen- 
gers of  the  steamer  during  a  trip  to 
Bremen  or  New  York  weighs  4,840 
pounds.  Suppose  that  we  show  these 
4.840  pounds  of  poultry  in  the  form 
of  a  turkey,  dressed  and  ready  for 
the  oven.  The  bird  would  be  a  giant 
10  feet  long,  8  feet  broad,  and  5  feet 
high. 

Sauerkraut,  beans,  peas,  rice,  and 
fresh  vegetables  are  consumed  to  the 
amount  of  25,320  pounds.  Packed  for 
market,  these  preserved  and  fresh  vege- 
tables would  be  contained  in  290  bas- 
kets of  the  usual  form,  which  piled  up 
make  a  formidable  truncated  pyramid- 


228 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  COMPLICATED  GEAR  OF  A  LARGE  VESSEL. 
Photograph  taken  on  the  "George  Washington." 

1  Main  Deck.  8 

2  Lower  Promenade  Deck.  9 

3  Upper  Promenade  Deck.  10 

4  Boat  Deck.  11 

5  Bridge  Deck.  12 

6  Cargo  Beams.  13 

7  Mast  14 

15     Skylights. 


Carg9  Winches. 

Rigging. 

Derrick  for  Heavy  Cargo 

Smoke  Funnel. 

Ventilators. 

Boats 

Back  Stays. 


THE  OLYMPIC  ON  HER  MAIDEN  VOYAGE. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


229 


AMIDSHIPS   THERE  IS  MORE  SPACE    TO  WALK  ON  THE  SUN  DECK. 


Smoke  Stack. 
Winter  Garden. 
Boat  Deck. 
Sun  Deck. 
Boats 
Quadrant  Davit. 


7  Boat  Tackle. 

8  Ventilators. 

9  Various  Deck  Houses. 

10  Boat  Winch. 

11  Cargo  Beams. 

12  Awning  Stanchions. 


LIFEBOAT  DRILL  ON"   A  TRANSATLANTIC  LIXER. 

PROVISIONING  THE  BOATS. 

Taken  specially  for  this  book. 


230 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTION    OF    THE    TWIN    SCREW- 


1.  Second  Class  Promenade  Deck 

2.  Reserve  rudder  machine 

3.  Rudder  machine 

4.  Second  class  Smoking  room 

5.  Second  class  cabin 

6.  Second  class  Ladies'  saloon 

7.  Second  class  Dining  room 

8.  Baggage  room 

9.  Shaft  tunnel 

10.  Rudder 

11.  Screw 

12.  Double  bottom 

13.  Vienna  cafe  Shelter 


14.  Vienna  cafe  (smokers). 

15.  First  class  cabin 

16.  Bathroom 

17.  Lavatory 

18.  Post  office 

19.  Second  class  pantry 

20.  Second  class  kitchen 

21.  Firemen  and  trimmers 

22.  Engine  room 

23.  First  class  Smoking  room 

24.  First  class  cabins 

25.  Doctor's  cabin 

26.  Barber's  room 


ft 


Copyright  1912,    Munn   &  Co.,   Inc.  TURBINES. 

LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  THE  TURBINE-DRIVEN 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


231 


EXPRESS    STEAMER  "KAISER  WILHELM  II." 


27.  First  class  kitchen 

28.  First  class  pantry 

29.  Scullery 

30.  Coal  bunkers 

31.  Boiler  room 

32.  Vienna  cafe  (non-smokers) 

33.  Gram}  staircase 

34.  Dining  room 

35.  Social  Hall 

36.  Children's  saloon 

37.  Chief  Steward's  office 

38.  Imperial  suite 

39.  First  class  cabins 


40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 


Navigating  house 

Chart  house 

Captain's  rooms 

Reading  and  Writing  room 

Steerage  kitchen 

Steerage 

Provision  department 

Goods  hold 

Chains 

Sails 

Sailors 

Anchor  machine 

Anchor 


STEAMER 


BOILERS. 

FRANCE,"  A  FINE  TYPE  OF  LINER. 


232 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  DISTANCE  OF  THE  HORIZON 
AT  DIFFERENT  ELEVATIONS. 


1 

Distance 
to 
Horizon 

1 

5 

Distance 
to 
Horizon 

I 

i 

Distance 
to 
Horizon 

.*>• 
•& 

£ 

Distance 
to 
Horizon 

i 
& 

Distance 
to 
Horizon 

Feet 

Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

•Feet  i    Nautical 

Feet 

Nautical 

Miles. 

Miles. 

Miles.     " 

Miles. 

Miles. 

1 

1.15 

33 

6.60 

85 

10.59 

245 

17.98 

450 

24.36 

2 

1.62 

34 

670 

90 

10.90 

250 

18.16 

460 

24.63 

3 

1.99 

35 

6.80 

95 

11.19 

255 

18.34 

470 

24.90' 

4 

2.30 

36 

6.89 

100 

11.48 

,    260 

18.52 

480 

25.16 

5 

2.57          i     37 

6.99 

105 

>     11.77 

265; 

18.70 

490 

25.42 

6 

2.81 

•   38 

7.08 

110 

12.05 

270 

18.87 

500 

25.68 

7 

3.04 

39 

7.17 

115 

12.;32 

275 

19.05 

510 

25.94 

8 

3.25 

-40 

7.26 

120 

12:58 

280 

19.22 

520 

26.19 

9 

3.45 

41 

7.35. 

125 

12.84 

285 

19.39 

530 

26.44 

10 

3.63 

42         7.44 

130 

13.10 

.   290 

19.56 

540 

26.69 

11 

3.81 

43         7.53 

135 

13.35 

295          19-73 

550 

26.93 

12 

3.98 

44 

.  7.62 

140 

13,60 

300 

19.89 

560 

27.18 

13 

4.14 

45 

7.70 

145   1       13.83 

305 

10.06 

570 

27.42 

14 

4.30 

46 

7.79 

150 

14.06 

310 

20.22 

580 

27.66 

15 

4.45 

47 

7.87 

155 

14.30 

315 

20.38  ' 

590 

27.90 

16 

4.59 

48 

7.96 

160 

14.53 

320 

20.55 

600 

28.13 

17 

4.74 

49 

8.04 

165 

14.75 

325 

20.71 

610 

28.37 

18 

4.87 

50 

8.12 

170 

14.97 

330 

20.86 

620 

28.60 

19 

5.01 

51 

8.20 

175 

15.19 

335 

21.02 

630 

28.83 

20 

5.14 

52 

8.29 

180 

15.41 

340 

21.18 

640 

29.06 

21 

5.26 

53 

8.36 

185 

15.62 

345 

21.33 

650 

29.28 

22 

5.39 

54 

8.44 

190 

15.83 

350 

21.49 

660 

29.51 

23 

5.51 

55 

8.50 

195 

16.04 

355 

21  64 

670 

29  73 

24 

5.63 

56 

8.60 

200 

16.24 

360 

21.79 

680 

29.95 

25 

5.74 

57 

8.67 

205 

16.44 

370 

22.09 

690 

30.17 

26 

586 

58 

8.75 

210 

16.64 

380         22.39 

700 

30.39 

27 

5.97 

59 

8.82 

215 

16.84 

390   |      22.68 

710 

30.60 

28 

6.08 

60 

8.90 

220 

17.03 

400 

22.97 

720 

3082 

29 

6.19 

65 

9.26 

225 

17.23 

410 

23.26 

730 

31.03 

30 

6.29 

70 

9.61 

230 

17.42 

420 

23.54 

740 

31.14 

31 

6.40 

75 

9.95 

235 

17.61 

430 

23.82 

750 

31.45 

32 

6.50 

80 

10.27 

240 

17.79 

440 

24.09 

760 

31  66 

By  this  Table  also  the  distance  can  be  ascertained  at  which  an  object  can  be  seen  according 
to  its  elevation  and  the  elevation  of  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

EXAMPLE. — A  tower  200  feet  high  will  be  visible  at  20f  miles  to  an  observer  whose  eye 
is  elevated  15  feet  above  the  water.     Thus: — 

215  feet  elevation,  distance  visible  J.45  nautical  miles   j  =2Q  69  nautical  mileg 


ENGINE  ROOM,  OIL  MOTOR-DRIVEN  "SELANDIA.1 


CHAPTER  VII. 


RAILROADS. 


For  invaluable  information  relative 
to  '  Railroads,  both  for  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  the  Edi- 
tor is  indebted  to 'Mr.  Slason  Thomp- 
son, Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Rail- 
way News  and  Statistics,  Chicago. 
A  considerable  number  of  the  tables 
are  printed  through  his  courtesy,  and 
a  painstaking  revision  of  this  chapter 
is  also  due  to  him. 

In  single-track  mileage  the  Bureau 
figures  95%  of  the  total  mileage  oper- 
ating in  the  United  States ;  in  traffic 
figures  they  cover  97.5%. 

The   passenger   mileage   is   obtained 


by  multiplying  the  number  of  passen- 
gers carried  by  the  average  journey 
in  miles.  In  the  case  of  the  United 
Kingdom  that  is  an  approximation  of 
7.8  miles,  from  the  formula  of  the 
London  Statist.  Same  is  true  of  the 
average  haul  df»  25  miles  for  freight 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  this  case 
it  is  corroborated  by  the  individual 
figures  of  the  Northeastern  Railway 
of  England,  which  is  the  only  British 
road  giving  that  information.  The 
ton  mileage  can  be  obtained  by  multi- 
plying the  freight  tons  carried  by  the 
average  haul  in  miles. 


Copyright,    Munn   &    Co.,    Inc. 

POWER   OF  A   MONSTER  LOCOMOTIVE. 

This  huge  Baldwin  freight  engine,  weighing  300  tons,  was  built  for  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  It  is  capable  of  hauling  10  miles  an  hour  a  train  of 
li;i>  cars  weighing,  with  load.  72  tons  each.  The  train,  weighing  10.000  tons,  would 
reach  for  over  a  mile,  or  say.  from  City  Hall  Square  to  the  Battery.  New  York. 
The  lower  cut  represents  the  size  of  a  single  car.  200  feet  by  45 Vj  feet  by  62  feet, 
that  would  be  necessary  to  contain  the  load  of  wheat  handled. 

233 


234 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


235 


GROWTH   OF    RAILWAYS   OF   THE    WORLD. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  mileage  of  the  principal  countries  in  the 
world  from  the  earliest  date  available  to  the  latest: 


Country 

Miles  of  Road  Completed 

Opened 

1840 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1889 

1899 

1910f 

1911f 

Great  Britain.  .  . 
United  States... 
Canada  

1825 
1827 
1836 
1828 
1835 
1835 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1839 
1844 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1851 
1851 
1854 
1856 

1857 

1,857 
2,818 
16 

6,621 
9,021 
66 
1,714 
3,637 
554 
817 
310 
265 
110 
15 
137 
20 
17 

10,433 
30,626 
2,065 
5,700 
6,979 
1,074 
1,813 
988 
1,117 
208 
653 
1,004 
69 
1,190 
120 
134 
42 
375 

15,537 
52,922 
2,617 
11,142 
11,729 
1,799 
3,790 
7,098 
3,825 
874 
885 
2,157 
470 
3,400 
452 
504 
692 
1,089 

637 

392 
247 
444 
6 
61 
215 
152 

17,933 
93,2% 
7,194 
16,275 
20,693 
2,399 
7,083 
14,026 
5,340 
1,143 
1,596 
4,421 
975 
4,550 
1,100 
2,174 
970 
3,654 

1,536 

727 
1,179 
710 
7 
268 
655 
859 
789 
75 
9,162 

19,943 
160,544 
12,585 
21,899 
24,845 
2,776- 
9,345 
17,534 
7,830 
1,632 
1,869 
6,751 
1,217 
5,951 
1,801 
5.546 
970 
4.899 

4,506 

1,024 
993 
1,118 
416 
399 
5,012 
1,537 
4,850 
542 
15,887 
124 
2,873 

21,666 

17,250 
26,229 
31,386 
2,833 
11,921 
26,889 
9,770 
1.966 
2,342 
10,619 
1,764 
8.252 
2,791 
9,195 
1,231 
6,663 

10,013 

1,900 
1,035 
1,475 
604 
997 
8.503 
1,920 
11,111 
3,632 
23,523 
401 
5,353 

23,280 
236,422 
24,731 
29,364 
36,235 
2,888 
13.591 
35,347 
10,425 
2,235 
2,791 
12,177 
2,121 
8,961 
3,451 
11,863 
1.608 
8,321 

14,111 

1,967 
1,470 
1,689 
845 
1,371 
14,845 
1,976 
17,956 
5,130 
30,809 
4,997 
19,207 

23,387 
243,229 
25,400 
30,119 
37,255 
5,132 
13,873 
41,888 
10,425 
2,439 
3,034 
12,562 
2,121 
9,272 
3,451 
12,968 
1,845 
8,554 

18,166 

2,100 
1,470 
1,689 
979 
1,443 
14,990 
1,979 
18,195 
5,130 
31,413 
5,274 
20.758 

Germany. 

341 

207 

Belgium  
Austria  (proper) 
Russia  in  Europe 
Italy 

13 

10 

Holland 

Switzerland  

Denmark       . 

Spain    . 

Chili 

Brazil 

Sweden  

Argentine      Re- 
public   
Turkey  in 

41 
47 
42 

Peru 

Portugal  

Greece  

1869 
1869 
1868 

Roumania 

Australia*  . 

1874 
1853 
1883 

British  India.  .  . 
China  
Africa 

838 

4,771 

583 

'Including  New  Zealand. 
tOr  latest  figures. 
{Includes  Asiatic  Railways. 


The  proportion  of  state  to  privately  owned  railways  as  given  by  Mr.  Edwin  A. 
Pratt  in  "  Railways  and  Nationalization,"  1908,  was: 


Company  Owned  Railways. 
State  Owned  Railways 


Total. 


389,000 
161,000 


550.000 


23G 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATISTICS  OF 


Miles 

Capitalization 

Country 

Year 

Covered  by 

or  Cost  of 

Passenger 

Freight 

Other 

Capitaliza- 

Construction 

Revenue 

Revenue 

Revenues 

tion 

(c) 

United 
Kingdom  
German  Empire 

1910 
1910 

23,387 
36,740 

$6,421,170,080 
4,163,615,519 

$210,612,890 
200,407,588 

$299,397,860 
456,766,493 

$  93,499,130 
71,368,311 

France  —   

1908 

24,915 

3,535,954,000 

149,648,147 

179,700,564 

5,367,222 

Russian  Emoire. 

1908 

41,888 

3,378,839,810 

80,787,020 

306,014,545 

39,811,560 

Austria  

1909 

13,873 

1,609,853,523 

42,460,000 

128,000,000 

12,380,000 

Hungary  

1909 

12,562 

814,534,000 

22,537,800 

59,593,600 

4,290,600 

Italy  (a)  

1909-10 

8,810 

1,131,300,000 

35,000,550 

56,188,090 

6,469,360 

Spain 

1905 

8,432 

649,919,610 

16,215,866 

34,694,555 

6,190,271 

Portugal  

1908 

1,465 

162,385,280 

4,039,350 

5,715,150 

351,750 

Sweden  

1908 

8,242 

270,124,168 

12,147,936 

21,493,600 

885,976 

Norway  

1909-10 

1,845 

77,142,728 

2,416,542 

3,224,308 

338,498 

Denmark  (a)... 

1908-09 

1,215 

63,625,230 

5,254,200 

5,491,260 

740,880 

Belgium  (a)  

1909 

2,678 

491,185,000 

17,241,269 

35,505,641 

572,621 

Holland  (a)  

1909 

1,902 

(d)158,000,000 

11,608,800 

11,774,800 

1,313,200 

Switzerland  

1909 

3,034 

330,030,000 

17,130,680 

21,005,279 

1,658,642 

lloumania  

1908-09 

1,979 

186,320,270 

5,214,582 

8,816,240 

773,351 

Total  Europe.  . 

192,967 

23,433,999,218 

$832,723,220 

$1,633,381.985 

$246,011,372 

Canada  

1911 

25,400 

1,398,089,701 

50,566,894 

124,743,015 

13,423,585 

Argentina  

1909 

15,363 

862,811,760 

23,720,160 

70,144,320 

6,325,920 

Japan  (a)  

1910 

4,624 

384,812,007 

19,685,266 

18,468,172 

2,964,780 

British  India. 

1910 

32,099 

(01,448,700,000 

63,261,000 

100,419,000 

5,049.000 

New  South... 

Wales  

1911 

3,760 

248,228,770 

10,100,380 

17,458,950 

1,866,540 

United  States... 

1911 

243,229 

14,434,309,000 

(a)  658,  772,785 

1,929,335,456 

230,672,156 

Great  Britain. 


Germany. 
SOURCES  OF  REVENUE. 


France. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


237 


FOREIGN  RAILWAYS. 


Per 

Per 

Cent 

Aver- 

Aver- 

Cent 

Total 

Operating 

Ex- 

Passengers 

age 

Freight 

age 

Net 

Revenues 

Expenses 

penses 

Carried 

Journey 

Tons 

Haul 

Rev- 

to 

(Miles) 

Carried 

(Miles) 

enues 

Rev- 

to 

enues 

Capital 

$   603,509,880 

$   372,891,030 

61.8 

1,758,426,383 

(b)  78 

514,428,803 

(b)25.0 

3.59 

728,542,392 

495,125,338 

67.9 

1,540,872,110 

14.2 

531,527,817 

60.4 

5.74 

334,715,933 

190,388,324 

57.9 

479,396,165 

20.7 

158,165,909 

80.7- 

4.08 

426,613,125 

344,497,405 

80.8 

162,117,000 

79.0 

229,554,000 

160.1 

2.43 

182,840,000 

148,740,000 

81.3 

241,955,522 

19.0 

152,185,817 

62.0 

2.12 

86,422,000 

59,742,600 

69.1 

124,234,000 

20.1 

66,896,000 

69.9 

3.28 

97,658,000 

79,850,083 

77'.3 

72,457,360 

25.0 

35,600,512 

(b)66.0 

1.57 

57,100,692 

27,750,936a 

48.6 

41,846,249 

(b)26.0 

22,662,548 

69.4 

4.50 

10,106,250 

4,672,500 

46.2 

14,585,698 

(b)20.0 

4,315,385 

(b)54.0 

3.35 

34,527,512 

28,040,840 

81.2 

54,163,160 

16.5 

33,086,800 

44.0 

2.43 

5,979,348 

4,421,464 

73.9 

12,598,036 

15.9 

4,684,053 

38.8 

2.18 

11,486,340 

10,689,840 

93.0 

21,302,909 

21.7 

4,800,604 

53.3 

1.29 

53,319,531 

36,773,255 

67.7 

160,107,172 

14.8 

54,682,253 

49.3 

3.37 

24,696,800 

20,597,760 

83.4 

44,501,000 

17.8 

16,146,900 

51.2 

2.59 

39,794,601 

27,044,511 

67.9 

105,038,663 

12.3 

16,165,115 

45.3 

3.86 

14,804,173 

9,769,081 

66.0 

8,319,958 

42.6 

6,384,406 

(b)96.5 

2.72 

$2,712,116,577 

$1,860,994,965 

68.6 

4,841,921,385 

15.5 

1,851,286,922 

63.8 

188,733,493 

131,034,784 

69.4 

37,097,718 

70.0 

79,884,282 

20.0 

3.12 

100,190,400 

59,509,920 

59.4 

51,060,084 

24.2 

32,594,871 

120.9 

4.71 

41,118,281 

21,030,494 

51.1 

128,306,960 

21.9 

23,655,620 

80.8 

5.22 

168,729,000 

89,595,000 

53.1 

371,580,000 

36,1 

65,600,000 

184.3 

5.46 

29,424,540 

16,975,170 

61.1 

60,919,628 

10.2 

10,054,796 

80.6 

4.61 

2,818,780,398 

(e)  2,044,620,071 

72.5 

979,101,000 

34.2 

1,727,988,000 

147.8 

5.36 

(a)State  only,  (b) Estimated.  (c)From  latest  report,  not  always  year  named.  (d)Estimated  cap-- 
ital  cost  of  Holland's  railways  not  given  since  1897  (e)lncluding  taxes,  (f) Valuing  the  Indian  ruppe 
at  33  cents  (.324$). 

DISTANCES  ACROSS  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

From  Pier  1,  North  River.  Tia  Battery  place  and  Whitehall  street  to  East  River,  one-half  mile-  from 
foot  of  Dey  street.  North  River,  to  foot  of  Fulton  street.  East  River,  three-quarters  of  a  mile-  from  foot 
of  Chambers  street.  North  River,  via  Chambers,  New  Chambers  and  James  slip  to  East  River'  one  mile- 
from  foot  of  Canal  street.  North  River,  to  Broadway,  three-quarters  of  a  mile;  from  foot  of  Canal  street' 
North  River,  to  Bowery,  one  mile  and  an  eighth;  from  foot  of  Canal  street,  North  River,  to  foot  of  «rand 
street.  East  River,  two  and  an  eighth  miles;  from  foot  of  West  Houston  street  to  foot  of  East  Houston 
street,  two  and  an  eighth  miles;  from  foot  of  West  Fourteenth  street  to  Broadway  one  and  an  eighth  miles- 
from  foot  of  West  Fourteenth  street  to  foot  of  East  Fourteenth  street,  two  and  three-eighths  miles-  from 
foot  of  West  Twenty-third  street  to  Sixth  avenue,  one  mile;  from  West  Twenty-third  street  to  foot  of  East 
Twenty-third  street,  two  and  three-eighths  miles.  North  of  Twenty-third  street  the  average  width  of  the 
island  of  Manhattan  la  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  miles. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  WORLD'S  RAILWAYS   AND   RATIO  OF  MILEAGE  TO  AREA 
AND  POPULATION  IN  EACH  COUNTRY  IN  1909. 


Countries 


Miles 
1909 


Miles  of 

Line  per  100 

Sq.  Miles 

1909 


Inhabitants 
per  Mile 
of  Line 


I  EUROPE 

Germany 37,338 

Austria-Hungary  (including.Bosnia  and  Herzegovina"1 27,165 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 23,286 

France .... 30,186 

Russia  in  Europe  (including  Finland  2,182  miles) 36,912 

Italy 10,439 

Belgium 5,144 

Luxemburg .'....' 318 

Netherlands. 

Switzerland .- 2,850 

Spain 9.293 

Portugal 1,798 

Denmark 2,165 

Norway 1 ,865 

Sweden 8,573 

Servia 421 

Roumania 2,085 

Greece 982 

Bulgaria 1,085 

Turkey  in  Europe 968 

Malta,  Jersey,  Isle  of  Man.. 

Total  for  Europe  1909 204,864 

1908 201,619 

1907 199,345 

1906 .' 196,437 

1905 192,507 

1904. 189,806 

1903 186,685 

1902 183,989 

1901 180,817 

1900 176,396 

172,953 
167,614 

1897 163,550 

1896. . .  160,030 


17.9 

10.5 

19.2 

14.6 

1.8 

9.5 

45.2 

31.7 

15.1 

17.9 

4.8 

5.0 

14.6 

1.4 

5.0 

2.3 

4.0 

3.9 

2.9 

1.4 

16.1 


Increase  in  thirteen  years .  . 


44,834 


5.5 
5.3 
5.3 
5.2 
5.1 
5.0 
5.0 
4.9 
4.8 
4.7 
4.6 
4.4 
4.3 
4.2 


II  AMERICA 

Canada 

United  States  (including  Alaska) 

Mexico. . . , 

Brazil 

Argentine  Republic 

Chili 

Peru. . . . 


Uruguay 

Total  America  including  other  Divisions . 


24,099 

237,182 

15,013 

12,997 

15,850 

3,290 

1,471 

1,447 


0.6 

6.6 

1.9 

0.32 

1.4 

1.0 

0.32 

2.1 


319,281 


1.95 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


239 


SUMMARY  OF   THE   WORLD'S   RAILWAYS  AND   RATIO   OF  MILEAGE  TO  AREA 
AND  POPULATION  IN  EACH  COUNTRY  IN  1909— Continued. 


Countries 


Miles 


Miles  of 

Line  per  100 

Sq.  Miles 

1909 


Inhabitants 
per  Mile 
of  Line 


III  ASIA 

Russia  in  Central  Asia 4,066 

Siberia  and  Manchuria 6,423 

China 5,296 

Japan  (including  Corea) 5,767 

British  India 31,483 

Total  Asia  including  other  Divisions 61,788 

IV  AFRICA 

Egypt 3,503 

Algiers  and  Tunis 3,134 

South  African  Union 

Total  Africa  including  other  Divisions 20,805 

V  AUSTRALIA 

New  Zealand 2,681 

Victoria 3,430 

New  South  Wales 3,763 

South  Australia 2,082 

Queensland 3,843 

Tasmania 627 

West  Australia 2,321 

Total  Australia  including  Islands 18,838 

RECAPITULATION 

I  Europe 204,864 

II  America 319,281 

III  Asia 61,788 

IV  Africa 20,805 

V  Australia 18,838 

Total  for  the  World 625,576 

1908...  611,434 


1.9 
0.13 
0.13 
2.4 


0.38 


2,326 

1,099 

83,300 

11,000 


1.0 
10 
0.9 


0.18 


3,226 

2,128 

770 


6,180 


2.r, 

3.9 

1.3 

0.16 

0.6 

2.4 

0.16 


or. 


381 
370 
423 
208 
236 
300 
203 


318 


5.5 

1.95 

0.38 

0.18 

0.6 


1,923 

552 

14,660 

6,180 
318 


2,726 


Increase. 


14,142 


RELATION  OF  RAILWAYS  TO  AREA  AND  POPULATION  (See  page  241.) 

Although  this  table  is  favored  by  railway  statisticians  in  comparing  railway 
conditions  relatively  to  area  and  population,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  conveys  an 
adequate  impression  of  the  exceptionally  favorable  transportation  facilities  enjoyed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  this  continent,  and  especialy  those  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  For  instance,  the  figures  mean  that  the  United  States  with  800.000 
square  miles  less  territory  and  not  one-quarter  the  population,  has  36.000  more 
miles  of  railway  than  all  Europe,  while  Canada,  having  a  territory  in  which  the 
United  Kingdom  could  be  lost  thirty  times,  and  only  one-sixth  the  population, 
has  actually  more  railway  mileage  than  the  parent  kingdom. 


240 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TWO  DECADES  IN  RAILWAY  PROGRESS. 

RAILWAY  RESULTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1891, 
1901  AND  1911  WITH  PERCENTAGES  OF  INCREASE  BY  DECADES. 


Item 
(m=thousands) 

1891 

1901 

1911 

1911 
over 

1891 

% 

1911 
over 
1901 

Cf 

/o 

Population  

63  844  000 

77  612  569 

93  983  000 

47  2 

21  1 

Miles  of  Line  (operated)  

161  275 

195  562 

243  290 

50  8 

24  4 

Miles  of  All  Track 

207  446 

265  352 

358  313 

72  7 

oc  i 

Net  Capitalization  (m) 

|7  g(jo  219 

$9  48°  640 

$14  434  30° 

83  7 

52  2 

per  Mile  of  Line  
"      «      *  Track.  .  .  . 
Gross  Earnings  from  Operation  (m)  
per  Mile  Operated  
Expenses  of  Operationf  in)  

49,920 
37,890 
1,096,761 
6,800 
731,887 

49,925 
36,547 
1,588,526 
8,123 
1,030  397 

59,345 
40,257 
$2,818,780 
11,588 
1  935  511 

18.8 
6.2 
157.1 
70.4 
164  5 

18.8 
10.1 
77.6 
42.6 
87  8 

"         "  per  Mile  Operated 

4  538 

5  269 

7  Q57 

75  3 

50  8 

Net  Earnings  from  Operation  . 

364  873 

558  129 

883  968 

J42  i 

58  2 

"           "        per  Mile  Operated. 

2  262 

2  854 

3  631 

60  5 

27  2 

Ratio  of  Expenses  to  Earnings  
Receipts  from  Passengers  (m)  
"            "     Freight  (m) 

66.73% 
$281,178 
736  793 

64.86% 
351,356 
118  543 

68.66 
658,772 
1  999  335 

4.4 
134.3 

161  9 

5.8 
87.5 
72  5 

•            •     Mail  (m) 

24  870 

38  453 

51  287 

106  2 

33  4 

*            *     Express  (m). 

21  594 

31  122 

72  704 

237  2 

133  6 

Passengers  Carried  (m) 

531  183 

607  278 

979  101 

84  5 

61  0 

One  Mile  (m)  , 
Average  Receipts    per    Passenger    Mile 
(cents)  

12,844,243 
2  142 

17,353,588 
2013 

33,508,240 
1  966 

160.9 
d8  9 

93.0 
d  2  4 

*        Passengers  in  Train 

42 

42 

58 

38  3 

38  3 

Freight  Tons  Carried  (m).  .  . 

675  608 

1  089  226 

1  727  988 

155  8 

58  7 

"           "     Carried  One  Mile  (m)  ..... 
Average  Receipts  per  Ton  Mile  (mills). 
Locomotives,  Number  
Weight    without    Tender 
(tons). 

81,073,784 
8.95 
32,139 

1  381  977 

147,077,136 
7.50 
39,584 

2  177  340 

255,448,802 
754 
61,107 

4  672  700 

215.1 
d!8.7 
90.0 

238  1 

73.6 
0.5 
54.3 

114  6 

Passenger  Cars  (number).. 

27  949 

35  909 

49  448 

76  9 

37  7 

Freight  Cars  (number)  

947  300 

1  464  328 

2  203  616 

132  6 

50  5 

"          "     capacity  (tons)  
Average  Tons  in  Train 

21,687,900 
181 

39,536,856 
281 

81,096,724 
404 

274.0 
123  2 

107.6 
43  7 

Employes  (number)  . 

784285 

1  071  169 

1  695  000 

116  9 

58  2 

"          per  100  Miles  of  Line  
"          Compensation  

486 
$438  704  400 

548 

$610  713  701 

697 
1  230  800  000 

43.8 
183  1 

27.2 
101  5 

Proportion  of  Gross  Earnings  
"          of  Operating  Expenses  

40.00% 
59.95% 

38.39% 
59  27% 

43.67% 
63  55% 

9.1 

13.7 

Taxes  

$33  280  095 

$50  944  372 

§109  108  490 

2°7  5 

110  1 

Per  Mile  of  Line  

206 

260 

448 

117  4 

71  5 

Proportion  of  Gross  Earnings  

3.04% 

?.20% 

3.87% 

NOTE  FOR  TABLE  ON  NEXT  PAGE. 

^Census  figures  1910  divided  by  commission's  figures  for  1910. 
fMileage  operated  in  Canada  by  American  roads. 
^Mileage  operated  in  Mexico  by  American  roads. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


241 


SUMMARY  OF  RAILWAY  MILEAGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  STATES,  FOR 
THE  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1910  AND  1911. 


Bureau's  Figures 

Commission's  Figures 

Population 
Per  Mile 
of  Line 

1910# 

1911 
Miles 
Operated 

1910 
Miles 
Operated 

1910 
Miles 
Owned 

Miles  of 
Line  per  100 
Sq.  Miles  of 
Territory 

4,994 
1,962 
4,253 
6,610 
5,646 
1,000 
340 
3,769 
6,631 
1,925 
13,257 
7,098 
9.987 
9,216 
3,494 
4,477 
2,096 
1,326 
2,087 
8,360 
8,893 
3,672 
8,336 
4,294 
6,151 
1.601 
1,213 
2,146 
2,975 
8,338 
4,110 
4,379 
9,028 
5,898 
2,125 
10,894 
196 
2,878 
3,984 
3,587 
13,081 
1,819 
936 
4,436 
5,133 
2,885 
7,106 
1,457 
52 
1,760 
226 

4,992 
1,811 
4,177 
6,422 
5,598 
1,002 
340 
3339 
6,498 
1,962 
12,751 
7,345 
9,945 
9,146 
3,425 
4,294 
2,068 
1,292 
2,086 
8,458 
8,596 
3,343 
8,329 
4,221 
6,150 
1,685 
1,213 
2,193 
2.939 
8,103 
4,089 
4,130 
8,906 
5,648 
1,793 
10,530 
196 
2,878 
3,739 
3,553 
12,847 
1,821 
941 
4,396 
4,543 
2,787 
6,746 
1,457 
52 
1,383 
230 

5,226 
2,097 
5,306 
7,772 
5.532 
1,000 
337 
4,431 
7,056 
2,178 
11,878 
7,420 
9,755 
9.007 
3.526 
5.554 
2,248 
1,426 
2,115 
9.021 
8,669 
4.506 
8,083 
4,207 
6,067 
2.276 
1,245 
2,260 
3,032 
8,430 
4,932 
4.201 
9.134 
5,980 
2,284 
11,290 
212 
3,442 
3,947 
3,815 
14.281 
1,985 
1,100 
4,534 
4,875 
3,600 
7.475 
1,645 
36 

10.19 
1.84 
10.10 
4.99 
5.34 
20.75 
17.04 
8.08 
12.02 
2.61 
21.20 
20.59 
17.55 
11.01 
8.77 
12.23 
7.52 
14.35 
26.31 
15.69 
10.72 
9.72 
11.76 
2.88 
7.90 
2.07 
13.80 
30.08 
2.48 
17.09 
10.12 
5.99 
22.42 
8.62 
2.39 
25.18 
19.88 
11.29 
5.14 
9.15 
5.44 
2.42 
12.06 
11.26 
7.29 
14.99 
13.53 
1.69 
59.55 

409 
97 
296 
306 
144 
1,115 
604 
169 
369 
149 
474 
364 
228 
184 
649 
298 
330 
001 
1,592 
311 
239 
399 
407 
89 
196 
35 
345 
1,122 
108 
1,081 
447 
137 
521 
277 
294 
678 
2,557 
440 
148 
572 
272 
188 
323 
454 
234 
339 
312 
89 
9,174 

Arizona.                 

California 

Colorado                             

Connecticut.          

Delaware  

Florida 

Idaho                                     .     . 

Illinois                           

Indiana.             

Iowa  

Kentucky 

T^nuisiana                             

Maine  
Maryland  

Massachusetts 

Minnesota  
Mississippi  

Missouri  

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire  
New  Jersey  

New  Mexico 

New  York 

"North  Carolina  
North  Dakota  
Ohio  

Oklahoma  

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island  
South  Carolina  

South  Dakota 

Tennessee  
Texas  

Utah  

Vermont.  _ 

"Virginia.  . 

"Washington  
"West  Virginia  
"Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

"Dist.  of  Columbia 

Canadaf  
Mexico*  

United  States  

232,117 

227,525 

240,438                 8.08 

382 

242 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY    OF    MILEAGE    OF    SINGLE    TRACK,    SECOND,    THIRD 

AND  FOURTH  TRACK  AND  YARD  TRACK  AND  SIDINGS 

IN  THE   UNITED   STATES,   1890  TO   1911. 


Year 

Single 
Track 

Second 
Track 

Third 
Track 

Fourth 
Track 

Yard 
Track  and 
Sidings 

Total 
Mileage 
Operated 
(all  Tracks) 

1911  Bureau  (95%)  

232,117 

23,454 

2,429 

1,677 

87,524 

347,201 

1910  Official   
1909       "       .. 

•240,831 
*235,402 

21,659 
20,949 

2,206 
2,169 

1,489 
1453 

85,581 
82376 

351,767 
342351 

1908       "       

"230,494 

20,209 

2,081 

1,409 

79,452 

333646 

1907       * 

227455 

19421 

1  960 

1  390 

77  749 

327  975 

1906       " 

222340 

17396 

1  766 

1  279 

73  760 

317083 

1905       " 

216  973 

17056 

1  609 

1  215 

69  941 

306796 

1904       " 

212,243 

15824 

1467 

1046 

66492 

297073 

1903       "       

205,313 

14,681 

1  303 

963 

61  560 

283821 

1902       "       

200,154 

13,720 

1,204 

895 

58,220 

274,195 

1901        "       

195,561 

12,845 

1,153 

876 

54,914 

265,352 

1900       • 

192556 

12  151 

1094 

829 

52  153 

258784 

1899 

187543 

11  546 

1047 

790 

49223 

250142 

1898       u       . 

184648 

11,293 

1009 

793 

47589 

245333 

1897       •       

183,284 

11,018 

995 

780 

45,934 

242013 

1896       •       
1895       «       

182,428 
180,657 

10,685 
10,639 

990 
975 

764 
733 

44,912 

43,888 

240,129 
236,894 

1894       " 

178708 

10499 

953 

710 

42661 

233533 

1893 

176,461 

10051 

912 

668 

42043 

230137 

1892       "       

171,563 

9,367 

852 

626 

39,941 

222351 

1891       «       

168,402 

8,865 

813 

599 

37,318 

215,999 

1890       "       

163,597 

8,437 

760 

561 

35,255 

208,612 

*Since  1908  the  official  mileage  is  exclusive  of  switching  and  terminal  companies.  In  1908  these 
had  1,624  miles  of  main  track  and  2 ,085  of  yard  tracks  and  sidings;  in  1909  they  reported  1,623  miles 
of  main  track  and  2,384  of  yard  tracks  and  sidings  and  in  1910  they  reported  1614  and  2270  miles 
respectively. 

If  the  mileage  of  auxiliary  track  given  in  the  above  table  for  1911  be 
added  to  the  single  track  mileage  covered  by  the  monthly  reports  to  the  Inter 
state  Commerce  Commission  for  June  1911  (248.732  miles),  it  yields  a  total  of 
358,816  miles  of  all  track,  an  increase  of  over  10,000  for  the  year.  As  each  mile 
of  track  stands  for  an  expenditure  of  $40.000.  this  shows  that  during  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1911,  at  least  $400.000.000  was  irrevocably  invested  in  fitting  our 
railways  to  the  transportation  needs  of  the  American  people. 

In  other  icords,  American  railways,  in  one  year  of  great  business  depression, 
were  forced  by  the  normal  but  irresistible  pressure  of  national  groicth  to  expend 
on  additional  facilities  more  than  the  estima-ted  cost  of  the  Panama  Canal! 

This  table  shows  that  there  were  almost  as  many  miles  of  auxiliary  track 
in  the  United  States  in  1911  (115.084  miles)  as  the  combined  single  track  mileage 
of  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary,  France  and  the  British  Isles  (117,975). 


From  1908  to  1910  the  rate  per 
ton  mile  in  the  United  Kingdom 
was  2.33  cents ;  in  France,  1.36 
cents ;  in  Germany,  1.41 ;  Russia, 
.95;  Austria.  1.36;  Sweden,  1.60; 
Norway,  1.77;  Denmark,  2.00;  Hol- 
land, 1.35 ;  Belgium,  1.17 ;  and  in 


Switzerland,  2.86  cents.  No  recent 
ton  mile  statistics  for  Italy  are 
available,  though  taking  the  aver- 
age haul  as  under  70  miles,  the 
average  receipts  per  ton  mile  were 
probably  in  the  neighborhood  of 
2.25  cents. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


243 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1910  there  were  13,660  passenger  locomotives  in 
the  service,  34,992  freight  locomotives,  9,115  switching,  and  1,180  unclassified, 
making  a  total  of  58,947  locomotives  in  the  service. 

SUMMARY  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  THEIR  PRIN- 
CIPAL CHARACTERISTICS:  1910. 


Class. 

Number. 

Tractive 
power. 

Grate 
surface. 

Heating 
surface. 

Weight 
exclusive 
of  tender. 

Weight 
on 
drivers. 

Singly  expansion  .....  

65,867 

Pounds. 
1,602,296,608 

Sq.ft. 
1,862,769 

Sq.ft. 
117,725,234 

Tora. 
4,032,797 

Tom. 
3  314  673 

Average  per  locomotive 

26  891 

35 

2  107 

72 

69 

Four-cylinder  compound 

1,611 

59,594,482 

61,467 

5  272  516 

168  787 

131  278 

Average  per  locomotive.  .... 

39,440 

49 

3,489 

112 

87 

862 

27  003  390 

2  197  380 

72  624 

60  R5S 

Average  per  locomotive    . 

31  326 

39 

2  549 

84 

71 

TotaL  .... 

68,240 

1,588,894,480 

1,956,257 

125  195  129 

4  274  208 

3  506  809 

Average  per  locomotive 

27,282 

35 

2  150 

73 

60 

The  above  table  does  not  include  locomotives  in  the  service  of  terminal  companies. 


DISTANCES   IN    NEW  YORK. 

Battery. 
Miles. 

TO 

From  the 
Battery. 
Miles. 

TO 

TO 

From  the 
Battery. 
Miles 

TO 

3 

Si 
8 

4% 

Rector. 
Fulton. 
City  Hall. 
Leonard. 
Canal. 
Spring. 
E.  Houston. 
East  4tb. 
East  9th. 
East  14th. 
East  19th. 
East  24th. 
East  29th. 
East  34th. 
East  38tb. 
East  44th. 
East  49th. 

C 

5% 
6  * 

P 

3 

East  54th. 
East  58th. 
East  G3d 
East  68th. 
East  73d. 
East  78th. 
East  83d. 
East  88th. 
East  93d 
East  97th. 
East  102d. 
East  107th. 
East  112tb. 
East  117th* 
East  121st. 
East  128th. 
East  134th. 

2* 

9% 
10  * 

11 
12 

Bast  139th. 
East  144th. 
East  149th. 
East  154th. 
East  159th. 
past  164th. 

Sast  170th*. 
East  172d. 
East  174th. 
?remont  ave. 
East  179th. 
East  182d. 
East  186th. 
'elbnm  ave. 
East  195th. 

13 
13% 

9 

14% 

14% 
15 

ift 

East  199th. 
S.   Mosholu  P'k- 
w'y  4  Web.  ar. 
East  205th. 
East  208th. 
W'msbridge  «ta. 
ferome  ave.,  c. 
iVoodlawn   rd. 
ferome  ave.,   c. 
tft.    Vernon   av. 
ferome  ave..  c. 
East  133d. 
E.   237th.  c.  Mt. 
Vernon  ave. 
East  230th. 
City  line. 

UNITED   STATES 

243,228  Ml. 


COMPARISON  OF  WORLD'S  RAILWAYS  BY  CONTINENTS  AND 
PRINCIPAL   COUNTRIES. 


244 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RAILROAD    LOCOMOTIVES    AND    CARS. 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1910  there 
were  57  passenger  locomotives  for 
every  thousand  miles  of  line,  145 
freight  locomotives,  38  switching  loco- 
motives, 5  unclassified,  making  a  total 
of  245  locomotives  per  thousand  miles 
of  line.  There  were  9,510  cars  per 
thousand  miles  of  line,  divided  as 
follows :  195  passenger  cars ;  8,866 
freight  cars;  and  449  company's  serv- 
ice. At  the  end  of  the  same  year  it 
was  estimated  that  70,288  passengers 
were  carried  per  passenger  locomo- 
tive ;  2,354,748  passenger  miles  cov- 
ered per  passenger  locomotive ;  52,504 
tons  carried  per  freight  locomotive ; 
and  7,304,065  ton  miles  covered  per 
freight  locomotive.  For  every  million 
passengers  carried  there  were  48  pas- 
senger cars,  and  for  every  million 
tons  of  freight  carried  there  were 
1,157  freight  cars  employed. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1910  there 


were  47,095  passenger  cars  in  the 
service ;  2,135,121  freight  cars ;  and 
108.115  company  cars,  making  a  total 
of  2,290,331  cars  in  the  service.  The 
fast  freight  line  service  required 
29,209  cars  for  its  service. 

Figuring  the  cost  of  a  locomotive 
at  $15,000,  the  59,909  locomotives  re- 
quired for  the  232,117  miles  of  track 
operated  in  1911  cost  $898,635,000; 
the  48,479  passenger  cars,  valued  at 
$6,500  each,  cost  $315,113,500;  the 
freight  cars,  2,160,408  in  number, 
valued  at  $1,000  each,  cost  $2,160,- 
408,000;  and  the  111,605  company 
cars,  valued  at  $600  each,  cost  $66,- 
963,000.  Thus  the  approximate  value 
of  all  equipment  of  American  rail- 
ways was  $3,441,119,500.  The  single 
jtem  maintenance  of  equipment  for 
the  year  1911  amounted  to  $423,- 
250,273. 


ELECTRIC    LOCOMOTIVES. 


The  New  Haven  has  the  heaviest 
electric  locomotive,  with  the  weight 
on  its  drivers  of  162,000  pounds,  a 
maximum  guaranteed  speed  of  86 
miles,  and  is  designed  to  trail  a  load 
of  250  tons.  The  Grand  Trunk  (St. 
Clair  Tunnel)  locomotive  has  a 
weight  on  the  drivers  of  132,000 
pounds,  a  guaranteed  speed  of  30 
miles  an  hour,  and  is  designed  to  trail 
a  load  of  500  tons.  The  Pennsylvania 
R.  R.  locomotive  having  a  weight  on 
the  drivers  of  207,800  pounds  and  a 
guaranteed  speed  of  80  miles,  is  de- 
signed to  trail  a  load  of  550  tons. 
The  N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R.  R.  R.'s  largest 


electric  locomotive,  having  a  weight 
on  the  drivers  of  141,000,  has  a  guar- 
anteed speed  of  75  miles  per  hour. 
The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  has  electric 
locomotives  having  a  weight  of  184,- 
000  pounds  on  the  drivers,  a  guar- 
anteed speed  of  55  miles,  and  is  de- 
signed to  trail  a  load  of  850  tons. 
The  Paris-Orleans  locomotive  has  a 
weight  on  the  drivers  of  110,000 
pounds  and  a  maximum  guaranteed 
speed  of  45  miles.  The  Great  North- 
ern's largest  electric  locomotive  has 
a  weight  of  230,000  pounds  on  the 
drivers  and  a  maximum  guaranteed 
speed  of  30  miles. 


HEAVY  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Locomotives  for  railway  service 
cost  approximately  as  follows :  Mogul, 
for  freight  service,  having  an  average 
weight  of  160,000  pounds,  cost  $14,- 
100;  Consolidation,  for  freight  serv- 
ice, average  weight  200,000  pounds, 
cost  $18,500;  Mallet  Compound,  for 
freight  service,  average  weight  400,- 
000  pounds,  cost  $40,000;  Atlantic, 
for  passenger  service,  average  weight 
185,000  pounds,  cost  $15,970;  Pacific, 
for  passenger  service,  average  weight 
225,000  pounds,  cost  $20,800;  and 
Ten  Wheel,  for  passenger  service, 
average  weight  170,000  pounds,  cost 
$15,000. 

Wood  box  cars  (with  steel  under- 
frame)  weighing  35,970  pounds,  hav- 


ing a  capacity  of  80,000  pounds,  and 
inside  dimensions  of  30'  x  8'  6"  x 
8'  3",  cost  $850;  steel  coal  (hopper), 
weight  39,400  pounds,  capacity  110,- 
000  pounds,  inside  dimensions  30'  6" 
x  9'  5"  x  10'  6",  cost  $1,000;  flat 
cars,  weight  31,000  pounds,  capacity 
80,000  pounds,  inside  dimensions  41' 
x  9'  2",  cost  $600;  day  coach,  weight 
112,000  pounds,  capacity  80  passen- 
gers, dimensions  78'  3"  x  10'  x  14'  5", 
cost  $8,500;  sleeping  car  (wood), 
weight  115,000  pounds,  capacity  27 
berths,  inside  dimensions  72'  6"  x 
8'  6"  x  9'  6",  cost  $16.700;  sleeping 
cars  (steel),  weight  152,300  pounds, 
capacity  24  berths,  inside  dimensions 
72'  6"  x  9'  9"  x  9'  6",  cost  $27,000. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


245 


A  dining  car  costs  $30,000  to  $35,000. 
A  combination  cafe  car  costs  about 
$28,000.  We  are  indebted  to  the 
"World  Almanac"  for  many  of  these 
interesting  figures. 

The  Mallet  Compound,  built  for  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  having 
a  total  weight  of  616,000  pounds,  and 
a  weight  of  550,000  pounds  on  its 
drivers,  is  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  locomotive  in  the  world. 
It  has  ten  drivers  on  each  side, 
having  a  diameter  of  57  inches, 
and.  was  built  by  the  Santa  Fe 
by  converting  a  2-10-2  type  loco- 
motive by  the  addition  of  a  front 
unit.  From  the  tip  of  the  pilot  to 
the  end  of  the  tender  it  is  121  feet 
7  inches  long.  It  has  a  heating  sur- 
face of  6,579  square  feet.  Its  cylin- 
ders are  28  x  38  x  32  inches  and  its 


tractive  effort  is  111,600  pounds.  It 
was  built  for  operation  over  the  A., 
T.  &  S.  F.  from  Los  Angeles  to 
Albuquerque,  where  the  maximum 

§rade    ranges    from    2.2    per   cent,    to 
per  cent.    The  locomotive  burns  fuel 
oil,  and  the  tender  has  a  capacity  of 
4,000   gallons. 

The  Mallet  Compound  passenger 
locomotive,  built  by  the  A.,  T.  &  S.  F., 
is  the  heaviest  passenger  locomotive 
ever  built.  Its  total  weight  is  376,850 
pounds  and  the  weight  on  its  drivers, 
73  inches  in  diameter,  is  268,400 
pounds.  It  has  a  heating  surface  of 
4.756  square  feet.  Its  cylinders  are 
L'4  x  38  x  28  inches  and  its  tractive  ef- 
fort is  62,850  pounds.  It  is  for  use  on 
a  division  having  2.2  per  cent,  grades, 
and  over  which  the  schedule  speed 
averages  about  25  miles. 


SUMMARY    OF    COST    OF    LOCOMOTIVE    FUEL    AND    PROPORTION 
TO  EARNINGS  AND  EXPENSES  OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS. 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1911 
it  was  estimated  that  there  were 
232,117  miles  of  railroad  and  that 
the  total  cost  of  locomotive  fuel 
for  operating  trains  over  them  was 


$226,904,756,  or  12.037  per  cent, 
of  the  total  operating  expenses 
of  the  roads  or  again  8.26  per 
cent,  of  the  gross  earnings  of  the 
roads. 


This  huge  locomotive  was  enlarged  at  the  Santa  Fe  shops  from  an  existing  locomotive  by 
adding  the  superheater  and  feed-water  sections.  The  engine  weighs  308  tons,  the  tender  117 
tons,  making  the  total  weight  425  tons.  Its  length  over  all  is  120  feet  ?V2  inches.  The  H.P. 
cylinders  are  28  inches  dia;  the  L.P.  are  38  inches  dia. ;  the  common  stroke  is  32  inches. 
The  max.  drawbar  pull  is  111,000  pounds,  and  this  locomotive  has  hauled  1,911  tons  at  12 
miles  per  hour  over  a  1.5  per  cent  grade.  On  the  level  it  could  haul  a  train  so  long  that 
the  side  tracks  could  not  take  it  in.  At  a  speed  of  10  miles  an  hour,  estimated  in  the  usual 
manner,  it  would  develop  about  3,000  horse-power,  which  at  higher  speeds,  would  be  still 
greater.  The  fire-box  has  204  square  feet  of  heating  surface,  and  the  tubes  3,625  square  feet. 
The  gases  next  pass  through  the  tubes  of  a  superheater  of  2,818.4  square  feet  surface  and 
then  through  a  feed-water  heater  of  2,659.5  square  feet.  The  steam  passes  from  the  steam 
dome  to  the  superheater;  through  the  high-pressure  cylinders;  back  to  the  low-pressure 
superheater;  through  the  low-pressure  cylinders,  and  to  the  exhaust  stack. 

SANTA   FE    MALLET    FREIGHT    LOCOMOTIVE,    THE 
LARGEST  IN  EXISTENCE. 


246 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  RAILWAY  EMPLOYEES,  COMPENSATION  AND  RATES 

OF  PAY  PER  DAY  BY  CLASSES  IN  1911,  AGGREGATES 

FROM  1899  TO  1911. 


1911 
1232,117  Miles  Represented) 
Class 

Number 

Per  100 
Miles 
of  Line 

Compensation 

Average 
Pay 
Per  Day 

Per  Cent 
of  Gross 
Receipts 

General  Officers  

3,590 

1  5 

$17  149,205 

$1530 

06 

Other  Officers 

9708 

4  2 

21  063206 

6  38 

08 

General  Office  Clerks 

76  150 

328 

61  524  102 

249 

22 

Station  Agents  
Other  Station  Men  

36,737 
153,526 
62491 

15.8 
66.1 
269 

27,982,195 
95,335,487 
99  951  666 

2.20 
2.00 
472 

1.0 
3.5 
36 

Firemen 

65490 

282 

59  111  680 

294 

22 

Conductors             ....       « 

47346 

204 

64956106 

4  18 

24 

Other  Trainmen  

131,949 

569 

120  956  345 

292 

44 

Machinists  

54,812 

236 

51  001,629 

3  17 

19 

Carpenters  

65,413 

28.2 

50,141,432 

2.71 

1  8 

Other  Shopmen 

226381 

975 

154  745  875 

225 

56 

Section  Foremen 

43825 

189 

30  338  045 

207 

1  l 

Other  Trackmen.        .          

354808 

1529 

135  167  605 

1  50 

49 

Switch  Tenders,  Crossing  Tend- 
ers and  Watchmen  
Telegraph  Operators  and   Des- 
patchers 

40,202 
40986 

17.3 
177 

22,937,413 
34  179  264 

1.73 
242 

0.8 
1  3 

Employees  acct.  Floating  Equpt. 
All  other  Employees  &  Laborers. 
Total  (95%Mileage  Represented) 

10,378 
224,139 
1,647,931 

4.5 
96.6 
710.0 

7,823,985 
146,794,567 
1,201,259,607 

2.29 
2.11 
2.42 

0.3 
5.3 
43.7 

1910  Official  Figures  
1909 

1,732,435 
1,528  808 

716 
638 

$1,165,444,855 
1  005  349  958 

(b)  $2.29 
224 

41.82 
4100 

1908  

1,458  244 

632 

1  051,632,225 

225 

4338 

1907  

1,672,074 

735 

1,072,386,427 

2.20 

41.42 

1906 

1  521  355 

684 

(a)  930  801  653 

209 

4002 

1905 

1  382  196 

637 

839  944  680 

207 

4034 

1904  

1,296  121 

611 

817  598  810 

No  data 

41  36 

1903  

1,312,537 

639 

775321,415 

No  data 

40.78 

1902  

1,189,315 

594 

676,028,592 

No  data 

39.28 

1901 

1  071  169 

548 

610  713  701 

No  data 

3839 

1900 

1017653 

529 

577  264  841 

No  data 

3882 

1899  

928  924 

495 

522  967  896 

No  data 

3981 

1898  

874,558 

474 

495,055,618 

No  data 

39.70 

1897 

823  476 

449 

465  601  581 

No  data 

41  50 

1896 

826  620 

454 

468  824  531 

No  data 

4077 

1895  

785034 

441 

445  508  261 

No  data 

41.44 

1894  

779,608 

444 

No  data 

No  data 

1893 

873602 

515 

No  data 

No  data 

1892 

821  415 

506 

No  data 

No  data 

1891  

784285 

486 

No  data 

No  data 

1890  '. 

749,301 

479 

No  data 

No  data 

1889  

704,743 

459 

No  data 

No  data 

(a)  Includes  $30,000,000  estimate  pay-roll  of  Southern  Pacific,  whose  records  were  destroyed  in 
the  San  Francisco  disaster. 

(b)  Bureau  computations. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


247 


NUMBERS   OF    DIFFERENT   CLASSES    OF    FREIGHT   CARS. 


'At  the  close  of  the  year  1910  the 
several  classes  or  kinds  into  which 
freight  cars  are  divided,  were  as  fol- 
lows :  box  cars,  966,577 ;  flat  cars, 
153,918 ;  stock  cars,  77,584 ;  coal  cars, 
818,689;  tank  cars,  7,434;  refrigera- 


tor cars,  30,918 ;  and  other  cars 
78,411.  The  average  capacity  in  tons 
of  a  box  car  was  33;  of  a  flat  car 
33 ;  a  stock  car  30 ;  a  coal  car  41 ; 
a  tank  car  39 ;  a  refrigerator  car  30 ; 
and  of  other  cars  37. 


PASSENGER  TRAFFIC. 


A  summary  of  the  passenger  traffic 
for  the  year  1911  shows  that  there 
were  959*,000.<  H  M  »  passengers  carried; 
that  there  were  32,837,769,000  pas- 
sengers carried  one  mile ;  and  that 
the  mileage  of  all  the  passenger  trains 
amounted  to  5.18,000,000.  The  aver- 


age number  of  passengers  in  a  train 
were  58;  the  average  journey  was 
34  miles ;  and  the  average  receipts 
per  passenger  mile  were  1.966  cents. 
The  passenger  revenue  amounted  to 
$045,000,000. 


FREIGHT  TRAFFIC. 


At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1910 
the  grand  total  of  freight  traffic  for 
the  United  States  amounted  to  1,745,- 
324,S2,s.  plus  104.575.273  tons — the 
latter  amount  being  unassigned  freight, 
while  the  former  was  assigned.  The 
products  of  agriculture,  having  a  total 
freight  tonnage  of  160,401,693,  were 
divided  as  follows:  grain,  67,733,043 
tons ;  flour,  19,729,851 ;  other  mill 
products,  15,632,126  ;  hay,  11,744,710  ; 
tobacco.  1,833,353;  cotton,  6,122,624; 
fruits  and  vegetables,  27,968,788;  and 
other  products  of  agriculture,  9,637,- 
198  tons. 

The  products  of  animals,  totaling 
38,624,775  tons,  were  divided  as  fol- 
lows:  live  stock,  18,200,325  tons; 
dressed  meats,  5,953,431 ;  other  pack- 
ing-house products,  4,651,120;  poul- 
try, game  and  fish,  1,512,280;  wool, 
904,324;  hides  and  leather,  3,014,630; 
and  other  products  of  animals,  4,388,- 
665  tons. 

From  the  products  of  mines  the 
total  freight  traffic  amounted  to  942,- 
065.847  tons  and  was  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  anthracite  coal,  117,480,501 ; 
bituminous  coal,  467,060,739;  coke, 
77,990,907;  ores,  158.170.430;  stone, 


sand  and  other  like  articles,  98,861,- 
001 ;  other  products  of  mines,  22,- 
493,269. 

The  prpducts  of  the  forests,  divided 
into  lumber,  135,677,828  tons,  and 
other  products  of  forests,  57,561,905 
tons,  amounted  to  193,239,733  tons 
for  the  year  1910. 

The  manufactures  of  the  United 
States,  making  a  total  freight  ton- 
nage of  278,157,500,  were  divided 
according  to  freight  traffic  as  follows: 
petroleum  and  other  oils,  16,531,174; 
sugar,  7,056,371 ;  naval  stores,  1,743,- 
122;  iron,  pig  and  bloom,  28,963,137; 
iron  and  steel  rails,  9,378,658;  other 
castings  and  machinery,  27,274,820 ; 
bar  and  sheet  metal,  34,074,515 ; 
cement,  brick  and  lime,  59.626,450; 
agricultural  implements,  3,249,071 ; 
wagons,  carriages,  tools,  etc.,  3,223,- 
308 ;  wines,  liquors  and  beers,  6,785,- 
150 ;  household  goods  and  furniture, 
4,081,175 ;  and  other  manufactures, 
76,170,549  tons. 

The  freight  traffic  for  merchandise 
amounted  to  61,234,757  tons  and  for 
miscellaneous  other  commodities  71.- 
600.523  tons. 


SUMMARY    OF    FREIGHT     MILEAGE,     REVENUE,     AND     RECEIPTS 

PER   TON    MILE. 


During  the  year  1901  the  number 
of  tons  carried  one  mile  amounted  to 
147,077.136.040  and  during  the  year 


for  the  vear  1901  amounted  to  $1.118,- 
543.014 'and  for  1911  to  $1,889,504,- 
180;  making  an  increase  of  68.9  per 


1911  to  250.440,118.000;  thus  making  cent,  for  the  ten  years.  The  receipts 
a  total  increase  for  the  ten  years  of  |  per  ton-mile  'in  1901  amounted  to  7.50 
70.4  per  cent.  The  freight  revenue  ,  mills  and  in  1911  to  7.54  mills. 


248 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


249 


PASSENGER  REVENUES. 


Analyzing  the  revenues  of  the  pas- 
senger service  for  the  fiscal  year  1890, 
we  find  that  the  revenue  per  passenger 
per  mile  was  2.167  cents ;  the  rev- 
enue per  passenger  carried,  $0.50818 ; 
the  revenue  per  train-mile,  passenger 
trains,  $1.08641 ;  and  the  passenger 
earnings  per  mile  of  road,  $1,978.19. 
For  the  freight  service  for  the  same 
year  the  revenue  per  ton  per  mile 
amounted  to  0.927  cents;  the  revenue 
per  ton  of  freight  carried  $1.08781; 
the  revenue  per  train-mile,  freight 
trains,  $1.65434;  freight  earnings  per 
mile  of  road,  $4,588.82.  Thus  the 
total  revenue  per  train-mile  for  all 
trains  amounted  to  $1.44231,  and  the 
cost  of  running  a  train  one  mile 
$0.96006. 

In  1900  the  passenger  revenues 
were  as  follows :  revenue  per  passen- 
ger per  mile  2.003  cents ;  revenue  per 
passenger  carried  $0.56459;  revenue 
per  train-mile,  passenger  trains, 
$1.01075 ;  passenger  earnings  per 
mile  of  road  $2,067.17.  The  freight 
revenues  for  the  same  year  were : 
revenue  per  ton  per  mile  0.729  cents ; 


revenue  per  ton  of  freight  carried 
$0.99373;  revenue  per  train-mile, 
freight  trains,  $2.00042;  freight 
earnings  per  mile  of  road  $5,466.47. 
Thus  the  revenue  per  train-mile  for 
all  trains  amounted  to  $1.65721  and 
the  cost  of  running  a  train  one  mile 
$1.07288. 

The  passenger  revenues  for  the  year 
1910  were  divided  into  revenue  per 
passenger  per  mile,  1.938  cents ;  rev- 
enue per  passenger  carried,  $0.64617 ; 
revenue  per  train-mile,  passenger 
trains,  $1.303.96;  and  passenger 
earnings  per  mile  of  road,  $3,228.00. 
On  the  freight  service  the  revenue 
per  ton  per  mile  amounted  to  0.753 
cents ;  the  revenue  per  ton  of  freight 
carried  $1.03992;  the  revenue  per 
train-mile,  freight  trains,  $2.86218 ; 
the  freight  earnings  per  mile  of  road, 
$8,089.00.  Thus  the  revenue  per 
train-mile  for  all  trains  amounted  to 
$2.24628  and  the  cost  of  running  a 
train  one  mile  $1.48865.  The  term 
"ton"  generally  signifies  the  short 
ton  of  2,000  pounds. 


CONSUMPTION  OF  FUEL  OIL. 


The  increasing  use  of  fuel  oil  is 
due  to  many  causes.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  from  tests  made  on  some 
of  the  railroads  accessible  to  the  oil 
fields  and  refineries  of  the  West, 
where  fuel  oil  can  be  purchased 
cheaply,  that  the  cost  of  operating 
with  oil  is  less  and  its  use  equally 
as  efficient  as  coal,  the  supplies  of 
which  are  at  times  very  low  and 
uncertain  on  account  of  strikes  and 
shutdowns  of  mines,  and  often  on 
account  of  shortage  of  cars  for  the 
transportation  of  the  coal,  especially 
in  the  winter  season.  In  some  local- 
ties  where  oil  is  coming  into  use,  as 
in  Nevada,  the  cost  of  coal  is  ex- 
tremely high.  Another  reason  fop  the 
use  of  oil  is  the  prevention  or  the 


elimination  of  forest  fires,  which  in 
the  last  few  years  have  been  so  dis- 
astrous in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  country.  In  addition  to  the  econ- 
omy of  the  use  of  oil  as  compared 
with  coal  on  railroads,  it  is  very 
much  cleaner  and  safer  for  the  trav- 
eler, there  being  no  smoke  or  cinders. 
In  1910  there  were  22,709  lines  of 
mile  operated  by  the  use  of  fuel  oil. 
The  total  quantity  of  fuel  oil  con- 
sumed by  railroads  for  the  same  year 
amounted  to  24,586,108  barrels.  The 
total  mileage  made  by  oil-burning  en- 
gines for  that  year  was  89,107,883 
and  the  average  number .  of  miles 
traveled  per  barrel  of  oil  consumed 
was  3.74. 


REVENUES  AND  EXPENSES. 


A  general  summary  of  the  monthly 
reports  of  revenues  and  expenses  of 
steam  roads  shows  that  the  average 
number  of  miles  of  road  operated  dur- 
ing 1911  was  243,229.38.  The  operating 
revenues,  which  amounted  to  $2,818,- 
780.398.46,  or  an  average  of  $11,- 
588.98  per  mile  of  road  operated,  were 
distributed  as  follows :  freight,  $1,929,- 


335.456.59  ;  passenger,  $658,772,785.78  ; 
other  transportation,  $202.762.574.20; 
non-transportation,  $27,909,581.39.  The 
operating  expenses,  amounting  to 
$1,935,511,581.13,  or  an  average  of 
$7,957.56  per  mile  of  road  operated, 
were  divided  as  follows :  maintenance 
of  way  and  structures,  $369,581,610.- 
47 ;  maintenance  of  equipment,  $431,- 


250 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


892,653  ;  traffic,  $59,344,440.93 ;  trans- 
portation, $1,000,603,053.40;  general, 
$74,046,630.37. 

The  total  net  operating  revenue  of 
$885,341,355.51,  $883,268,817.33  of 
which  was  derived  from  rail  opera- 
tions and  $2,072,538.18  from  outside 
operations ;  less  the  taxes,  amounting 
to  $109,108,490.26,  leaves  an  operat- 
ing income  of  $776,232,865.25,  or  an 
average  of  $3,191.36  per  mile  of  road 
operated. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1890,  the  Railroads  had  a 
total  of  $4,409,658,453  stocks  out- 
standing, of  which  $1,598,131,933,  or 
36.24  per  cent.,  were  paying  divi- 
dends. This  stock  of  the  railroads 
paid  dividends  at  an  average  rate  of 
5.45  per  cent.  The  railroads  paid 
§87,071,613  dollars  in  dividends  and 
$221,499,702  interest  on  the  funded 
debt,  making  a  total  of  $308,571,315. 
The  interest  on  interest-bearing  cur- 
rent liabilities  amounted  to  $8,114,- 
768. 

In  1900  the  total  stock  of  the  rail- 
roads was  $5,845,579,593  and  the 
stock-paying  dividends  amounted  to 
$2,668,969,895,  or  45.66  per  cent,  of 
the  total  amount  of  stock.  The  aver- 
age rate  paid  was  5.23  per  cent.,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  $139,597,972  paid  in 
dividends.  The  interest  on  the  funded 
debt  amounted  to  $252,949,616,  mak- 
ing a  total  expenditure  on  dividends 
and  interest  on  the  funded  debt  of 
$392,547,588.  The  interest  on  the 


interest-bearing  current  liabilities 
amounted  to  $4,912,892. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1910  the 
total  outstanding  stocks  were  $8,113,- 
657,380  and  the  stock-paying  divi- 
dends amounted  to  $5,412,578,457,  or> 
66.71  per  cent,  of  the  total  stock.  The 
average  rate  paid  on  dividends  was 
7.50  per  cent.,  or  $405,771,416.  The 
interest  on  the  funded  debt  amounted 
to  $399,582,056,  making  a  total  of 
$805,353,472  paid  for  interest  on  the 
debt  and  dividends.  The  interest  on 
the  interest-bearing  current  liabilities 
amounted  to  $16,536,695. 

At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1910 
the  assets  for  the  226,114.66  miles  of 
railroad  represented  in  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission's  report  were 
as  follows :  Net  investment  in  road 
and  equipment,  $14,387,816,099;  book 
value  of  system  securities  perman- 
ently held,  $2,337,178,510;  other  per- 
manent investments,  $1,588,439,670 ; 
working  assets  and  accrued  income  not 
due,  $2,139,006,497;  sinking  and  re- 
demption funds,  $95,693,704;  and  all 
other  deferred  debit  items,  $558,- 
764,533. 

The  liabilities  for  the  same  num- 
ber of  miles  of  road  and  for  the  same 
year  were  as  follows :  stock,  $8,062,- 
814,700 ;  mortgage,  bonded  and  se- 
cured debt,  $10,388,107,332;  working 
liabilities  and  accrued  liabilities  not 
due,  $1,123,354,632;  deferred  credit 
items,  $161,514,590;  appropriated  sur- 
plus, $331,870,965 ;  and  profit  and 
loss,  $1,039,236,794. 


Tow  Boat 


Hirer,          $. 

Rail  Road,  $ 
Canal,          $_ 


RAIL  ROAD  LINE  FROM  NEW  YORK  TO  BUFFALO. 


iaenaer  on 
on  {&  <!$yai/  &>oad  anc/  ¥>ana. 

NEW  YORK,  183 


To  JOHN  M.  HUGHES, 

Sdtauaady. 


RAILROAD  TICKET  OF  THE  EARLY  THIRTIES. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


251 


RAILROAD  SPEEDS. 


Month, 
day,  year. 

RaUroad. 

From. 

To. 

Dist. 
Miles. 

Time, 
h.   m.   s 

Speed 
miles 
per  H. 

6-14-'80 

P.R.R. 

Philadelphia 

Jersey  City 

90 

1:33:00 

58.06 

0-  0-'80 

Gt.  N.  (Eng.) 

London 

Grantham 

105.5 

1:51:00 

66.5 

4-22-82 

W.  Jersey 

Camden 

Cape  May 

81.5 

1  :23  :30 

58.63 

7-12-'83 

B.  S.  &N.Y. 

Syracuse 

Binghamton 

-  79- 

1:23:00 

57.11 

5-  9-'84 

P.  &R. 

N.  Y.  Div. 

M.  P.  48 

14 

0:11:19 

74.2 

5-  8-'85 

L.S.and  N.Y.C. 

Chicago 

New  York 

964 

22:45:00 

42.38 

7-  9-'85 

W.  Shore 

Alabama 

Gen.  June. 

36.3 

0:30:00 

72.60 

6-17-'86 

C.,  B.  &Q. 

Princeton 

Burlington 

170 

2:58:00 

57.3 

7-  5-'86 

Wabash 

K.  City 

Peru 

563 

13:45:00 

41 

8-  8-'86 

N.Y.C.&H.R. 

Syracuse 

Fairport 

70.25 

1  :01  :20 

68.73 

7-10--88 

L.  &  N.  W.-Cal. 

London 

Edinboro 

400 

7:52:00 

50.85 

8-  0-'88 

L.  &|N.  W. 

Crewe 

Preston 

51 

0:50:00 

61.20 

8-  0-'88 

L.  &  N.  W. 

Preston 

Carlisle 

90 

1:30:00 

60 

8-30-'88 

N.  E.  (Eng.) 

York 

Newcastle 

80.5 

1:18:00 

62 

8-31-'88 

Gt.  N.  (Eng.) 

London 

Edinboro 

392.5 

7:26:45 

52.7 

4-  8-'89 

C.  &  N.  W. 

Chicago 

Council  Bluffs 

490 

12:30:00 

39.2 

5-19-'89 

P.,  F.W.  &C. 

Ft.  Wayne 

Chicago 

148.3 

2:59:00 

49.7 

5-26-'89 
3-10-'90 

Mich.  C. 
P  &R. 

S.  Bridge 
Philadelphia 

Chicago 
Jersey  City 

511 
90 

11:41:00 
1:25:00 

43.74 
63.53 

3-10-'90 

P.  R.  R. 

Jersey  City 

Washington 

226 

4:18:00 

52.56 

3-10-'90 
6-22-'  91 

P.  R.  R. 
N.  Y.  C.  &H  R. 

Washington 
New  York      • 

Jersey  City 
Buffalo 

226 
439.52 

4:19:00 
8:58:00 

52.35 
49.2 

8-  0-'91 

Canadian  Pac 

Vancouver 

Brockville 

2,792 

76:31:00 

36.49 

9-14-'91 

N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R. 

New  York 

E.  Buffalo 

436.32 

7:17.30 

59.56 

10-16-'91 

N.  Ry.  (France) 

Paris 

Calais 

184 

3  :43  :00 

49.51 

ll-28-'91 

P.  R.  R. 

Jersey  City 

Washington 

227 

4:11:00 

54.22 

12-22-'91 

B.  &0. 

Philadelphia 

Canton 

91.6 

1:41:00 

54.41 

3-28-;92 

N.Y.C.&H.R 

Oneida 

De  Witt 

21.37 

0:17:40 

72.69 

Cent.  N.  J. 

Fanwood 

1 

0:00:37 

97.3 

ll-18-'92 

P.&R. 

Jenkintown 

L'horne 

5 

0:03:25 

87.8 

12-  0-'92 

L.  &  N.  W. 

Crewe 

Rugby 

76 

1:11.00 

64.23 

5-  9-'  93 

N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R. 

3r  rimes  vi  lie 

1 

0:00:35 

102.8 

5-19-'93 

N.Y.  C.  &H  R. 

Syracuse 

E.Buffalo 

146 

2:21:00 

62.13 

5-19-'93 

N.Y.C.&H.R. 

Loon  ey  ville 

Grimesville 

5 

0:03:00 

100 

5-28-'93 

N.Y.C.&H.R. 

New  York 

Chicago 

964 

19:57:00 

48.2 

L.  S.  &M.  S. 

8-28-'93 

P.,  C.,  C.  &  St.  L. 

Seymour 

N.  Tower 

42 

0:35:34 

70.96 

3-23-'94 
4-17-'94 

C.  &  N.  W. 
L.  S.  &  M.  S. 

C.  Bluffs 
Cleveland 

Chicago 
Erie 

488 
95  5 

12:52:00 
1:35:00 

41.1 
60.32 

8-26-'94 

A.  C.  Line 

Jacksonville 

Washington 

780.8 

15:49:00 

49.36 

4-  0-'95 
4-21  -'95 

0.  B.  &Q. 

Camden  &  Atl. 

Chicago 
Camden 

G'burg 
Atlantic  City 

163 
58.3 

2:45:00 
0:45:45 

59.27 
76.46 

8-21-  95 

West  Coast 

London 

Aberdeen 

540 

8:55:00 

60.56 

8-21-'95 

East  Coast 

London 

Aberdeen 

523J 

8:40:00 

60.35 

9-ll-'95 

N.Y.C.&H.R. 

New  York 

E.  Buffalo 

436  32 

6:51:56 

63.54 

9-24-'  95 

N.  Y.  C.  &  H.  R. 

Albany 

Syracuse 

147.84 

2:10:00 

68.23 

10-24-'95 

L.  S.  &M.  S. 

Erie 

Buffalo 

86 

1:10:46 

72.91 

10-24-'95 

L.  S.  &M.  S. 

Chicago 

Buffalo 

510.1 

8:01:07 

63.61 

10-24-'  95 
5-  7-'96 

P.  R.  R. 
Mich.  C. 

Jersey  City 
Windsor 

Philadelphia 
St.  Thomas 

89.6 
11.2 

1:33:21 
1:43:05 

57.6 
64.72 

5-  7-'96 

Mich.  C. 

St.  Thomas 

Fort  Erie 

118.2 

1:47:15 

G6.13 

6-10-'96 

Atlantic  City 

Camden 

Atlantic  City 

55.5 

0:48:00 

69.4 

6-20-'96 

Atlantic  City 

Camden 

Atlantic  City 

55.5 

0:57:00 

58.42 

7-  3-'96 

C.,  M.  &  St.  P. 

Forest  Glen 

Nat.  Ave. 

74 

1:22:00 

54.2 

ll-21-'96  1 

S.  &R. 

Weldon 

Shops 

76.8 

1:12:30 

63  .  56 

2-15-'97  j 

C..B.&Q. 

Chicago 

Denver 

^,025 

18:53:00 

54.27 

3-ll-'97  j 

Char.  &  Sav. 

Cent.  June. 

Ashley  J. 

102 

1:40:00 

61.02 

252 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RAILROAD  SPEEDS— Continued. 


Month, 
day,  year. 

Railroad. 

From. 

To. 

Dist. 
Miles. 

Time, 
h.    m.    s. 

Speed 
miles 
per  H. 

4-  9-'  97 

Atlantic  Coast  L. 

Florence,  S.  C. 

Rocky  Mt. 

172.2 

3:00:00 

57.70 

4-21-'97 

Lehigh  V. 

Alpine 

Geneva  June. 

44 

0:33:00 

80 

7-14-'97 

Atl.  City  (P.  &  R.) 

Camden 

Atlantic  City 

55.5 

0:46-30 

71.60 

7-16-'97 

P.,  Ft.  W.  &C. 

G.  R.  &I.  Jc 

Colehour 

132.5 

2:15:00 

58.8 

8-  3-'  97 

Union  Pacific 

Evanston 

Omaha 

955.2 

23  :55  :00 

39.93 

8-  3-'  97 

Union  Pacific 

N.  Platte 

Omaha 

291.0 

5:35:00 

52.1 

ll-29-'97 

Union  Pacific 

Cheyenne 

Council  Bluffs 

519 

9:19:00 

55.7 

12-  4-'97 

Union  Pacific 

Sidney 

Omaha 

414.2 

7:12:00 

57.5 

2-13-'98 

Erie 

Jersey  City 

Buffalo 

423. 

7:30:00 

56.4 

8-20-'  98 

Atlantic  City 

Camden 

Atlantic  City 

55.5 

0:46:45 

71.2 

1-  2-'99 

Chic.,B.  &O. 

Omaha 

Chicago 

500.2 

8:43:00 

57.38 

4-23-'  99 

Chic.,  B.  &O 

Clyde 

Burlington 

197.3 

3:04:00 

64.33 

7-  9-'99 

Del.,  L.  &  W. 

Bath 

East  Buffalo 

104 

1:30:00 

69.30 

7-19-'99 

Vandalia 

Clayton 

Transfer 

18 

0:14:00 

77.00 

7-22-'  99 
7-31-'99 

Atlantic  City 
W.  J.  &  S.  (Penn.) 

Camden 
Camden 

Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 

55.5 
583 

0:51:15 
0:50:30 

65.00 
69.30 

10-  7-'99 

Penn.  W.  Pittsburgh 

Ft.  Wayne 

Chicago 

148.3 

2<50:00 

52.30 

10-14-'99 

Wabash 

Tilton 

Granite  City 

176.6 

2:47:30 

63.30 

11  -22-'  99 

L.  S.  &M.S. 

Buffalo 

Cleveland 

183 

3:25:00 

3-27-'00 

A  ten.,  T.  &  S.  F 

Los  Angeles 

Chicago 

2,236 

58:00:00 

'  38  '.  55 

4-30-'00 

Chic.,  B.  &  Q. 

Burlington 

Chicago 

205.8 

3:23:00 

60  80 

7-  9-'00 

N.Y.C.&H.R. 

Rochester 

Syracuse 

80.7 

1:25:00 

56.70 

7-  4-'00 
8-16-'00 

Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 

Camden 
Camden 

Atlantic  City 
Atlantic  City 

55.5 
55.5 

0:44:15 
0:44:15 

75.20 
75.20 

9-30-'00 

Penn.  Lines 

Ft.  Wayne 

Clarke  J. 

126 

2:38:00 

47.90 

12-21-'00 

Burlington 

Omaha 

Billings 

892.6 

16:23:00 

54.40 

3-  l-'Ol 

Sav.,  F.  &  W. 

M.  P.  69 

M.  P.  74 

4.8 

0:02:40 

107.90 

9-  5-'01 

Mich.  Cent. 

Susp.  Bridge 

Windsor 

229 

3:40:00 

62.45 

2-  9-'02 

N.Y.,  N.  H.  &H. 

Harlem  R. 

Boston 

228 

4:12:00 

54.30 

3-24-'02 

Penn. 

Philadelphia 

Jersey  City 

89.8 

1:19:00 

68.17 

3-24-'02 

Burlington 

Eckley 

Wray 

14.8 

0:09:00 

98.66 

6-21  -'02 

Penn. 

Harrisburg 

Altoona 

131.4 

2:10:00 

60.70 

5-25-'03 

L.  S.  &  M.  S. 

Toledo 

Elkhart 

133.4 

1:54:00 

70.20 

6-19-'03 
8-  8-'03 

L.  &  N.  W. 
A.  T.  &  S.  F. 

London 
Chicago 

Carlisle 
Los  Angeles 

299.2 
2.267 

5:58:00 
52:49:00 

50.14 
42.80 

4-27-'  04 

Mich.  Cent. 

Niagara  Falls     Windsor 

225.7 

3:18:00 

68.38 

6-  9-'  04 

Gt.  Western 

Plymouth          I  London 

246.8 

3:46:48 

65.30 

7-20-'04 

Atlantic  City 

Camden             Atlantic  City 

55.5 

0:43:00 

77.40 

5-14-'05 
6-  8-'05 

Atlantic  City 
Penn. 

A  tlan  tic  Ci  ty     Camden 
E.  Tolleston       Donaldson 

55.5 
50 

0:42:33 
0:38:00 

78.26 
79.00 

6-  13-'  05 

L.  S.  &M.  S. 

Chicago 

Buffalo 

525 

7:33:00 

69.53 

0-  0-'05 

j  N.  Y.  C.                   1 
1  L.  S.  &  M.  S. 

New  York 

Chicago 

964 

18:00:00 

53.55 

7-  9-'05 

A.  T.  &S.  F. 

Los  Angeles 

Chicago 

2,246 

44:54:00 

50.00 

f  Southern  Pac.        1 

I  Union  Pac. 

10-23-'05 

-{  Chic.  &  No.  West.  \ 

Oakland 

Jersey  City 

3,239 

73:12:00 

44.30 

i  L.  S.  &M.  S. 

1  Erie                         J 

10-23-'05 

Penn. 

Crestline 

Ft.  Wayne 

131.4 

1:41:20 

77.81 

10-24-'05 

Penn. 

Crestline 

Clarke  J. 

257.4 

3:27:20 

74.55 

11-  3-'05 

Penn. 

Harrisburg 

Chicago 

717 

12:49:00 

56.00 

f  Southern  Pac.       1 

1  Union  Pac. 

5-  5-'06 

•1  Chic  &  N  W. 

Oakland 

New  York 

3,255 

71:27:00 

45.60 

;  L.  S.  &  Mich.So. 

m 

•  N.  Y.  Cent.           J 

6-19-'06 

Atlantic  City 

Camden 

Atlantic  City 

55.5 

0:43:30 

76.70 

*From  Locomotive  Dictionary. — Courtesy  Railroad-Age-Gazette. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


253 


LATEST  RAILROAD  SPEEDS. 


Month, 
day,  year. 

Railroad. 

From. 

To. 

Dist. 
Miles. 

Time, 
h.    m.    s. 

Speed 
miles 
per  H. 

3-28-'09 

/  N.  Y.  C. 
\  L.  S. 

Mott  Haven 

Chicago 

959 

16:30:00 

58.12 

7-29-'09 

/  L.  S. 
)  M.  C. 

Toledo 

Elkhart 

134 

1:50:00 

73.08 

8-16-'09 

C.  &  N.  W. 

Chicago 

St.  Paul 

409 

7:24:00 

54.05 

8-17-'09 

C.  &  N.  W. 

St.  Paul 

Chicago 

409 

7:24:00 

54.05 

10-  2-'09 

U.  P. 

Omaha 

Denver 

575 

12:30:00 

46.0 

1-17-'10 

/  N.  Y.  C.    1 

1  L.  S.          / 

New  York 

Chicago 

964 

18:30:00 

52.1 

5-21-'10 

Mich.  C. 

Windsor 

Falls  View 

224 

3:44:00 

60.0 

12-  O-'IO 

C.  of  N.  J. 

Jersey  City 

Washington 

227 

4:04:00 

55.8 

2-16-'ll 

r  s.  P.      i 

R.  Is. 

Yum  a 

New  York 

2,787 

74:19:00 

40.41 

1  N.  Y.  C.    J 

2-28-'  11 

P.  R. 

Altoona 

Philadelphia 

235.1 

3:29:00 

67.5 

2-  O-'ll 
12-22-'  11 

P.  R. 

C.  &  N.  W. 

Washington 
Chicago 

New  York 
Clinton 

226.8 
138 

3:55:30 
2:16:00 

57.8 
59.1 

4-00-'  11 

N.  Y.  C. 

Syracuse 

Buffalo 

149 

2:20:00 

63.84 

4-00-'  11 

C.  of  N.  J. 

Philadelphia 

Jersey  City 

90 

1:42:00 

52.9 

Courtesy  Railroad-Age-Gazette. 


RAILWAY  MAIL  REVENUES. 


Year 

Railway 
Mail 
Revenues 

Number  of 
Railway 
Mail 
Clerks 

Postal 
Revenues 

1901 

38,453,602 

9,105 

111,631,193 

1902  

39,963,248 

9,627 

121,848,047 

1903  

41,709,396 

10,418 

134,224,443 

1904 

44  499  732 

11,621 

143,482,624 

1905 

45,426,125 

12,474 

152,826,585 

1906  .... 

47,371,453 

13,598 

167,932,783 

1907  -.  

50,378,964 

14,357 

183,585,006 

1908  

48,517.563 

15,295 

191,478,663 

1909 

49  380,783 

15,866 

203,562,383 

1910 

48,913,888 

16,578 

224,128,657 

1911  

50,092,252 

16,792 

237,879,823 

Increase  per  cent  

30.3 

84.4 

1122 

Risk  of  Employees  and  Passengers  on 
American  Railways. 


Safety  Appliances  on 
American  Railways. 


254 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


RAILWAY  SPEED  IN  ENGLAND. 

The  Fastest  Running,  without  stoppage,  is  made  by  the  Companies  as  under: — 


Company. 

Train. 

From 

To 

Time. 

Dis- 
tance. 

Aver- 
age 
Speed. 

North  Eastern 

1.  8 
10.  5 
10.15 

4.26 
6.20 
3.25 
8.52 
6.  3 
11.40 
4.53 
5.26 
2.  6 
5.  0 
9.50 
2.  0 
11.  5 

Darlington.  .  .  . 
Forfar  
Paddington  .  . 

Grantham  
Marylebone.  .  . 
Andover  

York  
Perth  
Bristol,  via 
Bath  
Doncaster  
Leicester  
Vauxhall  
Birmingham..  . 
Nottingham.  .  . 
Manchester..  .  . 
Ashford  
Mallow  
Carlisle 

H.  M. 
0  43 
0  32 

2     0 
0  52 
1  52 
1     8 
1  53 
2  12 
0  40 
0  30 
1  28 
1  46 
1     0 
2  17 
1   10 
0  51 

Mile 
44 
32 

118^ 
50J 

107; 

65 
107 
123 
36 
26 
77 
91 
51 
114 
57 
35^ 

}. 

1 

61.7 
60.9 

59.1 

•58.2 
57.6 
57.4 
57.0 
56.1 
54.8 
53.0 
53.0 
51.8 
52.0 
49.9 
49.2 
41.4 

Caledonian                  

Great  Western             

Great  Northern                  

Great  Central 

London  and  South  Western  

Willesden.  .  . 

Midland                               

St.  Pancras.  .  . 
Liverpool  
Tonb  ridge  
Ballybrophy..  . 
Kilmarnock.  .  . 
Victoria  .... 

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  • 
South  Eastern  and  Chatham  

Glasgow  and  South  Western  
London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast. 
Great  Eastern      

Brighton  
Trowse 

Liverpool  St..  . 
Edinburgh.  .  .  . 
Blair-  Atholl.... 

North  British 

Berwick 

Highland  

Perth  

The  Longest  Runs  without  Stoppage  are  made  by  the  Companies  as  under: — 


Company 

Train. 

From 

To 

Time. 

Dis- 
tance 

Aver- 

oagej 

Speed. 

Great  Western         

10.30 

11.15 
11.50 
2.21 
3.15 

2.17 
1.30 
11.17 
4.10 
9.30 
2.  4 
11.35 
9.  5 
10.52 

Paddington  .  .  . 

Huston  
St.  Pancras.  .  . 
Wakefield 

Plymouth, 
via  Westbury 
Rhyl  
Shipley 

H.  M. 

4     7 
3  57 
4     5 
3     9 

2  57 
3     0 
2  38 
2  18 
2     6 
2  11 
1  46 
1  52 
1  38 
1  42 

Miles. 

225f 
209  1 
206 
175| 

165 
1501 
131 
124J 
108 
98£ 
9H 
81J 
76i 
66 

54.8 
53.0 
50.4 
55.8 

55.9 
50.2 
49.7 
54.1 
51.4 
45.1 
51.5 
45.0 
46.2 
38.8 

London  and  North  Western. 

Midland 

King's  Cross..  . 
Sheffield,  via 
Aylesbury...  . 
Perth 

Great  Central 

Marylebone  .  .  . 
Carlisle  

Great  Eastern            

Liverpool  St..  . 
Newcastle  
Waterloo  
Edinburgh  .  .  . 
Kilmarnock  .  .  . 
Clapham  J'ct... 
Cannon  Street. 
Huddersfield.. 

N.  Walsham.. 
Edinburgh... 
Bourn'mo'thC 
Carlisle  
Carlisle  
Fratton  
Dover  Pier...  . 
Poulton  

London  and  South  Western  
North  British 

Glasgow  and  South  Western  
London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast. 
South  Eastern  &  Chatham  

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  

Railway. 


FASTEST  LONG-DISTANCE  TRAINS. 

From.  To. 


Northern  (France) Paris  Calais 

Prussian Berlin  Hamburg 

London  &  North  West London  Edinburgh 

N.  Y.  C.  &  L.  S.  &  M.  S New  York  Chicago 

Caledonian London  Edinburgh 

P.  L.  &  M.  (France) Paris  Mentone 

Pennsylvania New  York  Chicago 

Orleans  (France) Paris  Bayonne 

N.  Y.  C.  &H.  R New  York  Buffalo 

O.  &  S.  (France) Paris  Madrid 

Various Ostend  Vienna 

From  the  June,  1912,  Railway  and  Locomotive  Engineering. 


Miles. 


185.1 

177.69 

393.5 

962.49 

401.5 

687.5 

897.0 

488.0 

440.0 

903.0 

822.0 


Speed, 

miles 

per  hour. 

59.72 

52.51 

50.77 

50.66 

50.18 

49.10 

47.21 

49.3 

49.3 

38.49 

37.85 


The  Loetschberg  Railway  Tunnel 
through  the  Bernese  Alps  entailed  an 
expenditure  of  $20,000,000.  It.  is  nine 
miles  long,  and  is  therefore  the  third 


largest  in  Europe.  It  gives  a  direct 
connection  with  the  Simplon  Tunnel 
Railway,  and  shortens,  the  route  from 
Milan  to  Calais  by  about  eighty  miles. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


255 


RAILROAD  ACCIDENTS. 


During  the  year  1900  there  were 
2,550  employees  of  the  railroads  killed 
and  39,643  injured,  or  for  every  399 
men  employed  one  was  killed  and  for 
every  26  men  employed  one  was  in- 
jured. In  1909  the  total  number  of 
employees  killed  was  2,610  and  of 
those  injured  75,006,  or  for  each  576 
men  employed  one  man  was  killed  and 
for  each  20  men  employed  one  was 
injured. 

The  total  number  of  passengers 
killed  during  the  year  1900  was  249 
and  of  those  injured  4,128,  or  for 
every  2,316,591  passengers  carried 
one  was  killed  and  for  every  139,736 
carried  one  was  injured.  In  1909 
253  passengers  were  killed  and  10,311 
injured,  or  for  every  3,523,606  car- 
ried one  was  killed  and  for  every 
86,458  carried  one  was  injured. 

The  number  of  other  persons  killed 
for  the  year  1900  was  5,066  and  dur- 
ing 1909,  5,859;  while  those  injured 
in  1900  numbered  6,549  and  in  1909, 
10,309.  The  total  number  of  per- 
sons killed  during  1900  was  7,865 


and  of  those  injured  50,320,  and  in 
1909  total  of  those  killed  was  8,722 
and  of  those  injured  95,626. 

During  the  year  1911  there  were 
110  passengers  killed  in  train  acci- 
dents. The  total  number  of  passen- 
gers carried  one  mile  amounted  to 
32,837,769,000,  and  the  number  of 
passengers  carried  one  mile  to  every 
one  killed  was  349,550,734. 

During  the  year  1911  the  railroads 
paid  to  persons  on  account  of  injuries 
a  total  amount  of  $25,979,747,  or 
0.946  per  cent,  of  their  earnings,  of 
which  amount  $1,941,793  was  paid  as 
a  result  of  the  maintenance  of  ways  ; 
$1,806,571  because  of  maintenance  of 
equipment;  and  $22,231,383  because 
of  transportation. 

Another  loss  of  $33,987,746  in- 
curred by  the  railroads  was  divided 
as  follows:  Loss  and  damage  to 
freight,  $24,455,611 ;  to  baggage  $304,- 
834;  to  property  $5.051,527;  to  live 
stock,  etc.,  $4,166,774.  This  amount 
being  1.24  per  cent,  of  the  total  earn- 
ings of  the  railroads. 


SAFETY  APPLIANCES. 


A  comparative  summary  of  the 
total  equipment  of  the  railroads  and 
of  the  equipment  fitted  with  train 
brakes  and  automatic  couplers  shows 
that,  of  the  total  equipment  of  2,349.- 
278  cars  and  locomotives  2,301,260 


are  fitted  with  train  brakes  and 
2,332,837  are  'fitted  with  automatic 
couplers.  In  other  words,  98  and 
99.7  per  cent,  respectively  are  fitted 
with  safety  appliances. 


BLOCK  SIGNALS. 


At  the  end  of  the  year  1911,  19,995 
miles  of  track  were  equipped  with 
automatic  block  signals  and  53,071 
with  non-automatic  block  signals,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  73,066  miles  (25  miles 
of  which  are  equipped  with  both) 
having  a  block  signal  system  of  some 
sort.  The  total  number  of  miles  hav- 
ing a  block  signal  system  in  1910 
was  71,269,  thus  making  an  increase 

TRAIN 

During  the  year  ending  March  31, 
1909,  the  steam  railroads  of  the  State 
of  New  York  ran  650,592  trains  or 
an  average  of  54,216  each  month. 
During  1910  they  report  703,816 
trains,  or  58,651  a  month;  and  dur- 
ing 1911,  758,833,  or  63,236  a  month. 
For  this  period  of  three  years  an 
average  of  83.4  per  cent,  of  the  trains 
were  on  time.  For  each  train  the 
average  delay  was  25.96  minutes.  The 
principal  causes  of  delay  were:  wait- 


in  1911  of  1,772  milee.  Up  to  the 
present  time  1,081  devices  have  been 
submitted  to  the  Block  Signal  and 
Train  Control  Board  for  examination. 
Of  these,  apparently  only  one  has 
reached  a  stage  of  practical  develop- 
ment where  with  certain  modifications 
it  might  "tend  to  promote  safety  upon 
the  railroad  using  it." 


SERVICE. 

ing  for  trains  on  other  divisions,  32.6 
per  cent. ;  train  work  at  stations, 
14.3  per  cent. ;  waiting  for  train  con- 
nections with  other  railroads,  13  per 
cent ;  trains  ahead,  7.5  per  cent. ; 
engine  failures,  7.1  per  cent. ;  meet- 
ing and  passing  trains,  6.3  per  cent. ; 
and  wrecks,  5.7  per  cent. 


There  are  47  steamships  engaged  in  cable- 
laying  and  repairing. 


256 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUMMARY  OF  CASUALTIES  TO  PERSONS  IN  RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS 
FOR  THE  YEARS  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1911,  AND  1910. 


Class  of  Accident 

1911 

1910 

Passengers 

Employes 

Passengers 

Employes 

Killed 

Injured 

Killed 

Injured 

Killed 

Injured 

Killed 

Injured 

Collisions  

69 
41 

3,299 
2,524 

105 

321 

256 

75 

3,446 
2,108 

1,843 

78 
89 

52 

4,423 
2,946 

142 

355 
253 

107 

3,333 

1,868 

1,590 

Miscellaneous  Train  Accidents, 
including    Locomotive   Boiler 
Explosions  

Total  Train  Accidents  
Coupling  or  Uncoupling  Cars.  .  .  . 

110 

5,926 

652 
209 

131 

77 

542 
1,317 

7,397 
2,966 

18,185 

1,517 

13,097 
4,077 

217 

7,516 

715 
206 

157 

96 

586 
1,623 

6,791 
2,985 

18,240 

1,377 

13,196 
26,029 

While  doing  Other  Work  about 
Trains    or    while    Attending 
Switches 

3 

137 
64 

33 

2,833 
3,374 

Coming  in  Contact  with  Over- 
head Bridges,  Tunnels  or  any 
Signal  Apparatus  or  any  Fixed 
Structure  above  or  at  the  Side 
of  the  Track  

5 

131 
53 

29 

2,749 
3,338 

Falling  from  Cars  or  Engines  or 
while  getting  on  or  off  same  
Other  Causes  !... 

Total  (ottier  than  train  acci- 
dents)   . 

189 

6,116 

2,276 

39,842 

204 

6,240 

2,668 

61,827 

Total  (all  classes)  

299 

12,042 

2,928 

47,239 

421 

335 

406 
647 
418 
537 
420 
321 
303 

13,756 

12,116 
12,645 
13,597 
11,185 
10,040 
8,077 
6,973 
6.089 

3,383 

2,456 
3,358 
4,353 
3,807 
3,261 
3,367 
3,233 
2.516 

68,618 

51,804 
56,344 
62,689 
55,524 
45,426 
43,266 
39,004 
33.711 

Totals  in  1909  

*       *  1908 

"       "  1907 

?       «  1906. 

8       «  1905  

*       •  1904  

«       "  1903  

*       "  1902  

DENSITY  OF  POPULATION. 

Egypt  proper  is  the  most  densely  populated  country,  having  931  per  square  mile.  Belgium 
comes  next  with  660,  then  Holland.  The  United  Kingdom  has  373,  Japan  336,  after  which 
come  the  other  European  Countries  down  to  Russia  with  63.7  and  Sweden  with  31.8.  The 
United  States  has  only  30.9,  and  the  South  American  Republics  all  less.  Australia  contains  only 
1.38  persons  per  square  mile.  In  England  there  is  an  average  of  just  about  1  person  per  acre. 


Lord  Rayleigh  has  recently  made  some 
interesting  experiments  to  determine  the  colors 
of  the  sea  and  sky.  Other  experimenters, 
such  as  Davy,  Bunsen,  and  Spring,  were  all 
satisfied  that  the  color  of  water  was  blue,  but 
Lord  Rayleigh's  experiments  have  supplied 
only  limited  confirmation  of  that  view. 


What  appears  to  be  the  intrinsic  color  of  the 
sea  he  finds  is  often  due  to  the  color  of  the 
sky  or  is  affected  by  the  color  of  the  bottom. 
With  carefully  distilled  water  he. got  the  same 
blue  color  of  water  as  the  water  from  Capri 
and  Suez,  while  that  from  Seven  Stones  Light- 
ship, off  the  Cornish  coast,  gave  a  full  green. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


257 


CAUSE  OF  ACCIDENTS. 


Cause  of  accident. 

No. 

Killed. 

Injured. 

Damage. 

249 

12 

463 

$292,749 

153 

4 

192 

102,433 

Soft  track                                          

108 

1 

128 

66,192 

Bad  ties                                                                          

41 

17 

18,972 

Sun  kink                

30 
179 

3 
5 

62 
130 

51,207 
122,526 

465 

32 

568 

353,381 

Grand  total     

1,225 

57 

1,560 

$1,007,460 

KILLED  IN  EUROPEAN  RAILWAY  ACCIDENTS. 


Country 

Year 

Passengers 

Employes 

Other 
Persons 

Total 

Preceding 

Year 

United  Kingdom  
Germany 

1910 
1909 

121 
121 

420 
533 

580 
726 

1,121 
1  380 

1,033 
1  353 

Russia  

1908 

237 

744 

1  969 

2  950 

2  859 

France  

1908 

#27 

300 

|298 

6'75 

659 

Austria  

1909 

34 

154 

125 

313 

279 

Hungary 

1909 

28 

136 

192 

356 

331 

Italy 

1909-10 

52 

166 

113 

331 

293 

Spain  

1907 

25 

64 

213 

302 

219 

Portugal  

1904 

55 

37 

Sweden  

1908 

10 

31 

50 

91 

102 

Norway 

1909-10 

1 

5 

7 

13 

12 

Belgium 

1909 

g 

46 

33 

85 

m 

Denmark}. 

1909-10 

2 

9 

19 

30 

26 

Holland  
Switzerland    • 

1909 
1909 

3 

12 

20 
39 

16 
25 

39 
76 

45 
90 

Roumania 

1908-09 

13 

22 

53 

88 

100 

Total...  

692 

2,689 

4,419 

7,855 

7,567 

jf'ln  train  accidents  only;  other  accidents  to  passengers  included  under  "Other  Persona.' 

tExcluding  suicides. 

{Statistics  cover  State  railways  only. 


It  will  be  observed  that  nearly  three-fifths  of  the  fatalities  on  European 
railways  are  to  "other  persons."  As  noted,  passengers  not  killed  in  train  accidents 
in  France  are  included  under  the  head  of  "other  persons." 

Throughout  Europe  it  is  the  practice  in  official  railway  statistics  to  draw  a 
sharp  and  clear  line  between  those  who  are  killed  through  some  fault  or  mis- 
chance of  the  railway  and  those  accidents  which  are  the  result  of  the  person's 
own  dereliction  or  carelessness — unrorsicJilige,  as  the  German  statistics  have  it. 
Any  such  just  distinction  would  relieve  American  railways  of  seven-eighths  of  the 
odium  attaching  to  them  through  the  publication  of  the  quarterly  Accident 
Bulletins. 


258 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATISTICS   OF   THE   PULLMAN  COMPANY. 

The  report  rendered  by  the  Pullman  Company  for  the  year  ended  June 
30,  1911,  places  the  average  mileage  (single  track)  over  which  operations 
were  conducted  at  120,871  miles.  The  cost  of  the  property  and  equipment 
required  for  the  service  amounted  to  $116,026,015.  The  operating  revenues 
are  divided  into  berth  revenue,  $31,415,913;  seat  revenue,  $5,585,556;  charter 
of  cars,  $601,498 ;  and  other  miscellaneous  revenues  to  make  the  total  operat- 
ing revenues  $35,697,582.  The  conductors  employed  on  the  Pullman  cars,  2,274 
in  number,  receive  an  average  daily  compensation  of  $2.82 ;  the  6,317  porters 
employed  receive  an  average  daily  compensation  of  $1.04;  and  the  8  stenog- 
raphers employed  by  the  service  receive  an  average  daily  compensation  of  $2.31. 

OPERATING  STATISTICS. 

Total  number  of  revenue  passengers— berth 12 , 435, 404 

Total  number  of  revenue  passengers— seat 9, 219, 648 

Average  revenue  per  passenger— berth $2. 53 

Average  revenue  per  passenger — seat $0. 61 

Total  number  of  car-miles 625, 589  998 

Total  number  of  car-days 1,567,916 

Average  number  of  revenue  passengers  per  car  per  day 14 

Operating  revenues  per  car-mile  (cents) 5. 706 

Operating  revenues  per  car-day $22. 76753 

Operating  expenses  per  car-mile  (cents) 4. 143 

Operating  expenses  per  car-day $16. 52929 

Net  operating  revenue  per  car-mile  (cents) 1  563 

Net  operating  revenue  per  car-day $6. 23823 

Average  number  of  car-miles  per  car-day 399 

EQUIPMENT  (OWNED  OR  LEASED)  IN  SERVICE  ON  JUNE  30, 1911. 

Standard  sleeping  cars 4, 155 

Tourist  sleeping  cars 744 

Parlor  cars 80? 

Dining  cars 24 

Composite  cars 142 

Private  cars 36 

Miscellaneous  cars 4 

Total 5,912 

LONG  RAILWAY  TUNNELS.  Mls       Ydg 

Simplon,  Switzerland-Italy 12  458 

St.  Gothard,  Switzerland 9  564 

Mont  Cenis,  Italy-France 7  1730 

Arlberg,  Austria 6  404 

Hoosac,  U.  S.  A 4  1320 

Severn,  Great  Western 4  624 

Totley,  Midland 3  950 

Standedge,  North  Western 3  62 

Woodhead,  Great  Central 3  17 

Box,  near  Bath,  Great  Western  (old) 1  1320 


GROWTH  OF  RAILWAYS  IN 
UNITED  STATES  1890-1910 


The  Office  of  Public  Roads  estimates 
the  total  mileage  of  all  public  roads  in 
the  United  States  in  1909  at  2,199,388 
and  the  miles  of  road  per  square  mile 
of  area  at  0.74  miles.  The  population 
per  mile  of  road,  basing  the  road  mile- 
age of  1909  on  the  population  of  1910, 
was  41.  Of  all  the  roads  in  the  United 
States  only  8.66  per  cent,  were  im- 
proved in  1909. 

The  total  estimated  expenditures  for 
public  roads  for  the  year  1911  is  $142,- 
144,191,  making  a  total  of  $64.63  per 
mile  of  public  road  and  of  $1.55  per  in- 
habitant. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


259 


EXPRESS  COMPANIES. 

In  its  Twenty -fifth  Annual  Report  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
publishes  a  statement  of  the  income  account  of  express  companies  as  reported 
to  it  for  the  years  ending  June  30,  1910,  and  1911,  the  salient  features  of  which 
are  as  follows : 


Item 

1911 

1910 

Number  of  Companies  
Railway  Mileage  Operated 

13 
243  T>\ 

13 
237  868 

Express  Operations: 
Gross  Receipts  from  Operation.  .            

$152,555,521 

$146  116  315 

Less  Express  Privileges 

73  956  450 

69  917  562 

Operating  Revenues. 

$78  599  071 

$76  198  753 

Operating  Expenses  

67,070  637 

61  690  473 

Net  Operating  Revenue  

Slr.528,434 

$14  508  280 

Net  Revenue  from  Outside  Operations 

13  118 

10  527 

Total  Net  Revenue  

$11  541  552 

$14  518  807 

Taxes  Accrued 

1  315  201 

1  126  726 

Operating  Income.. 

10  226  351 

13  399  081 

Other  Income  from  Investments,  etc. 

6  309  354 

5  633  792 

Gross  Income 

16  535  706 

19  025  873 

Total  Deductions,  Interest,  etc  

1,168,134 

1  037  316 

Net  corporate  Income  

$15  367  572 

$17  988  557 

Dividends  Declared  

5,848,082 

$5,928,103 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    MILEAGE    COVERED     BY    OPERATIONS    OF 
EXPRESS  COMPANIES  ON  JUNE  30,  1911. 


Name  of  carrier. 

Total 
mileage. 

Steam-road 
mileage. 

Electric-line 
mileage. 

Steamboat- 
line 
mileage. 

1911 

1911 

1911 

1911 

Total             

270,666.37 

243,721.41 

7,291.94 

18,939.65 

Adams  Express  Co  

36  560  52 

32  784  94 

314  58 

3  438  00 

American  Express  Co              
Canadian  Express  Co           
Canadian  Northern  Express  Co     . 
Globe  Express  Co         
Great  Northern  Express  Co  
National  Express  Co 

56,877.95 
7,230.31 
3,391.80 
2,903.63 
8,803.54 
1  640  25 

54,344.00 
6,400.31 
3,369.80 
2,903.63 
8,466.15 
1  422  25 

590.70 
66.00 
22.00 

197.39' 
70  00 

1,919.75 
737.00 

140.66' 
148  00 

Northern  Express  Co         
Pacific  Express  Co     ,.  
Southern  Express  Co       
United  States  Express  Co         
Wells  Fargo  &  Co           
Western  Express  Co             

7,625.'88 
16,980.65 
32,580.60 
32,748.28 
58,471.56 
4,851.40 

7,310.48 
15,938.11 
31,654.60 
28,836.99 
45,446.75 
4,843.40 

54.00 
539.20 
80.00 
3,444.59 
1,909.08 
4.00 

261.00 
503.34 
846.00 
466.70 
10,475.86 
4.00 

260 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STREET     AND     ELEVATED     RAILWAYS:     MILEAGE,     NUMBER    OF 
CARS,  AND  CAPITALIZATION  BY   STATES. 


[Source:  The  Electric  Railway  Journal.] 


State. 


Number 
of  com- 
panies. 


Electric 
railways, 

track 
mileage. 


Number 
of  cars. 


Capital  stock.   Funded  debt. 


Alabama 13  307.5 

Arizona 5  57.5 

Arkansas 10  103.8 

California 55  2,244.5 

Colorado ' 16  518.8 

Connecticut 14  1,013.8 

Delaware 5  48.0 

District  of  Columbia 7  305.7 

Florida 10  128.5 

Georgia 14  409.0 

Idaho 6  131.0 

Illinois 85  3,147.9 

Indiana 47  2,244.8 

Iowa 30  753.8 

Kansas ...  15  256. 8 

Kentucky 11  517.1 

Louisiana 8  257.2 

Maine 18  527.0 

Maryland 13  6,304.0 

Massachusetts 61  3,068.5 

Michigan 22  1,454,9 

Minnesota 9  497.0 

Mississippi 10  106.4 

Missouri 23  1.069.2 

Montana 7  130.0 

Nebraska 6  237.5 

Nevada 2  10.3 

New  Hampshire 20  282.0 

New-Jersey 49  1,311.0 

NewMexico 2  10.5 

NewYork 146  4,689.0 

North  Carolina 12  135.2 

NorthDakota 3  22.5 

Ohio 91  4,127.0 

Oklahoma 17  197.0 

Oregon 9  420.6 

Pennsylvania 242  4,343.3 

Rhodelsland 9  442.2 

South  Carolina 6  118. 5 

SouthDakota 3  19.5 

Tennessee 11  349.4 

Texas 36  624.2 

Utah 6  237.8 

Vermont....  10  97.0 

Virginia 21  451.3 

Washington 19  936.2 

WestVirginia 19  356.2 

Wisconsin 26  735.7 

Wyoming 1  5.0 


Total,  1910 . 


670 

41 

237 

4,068 

791 

•2,651 

81 

1;  516 
242 
685 
54 

7,810 

2,281 

1,177 

366 

1,088 

7'26 

795 

1,961 

10, 173 

2,636 

954 

163 

2,620 

150 

550 

12 

384 

2,689 

11 

17,608 

247 

59 

5,767 

256 

1,195 

8, 915 

1,173 

1,76 

23 

820 

1,044 

297 

151 

885 

1,960 

518 

1,011 

14 


Dollar*. 

17,507,000 

650,000 

5,386,800 

192,559,350 

21,111,700 

60,237,300 

8,350,000 

31,372,550 

5, 372, 000 

23,471,000 

4,784,000 

152,594,400 

91,750,000 

36,596,155 

3,583,220 

33,633,940 

31,691,300 

9,051,200 

23,161,250 

92, 217, 590 

86, 885, 200 

25, 589, 000 

4, 462, 670 

83,033,980 

3, 179, 615 

12,645,600 

1,042,000 

6,407,200 

84, 589, 490 

400,000 

514, 923, 222 

19, 044, 400 

440, 000 

200,462,940 

7,205,300 

43, 290, 000 

280, 456, 012 

31,585,100 

6, 300,  700 

600. 000 

19, 949, 900 

29, 597, 000 

8, 237,. WO 

4, 380, 800 

23,547,537 

50,878,200 

13, 500, 800 

22, 323, 000 

75,000 


Dollars. 

15,  966, 000 

50,000 

.6,934,000 

141. 172, 000 

29, 430, 000 

36, 938, 700 

4,979.008 

31,331,510 

3, 420, 500 

23,823,500 

1,413,009 

292,416,340 

90, 537,  750 

32,613,000 

5, 593, 000 

19, 890, 800 

33,444,505 

12,195,070 

70, 439, 800 

67,731,700 

57,62-1,000 

23, 138, 000 

5,506,500 

114,899,700 

1,810,000 

10, 888, 000 

135,000 

4,008,005 

89, 404, 380 

225, 000 

482, 896, 2.50 

10, 579,  700 

200,000 

126, 562, 140 

5, 128, 500 

38, 432, 000 

210,210,729 

16, 426, 700 

4,146,000 

200, 000 

25,421,000 

20,930,000 

6, 996, 000 

3,476,000 

34,394,100 

40, 968, 000 

13,077,500 

35,084,900 


1,279 


40,088.0 


89,601 


2,380,011,921 


2, 302, 094, 296 


*The  net  capital  liability  of  the  Canadian  railways,  exclusive  of  Government  owned  roads, 
in  1911  was  $1,398,089,701  or  $55,829  per  mile,  which  is  far  below  their  "capital  cost." 

In  1911  the  railways  of  Canada  paid  $1,792,390.  In  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick 
they  are  exempt  from  taxation. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


261 


RAILWAYS  OF  CANADA, 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  RAILWAYS  OF  THE  DOMINION  FOR  THE  YEABS  ENDING  JUNE 
30,  190S,  1910  AND  1011. 


1908 

1910 

1911 

Miles  of  Line  Operated  
Second  Track  

22,966 
1,211 

24,731 
1,543 

25,400 
1  610 

Yard  Track  and  Sidings 

4546 

5  155 

5  550 

All  Tracks  

28,723 

31,429 

32  560 

Capital  Cost' 
Stock 

$607  4°5  349 

$687  557  387 

$749  207  687 

Funded  Debt 

631  869  664 

722  740  300 

779  481  514 

Government  Railways  

109,423  104 

118  018  751 

119  615  666 

Subsidies  

166,291,482 

190,753  063 

202  179  254 

Total  Capital  Cost 

SI  515  009  599 

$1  719  069  501 

$1  850  484  121 

Per  Mile  of  Line  . 

65  968 

69513 

72854 

Passenger  Traffic 
Passengers  Carried  
Passengers  Carried  1  Mile 

34,044.992 
2  081  960  864 

35,894,575 
2  466  729  664 

37,097,718 
2  605  968  924 

Average  Journey  (miles) 

61 

69 

70 

Average  Passengers  per  Train  
Mileage  of  Passenger  Trains.  
Mileage  of  Mixed  Trains  

54 
31,950,349 
6,210,807 

59 
35,022,541 
6,441,440 

60 
36,985,911 
6,277,468 

Receipts  from  Passengers  

$39,992,503 

$46,018,880 

$50,566,894 

Receipts  per  Passenger  Mile  (cents).  .  . 
Freight  Traffic 
Tons  Carried  
Tons  Carried  1  Mile  
Average  Haul  (miles) 

1.920 

63.019,900 
12,961.512,519 
206 

1.866 

74,482,866 
15,712,127,701 
211 

1.944 

79,884,282 
16,048,478,295 
200 

Freight  Train  Mileage 

40  476  370 

50  184  108 

50  498  866 

Average  Tons  per  Train 

278 

311 

305 

Receipts  from  Freight 

$93,746,655 

$116,229.894 

$124,743,015 

Receipts  per  Ton  Mile  (mills)  
Miscellaneous  Receipts.  

7.23 
$13,179,155 

7.39 
$11,707,443 

7.77 
$13,423,585 

Total  Receipts  
Expenses  of  Operation 
Way  and  Structures  

146,918,313 
$20,778,610 

173,956,217 
$27,035,603 

188,733,493 
$29,245,093 

Maintenance  of  Equipment 

20,273,626 

26  002,301 

26,127,638 

Traffic  Expenses 

4,366,177 

4,831,744 

Conducting  Transportation  
General  Expenses  

62,486,270 
3,765,636 

58,928,171 
4,073,188 

66,343,270 
4,487,039 

Total  Expenses 

$107,304,142 

$120,405,440 

$131,034,784 

Ratio  to  Earnings  
Net  Receipts  
Percentage  to  Capital  Cost  
Gross  Receipts  per  Mile 

73.04% 
$39,614,171 
2.61% 
$6  398 

69.2% 
$53,550,770 
3.12% 
$7,033 

69.44% 
$57,698,709 
3.12% 
$7,430 

Gross  Expense  per  Mile 

4,672 

4,868 

5,158 

Number  of  Employes  

106,404 

123,768 

141,224 

Compensation  

$60,376,607 

$67,167,793 

$74,613,738 

Proportion  of  Gross  Earnings 

41  10% 

38  82% 

39.53% 

Proportion  of  Operating  Expenses  
Average  per  Employe  per  Year  

50.27% 

$569 

55.78% 
$503 

56.94% 
$528 

262  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


•CANADIAN  RAILWAYS. 

ACCIDENTS,  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS.— In  1910  the  killed  numbered  14  pas- 
sengers, 13  employees,  68  others;  total  1)5.  Injured,  1,595  passeneers,  227  em- 
ployees, 710  others  ;  total  2,538. 

ACCIDENTS,  STEAM  RAILWAYS,  1910.— Passengers.  60  killed,  270  injured ; 
employees,  214  and  926 ;  trespassers,  175  and  148 ;  non-trespassers.  74  and  77 ; 
postal  clerks,  1  and  20.  Total  killed,  524  ;  injured,  1,441. 

CAPITAL  INVESTED  IN  CANADIAN  STEAM  RAILWAYS.— In  1910  the  total 
capital  invested  in  Steam  Railways  was :  $1,410,297,687  composed  of  shares, 
$687,557,387,  and  funded  debt,  $722,740.300;  in  Electric  Railways,  .$10i>.044,97'.>  in- 
cluding shares  $58,653,826,  and  funded  debt.  $43.391.153. 

EARNINGS  of  STEAM  RAILWAYS. — Net  earnings  for  all  railways  in  1910. 
$53,550,776;  operating  expenses,  $120,405,440. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  STATISTICS. — In  1910,  paid-up  capital  invested,  $102,- 
044,979;  mileage,  1,047;  gross  earnings,  $17.100,789;  operating  expenses,  $10,121. TM. 
Net  earnings,  $5,383,276.  Passengers  carried,  237,655,074.  Freight  carried,  SfcVJOt 
tons. 

EXPRESS  AND  TELEGRAPH  COMPANIES.— The  Dominion  Express  Co. 
and  the  C.  P.  R.  Telegraph  operate  along  the  lines  of 'the  Canadian  Pacific  Ry. 
The  Canadian  Northern  Express  Co.  and  the  Canadian  Northern  Telegraph  Co. 
along  the  lines  of  the  Canadian  Northern  Ry.,  and  the  Canadian  Express  Co. 
(Pres.,  Chas.  M.  Hays;  Vice-Pres.,  James  Bryce),  with  the  Great  North-Western 
Telegraph  Co.,  operates  along  the  lines  of  the  G.  T.  Ry.  This,  the  first  Express  Co. 
in-  Canada,  wag  founded  as  the  British  N.  America  Co.  in  1854,  and  reorganized  in 
1865. 

GRAND  TRUNK  PACIFIC. — The  main  line,  Moncton,  N.  B.,  to  Prince  Rupert, 
B.  C.,  with  3,560  miles,  will  be  entirely  on  Canadian  soil,  forming  a  link  on  the 
proposed  All-Red  Route.  The  line  between  Winnipeg  and  Edson,  923  miles,  also 
also  between  Westfort  and  Lake  Superior  Junction,  189  miles,  is  completed.  The 
section  between  Winnipeg  and  Lake  Superior  Junction  is  also  nearing 
completion.  This  will  give  a  continuous  track  from  Port  Arthur  and  Ft.  William 
to  Edson,  1,370  miles.  Construction  easterly  from  Prince  Rupert  was  begun  early 
in  1908,  and  steel  has  been  laid  on  100  miles  of  completed  grade,  and  will  be 
laid  a  distance  of  140  miles  more  before  the  close  of  1911.  Commercial  telegraph 
service  of  G.  T.  P.  Tel.  Co.  now  in  operation  between  Winnipeg  and  Edmonton, 
Alta.,  792  miles.  Branch  lines  contemplated  aggregate  5,000  miles.  The  G.  T.  P. 
will  operate  Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Lake  fleets  of  steamers.  A  new  daily  passenger 
service  was  inaugurated  between  Winnipeg  and  Edmonton,  in  July.  1910.  with 
standard  sleeping  cars,  parlor-library,  cafe"  car,  and  modern  day  coaches. 

HUDSON  BAY  ROUTE. — From  varied  expert  opinions,  optimistic  and  the  reverse. 
it  may  be  fairly  concluded  that  the  route  is  open  for  navigation  from  about  15th 
July  to  about  15th  October.  The  Canadian  Northern  Railway  have  built  a  line 
from  Winnipeg  to  the  Pas  on  the  Saskatchewan  River  From  there  to  Fort 
Churchill  the  distance  is  465  miles;  to  Port  Nelson,  397  miles.  This  route  will 
effect  an  average  shortening  of  the  distance  from  the  Western  wheat  fields  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  of  970  miles.  The  distance  to  Liverpool  from  Churchill  is 
2,946  miles,  from  Montreal  via  Belle  Isle  2.761,  and  via  Cape  Race.  2.927  miles, 
from  New  York  3,079  miles.  The  freight  upon  grain  from  the  wheat  belt  to 
Hudson  Bay  would  approximate  10  cents  a  bushel,  a  saving  of  15  cents  on  carriage 
to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  $3.000.000  annually  on  an  export  trade  of  20  million 
bushels  via  this  route.  On  cattle  shipments  from  Calgary  there  would  be  effected 
a  saving  in  freight  of  60  cents  per  100  Ibs..  as  well  as  a  savinar  in  /i^erioration. 
The  entrance  to  the  harbor  at  Fort  Churchill  is  about  2,000  ft.  wide,  with  a 
minimum  depth  of  10  fathoms.  More  dredging  would  have  to  be  done  at  Port 
Nelson  than  Ft.  Churchill,  but  reports  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  1824  to  1894. 
show  that  on  an  average  Ft.  Churchill  harbor  is  open  5  months,  and  Port  Nelson 
7  months  in  the  year.  Write  for  pamphlet.  "The  Hudson  Bay  Route."  to  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  Ottawa.  See  Report  Department  of  Railways  and 
Canals.  1909.  For  resources  of  Hudson  Bay  District,  see  under  Agriculture. 
Agricultural  Lands,  Mining  and  Forests. 

MILEAGE  STEAM  RAILWAYS  IN  OPERATION.— 16  miles  in  1836.  date  of 
first  railway;  16  in  1846;  1,414  in  1856;  2.278  in  1866;  5.218  in  1876;  11.793  in 
1886 ;  16.270  in  1896 ;  21.353  in  1906 ;  22,452  in  1907  ;  22,966  in  1908  •  24.104  in  190S> : 
24,731  in  1910. 

TRAFFIC  STEAM  RAILWAYS.— In  1875  there  were  carried  5.190.416  passengers 
and  5.670.837  tons  of  freight  (2,000  Ibs.).  In  1885.  9.672.599  and  14.659.271;  in 
1895.  13.987.580  and  21,524.421;  in  1906.  27.989.782  and  57,966.713:  in  1907. 
32,137,  319  and  63.866,135;  in  1908.  34,044.992  and  63.071.167;  in  1909.  32.688.309 
and  66,842,258  ;  and  in  1910,  35,895,575  passengers  and  74,482,866  tons  of  freight. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


263 


NATIONAL  TRANSCONTINENTAL  RAILWAY.— Under  agreements  dated  29th 
July  1903,  and  18th  February,  1904,  ratified  by  Parliament  the  Grand  Trunk 
Pacific  Co.  agreed  in  respect  of  the  construction  of  a  railway  between  Moncton, 
N.  B.,  and  Port  Simpson,  or  some  other  port  in  B.  C. — the  eastern  division,  from 
Winnipeg  to  Moncton,  to  be  constructed  by  the  Dominion  Government  under  four 
Commissioners,  and  leased  for  50  years  at  a  rental  of  3  per  cent,  on  cost  of  con- 
struction, the  first  7  years  to  be  free ;  the  western  division,  from  Winnipeg  to 
Prince  Rupert,  B.  C.,  to  be  constructed  by  tb.e  company.  The  Government  to 
guarantee  the  company's  bonds  sufficient  to  meet  cost  of  construction,  such  not 
to  exceed  $13.000  per  mile  on  the  prairie  section.  The  entire  line  between  Win- 
nipeg and  Moncton,  1.804.84  miles,  is  under  contract.  The  work  between  Win- 
nipeg and  Moncton,  N.  B.,  is  well  under  way,  and  the  section  between  Winni- 
peg and  Lake  Superior  Junction  is  open  for  operation.  The  total  expenditure 
by  the  Commission  up  to  31st  March,  1911,  amounted  to  $95.406,697.61.  See  also 
under  Grand  Trunk  Pacific.  For  Commissioner  and  Chief  Officers  see  Heaton's 
Annual  under  Official  Directory. 

QUEBEC  BRIDGE. — It  is  expected  that  the  new  bridge  on  the  I.  C.  R.  across 
the  St.  Lawrence  River  near  Quebec  will  be  ready  for  traffic  in  1915.  The  contract 
has  been  let  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Bridge  Co.,  a  Canadian:  concern.  Total  estimated 
cost,  $12000.000.  The  length  of  the  central  span  is  to  be  1,800  ft.,  90  ft.  longer 
than  the  span  of  the  Forth  bridge,  total  length  3,228  ft.,  width  88  ft.  The  bridge 
will  accommodate  a  double-track  railway,  and  has  a  4  ft.  footpath  on  each  side. 
This  is  the  largest  cantilever  bridge  in  the  world.  Write.  Sec.  Rys.  and  Canals, 
Ottawa. 


PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD'S  NEW  TERMINAL. 


During  the  first  year,  ending  Novem- 
ber 27,  1911,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad's 
New  Terminal  in  New  York  City  sold 
1,929.320  tickets.  Trains  to  the  number 
of  111,942  passed  in  and  out  of  the  sta- 
tion and  of  this  number  99  per  cent, 
were  on  time.  There  were  1,500,000 


pieces  of  baggage  handled.  The  number 
of  telephone  calls  was  377,714  and  the 
taxicabs  called  numbered  230.197. 

The  Pennsylvania-Hudson-Manhattan 
rapid  transit  service  between  New  York 
City  and  Newark  commenced  operation 
November  26,  1911. 


Copyright  1911,    Munn   &   Co.,    Inc. 

V  NEW  GRAND  CENTRAL  TERMINAL,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


264 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright  1912,   Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

COMPARISON  SHOWING  THE    HUGE  AMOUNT  OF  EXCAVATION 
FOR  COMPLETED  PANAMA  CANAL. 

The  total  of  195,000,000  cubic  yards  would  build  about  8  miles  of  Pyramids  each  of  the 
size  of  Great  Pyramid  of  Cheops.  Loaded  on  flat  cars  it  would  represent  a  train  96,000  miles 
in  length. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE   PANAMA   CANAL. 

Compiled  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commisaion. 


The  entire  length  of  the  Panama  Canal 
from  deep  water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep  water 
in  the  Pacific  is  about  50  miles.  Its  length 
from  shore-line  to  shore-line  is  about  40  miles. 
In  passing  through  it  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  a  vessel  will  enter  the  approach 
channel  in  Limon  Bay,  which  will  have  a 
bottom  width  of  500  feet  and  extend  to  Gatun, 
a  distance  of  about  seven  miles.  At  Gatun, 
it  will  enter  a  series  of  three  locks  in  flight  and 
be  lifted  85  feet  to  the  level  of  Gatun  Lake. 
It  may  steam  at  full  speed  through  this  lake, 
in  a  channel  varying  from  1,000  to  500  feetv 
in  width,  for  a  distance  of  about  24  miles,  to 
Bas  Obispo,  where  it  will  enter  the  Culebra 
Cut.  It  will  pass  through  the  Cut,  a  distance 
of  about  nine  miles,  in  a  channel  with  a  bottom 
width  of  300  feet,  to  Pedro  Miguel.  There  it 
will  enter  a  lock  and  be  lowered  30  M  feet  to  a 
small  lake,  at  an  elevation  of  54  %  feet  above 
sea  level,  and  will  pass  through  this  for  about 
\}/v  miles  to  Miraflores.  There  it  will  enter 
two  locks  in  series  and  be  lowered  to  sea 
level,  passing  out  into  the  Pacific  through  a 
channel  about  8},^  miles  in  length,  with  a 
bottom  width  of  500  feet.  The  depth  of  the 
approach  channel  on  the  Atlantic  side,  where 
the  maximum  tidal  oscillation  is  2^  feet, 
will  be  41  feet  at  mean  tide,  and  on  the 
Pacific  side,  where  the  maximum  oscillation 
is  21  feet,  the  depth  will  be  45  feet  at  mean 
tide. 

Throughout  the  first  16  miles  from  Gatun, 
the  width  of  the  Lake  channel  will  be  1,000  feet ; 
then  for  4  miles  it  will  be  800  feet,  and  for  4 
miles  more  to  the  northern  entrance  of 
Culbra  Cut  at  Bas  Obispo,  it  will  be  500  feet. 
The  depth  will  vary  from  85  to  45  feet.  The 
water  level  in  the  Cut  will  be  that  of  the  Lake, 
the  depth  45  feet,  and  the  bottom  width  of  the 
channel  300  feet. 

Three  hundred  feet  is  the  minimum  bottom 
width  of  the  Canal.  This  width  begins  about 
half  a  mile  above  Pedro  Miguel  locks  and  ex- 
tends about  8  miles  through  Culebra  Cut,  with 
the  exception  that  at  all  angles  the  channel 
is  widened  sufficiently  to  allow  a  thousand- 
foot  vessel  to  make  the  turn.  The  Cut  has 
eight  angles,  or  about  one  to  every  mile. 
The  300-foot  widths  are  only  on  tangents 
between  the  turning  basins  at  the  angles. 
The  smallest  of  these  angles  is  7°  36'  and  the 
largest  30°. 

In  the  whole  Canal  there  are  22  angles,  the 
total  curvature  being  600°  51'.  Of  this 
curvature,  281°  10'  are  measured  to  the  right, 
going  south,  and  319°  41'  to  the  left.  The 
sharpest  curve  occurs  at  Tahernilla,  and  is 
67°  10'. 


GATUN  DAM. 

The  Gatun  Dam,  which  will  form  Gatun 
Lake  by  impounding  the  waters  of  the  Chagres 
and  its  tributaries,  will  be  nearly  1^  miles 
long,  measured  on  its  crest,  nearly  %  mile 
wide  at  its  base,  about  400  feet  wide  at  the 
water  surface,  about  100  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
and  its  crest  as  planned,  will  be  at  an  elevation 
of  115  feet  above  mean  sea  level,  or  30  feet 
above  the  normal  level  of  the  Lake.  Of  the 
total  length  of  the  Dam  only  500  feet,  or  ^5, 
will  be  exposed  to  the  maximum  water  head 
of  85  feet.  The  interior  of  the  Dam  will  be 
formed  of  a  natural  mixture  of  sand  and  clay, 
dredged  by  hydraulic  process  from  pits  above 
and  below  the  Dam,  and  placed  between  two 
large  masses  of  rock  and  miscellaneous 
material  obtained  from  steam  shovel  ex- 
cavation at  various  points  along  the  Canal. 
The  top  and  upstream  slope  will  be  thoroughly 
riprapped.  The  entire  Dam  will  contain 
about  21,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material. 

The  Spillway  is  a  concrete  lined  opening, 
1,200  feet  long  and  300  feet  wide,  cut  through 
a  hill  of  rock  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  Dam, 
the  bottom  of  the  opening  being  10  feet  above 
sea  level.  It  will  contain  about  225,000 
cubic  yards  of  concrete.  During  the  con- 
struction of  the  Dam,  all  the  water  discharged 
from  the  Chagres  and  its  tributaries  flowed 
through  this  opening.  Construction  has  now 
advanced  sufficiently  to  permit  the  Lake  to 
be  formed,  and  the  Spillway  has  been  closed 
with  a  concrete  dam,  which  is  being  fitted 
with  gates  and  machinery  for  regulating  the 
water  level  of  the  Lake. 

WATER  SUPPLY  OF  GATUN  LAKE. 

Gatun  Lake  will  impouad  the  waters  of  a 
basin  comprising  1,320  square  miles.  When 
the  surface  of  the  water  is  at  85  feet  above 
sea  level,  the  Lake  will  have  an  area  of  about 
Iti4  square  miles,  and  will  contain  about  206 
billion  cubic  feet  of  water.  During  eight  or 
nine  months  of  the  year,  the  lake  will  be  kept 
constantly  full  by  the  prevailing  rains,  and 
consequently  a  surplus  will  need  to  be  stored 
for  only  three  or  four  months  of  the  dry 
season.  The  smallest  run-off  of  water  in  the 
basin,  during  the  past  21  year*,  as  measured 
at  Gatun,  was  about  146  billion  cubic  feet. 
In  1910  the  run-off  was  360  billion  cubic  feet, 
or  a  sufficient  quantity  to  fill  the  lake  one  and 
a  half  times.  The  water  surface  of  the  Lake 
will  be  maintained  during  the  rainy  season  at 
87  feet  above  sea  level,  making  the  minimum 
channel  depth  in  the  Canal  47  feet.  As 
navigation  can  be  carried  on  with  about  41 
feet  of  water,  there  will  be'  stored  for  dry 


26o 


266 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


season  surplus  over  five  feet  of  water.  Mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  evaporation,  seepage, 
leakage  at  the  gates,  and  power  consumption, 
this  would  be  ample  for  41  passages  daily 
through  the  locks,  using  them  at  full  length, 
or  about  58  lockages  a  day  when  partial 
length  is  used,  as  would  usually  be  the  case, 
and  when  cross  filling  from  one  lock  to  the 
other  through,  the  central  wall  is  employed. 
This  would  oe  a  larger  number  of  lockages 
than  would  be  possible  in  a  single  day.  The 
average  number  of  lockages  through  the 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  on  the  American  side 
was  37  per  day  in  the  season  of  navigation  of 
1909,  which  was  about  eight  months  long. 
The  average  number  of  ships  passed  was  about 
1  ]/z  per  lockage.  The  freight  carried,  was 
more  than  30,000,000  tons.  The  Suez  Canal 
passed  about  12  vessels  per  day,  with  a  total 
tonnage  for  the  year  of  15,500,000. 

DAMS  ON  PACIFIC  SIDE. 

The  water  level  of  Gatun  Lake,  extending 
through  the  Culebra  Cut,  will  be  maintained 


at  the  south  end  by  an  earth  dam  connecting 
the  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel  with  the  high 
ground  to  the  westward,  about  1,400  feet  long, 
with  its  crest  at  an  elevation  of  105  feet  above 
mean  tide.  A  concrete  core  wall,  containing 
about  700  cubic  yards,  will  connect  the  locks 
with  the  hills  to  the  eastward;  this  core  wall 
will  rest  directly  on  the  rock  surface  and  is 
designed  to  prevent  percolation  through  the 
earth,  the  surface  of  which  is  above  the  Lake 
level. 

A  small  lake  between  the  locks  at  Pedro 
Miguel  and  Miraflores  will  be  formed  by  dams 
connecting  the  walls  of  Miraflores  locks  with 
the  high  ground  on  either  side.  The  dam 
to  the  westward  will  be  of  earth,  about  2,700 
feet  long,  having  its  crest  about  15  feet  above 
the  water  in  Miraflores  Lake.  The  east  dam 
will  be  of  concrete,  containing  about  75,000 
cubic  yards;  will  be  about  500  feet  long,  and 
will  form  a  spillway  for  Miraflores  Lake,  with 
crest  gates  similar  to  those  at  the  Spillway  of 
the  Gatun  Dam. 


SttAPHfC  COHPARUOM  OF  TVTAl    CxCAMT 


Copyright,    Munn   &  Co.,    Inc. 

DIAGRAMMATIC  COMPARISON  SHOWING  SUPERIORITY  OF  LOCK  CANAL  TO  ONE 

AT  SEA  LEVEL. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


267 


THE  LOCKS. 

There  will  be  6  double  locks  in  the  Canal; 
three  pairs  in  flight  at  Gatun,  with  a  com- 
bined lift  of  85  feet;  one  pair  at  Pedro  Miguel, 
with  a  lift  of  30^  feet,  and  two  pairs  at 
Miraflores,  with  a  combined  lift  of  54^  feet 
at  mean  tide.  The  usable  dimensions  of  all 
are  the  same — a  length  of  1,000  feet,  and 
width  of  110  feet.  Each  lock  will  be  a  cham- 
ber, with  walls  and  floor  of  concrete,  and 
mitering  gates  at  each  end. 

The  side  walls  will  be  45  to  50  feet  wide  at 
the  surface  of  the  floor;  will  be  perpendicular 
on  the  face,  and  will  narrow  from  a  point  24  ^j 
feet  above  the  floor  until  they  are  8  feet  wide 
at  the  top.  The  middle  wall  will  be  60  feet 
wide,  approximately  81  feet  high,  and  each 
face  will  be  vertical.  At  a  point  42  %  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  floor,  and  15  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  middle  culvert,  this  wall 
will  divide  into  two  parts,  leaving  a  space 
down  the  center  much  like  the  letter  "U," 
which  will  be  19  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and 
44  feet  wide  at  the  top.  In  this  center  space 
will  be  a  tunnel  divided  into  three  stories,  or 
galleries.  The  lowest  gallery  will  be  for 
drainage;  the  middle,  for  the  wires  that  will 
carry  the  electric  current  to  operate  the  gate 
and  valve  machinery  installed  in  the  center 
wall,  and  the  upper  will  be  a  passageway  for 
the  operators. 

The  lock  gates  will  be  steel  structures  7  feet 
thick,  65  feet  long,  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high. 


They  will  weigh  from  300  to  600  tons  each. 
Ninety-two  leaves  will  be  required  for  the 
entire  Canal,  the  total  weighing  57,000  tons. 
Intermediate  gates  will  be  used  in  the  locks, 
in  order  to  save  water  and  time,  if  desired,  in 
locking  small  vessels  through,  the  gates  being 
so  placed  as  to  divide  the  lo^ks  into  chamoers 
600  and  400  feet  long,  respectively.  Ninety- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  navigating  the  high 
seas  are  less  than  600  feet  long.  In  the  con- 
struction of  the  locks,  which  are  now  prac- 
tically completed,  it  is  estimated  that  there 
has  been  used  approximately  4,200,000  cubic 
yards  of  concrete,  requiring  about  the  same 
number  of  barrels  of  cement. 

Electricity  will  be  used  to  tow  all  vessels 
into  and  through  the  locks,  and  to  operate 
all  gates  and  valves,  power  being  generated 
by  water  turbines  from  the  head  created  by 
Gatun  Lake.  Vessels  will  not  be  permitted 
to  enter  or  pass  through  the  locks  under  their 
own  power,  but  will  be  towed  through  by 
electric  locomotives  running  on  cog-rait  laid 
on  the  tops  of  the  lock  walls.  There  will  be 
two  towing  tracks  for  each  flight  of  locks,  one 
on  the  side  and  one  on  the  middle  wall.  On 
each  [side  wall  there  will  be  one  return  track 
and  on  the  middle  wall  a  third  common  to 
both  of  the  twin  locks.  All  tracks  will  run 
continuously  the  entire  length  of  the  respective 
flights  and  will  extend  some  distance  on  the 
guide  approach  walls  at  each  end.  The 
number  of  locomotives  used  will  vary  with 


LOOKING  THROUGH  ONE  OF  THE 

GATUN  LOCKS. 

NNidth,  110  feet:  length  of  one  chamber 
1000  feet. 


LOCK  GATES  AT  GATUN  LOCKS. 
7  feet  thick  and  76  feet  high. 


268 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  size  of  the  vessel.  The  usual  number  re- 
quired will  be  four;  two  ahead,  one  on  each 
wall,  imparting  motion  to  the  vessel,  and  two 
astern,  one  on  each  wall,  to  aid  in  keeping 
the  vessel  in  a  central  position  and  to  bring  it 
to  rest  when  entirely  within  the  lock  chamber. 
They  will  be  equipped  with  a  slip  drum,  towing 
windlass  and  hawser  which  will  permit  the 
towing  line  to  be  taken  in  or  paid  out  without 
actual  motion  of  the  locomotive  on  the  track. 

The  locks  will  be  filled  and  emptied  through 
a  system  of  culverts.  One  culvert  254  sq.  ft. 
in  area  of  cross  section,  about  the  area  of  the 
Hudson  River  tunnels  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  extends  the  entire  length  of  each  of 
the  middle  and  side  walls  and  from  each  of 
these  large  culverts  there  are  several  smaller 
culverts,  33  to  44  sq.  ft.  in  area,  which  extend 
under  the  floor  of  the  lock  and  communicate 
with  the  lock  chamber  through  holes  in  the 
floor.  The  large  culverts  are  controlled  at 
points  near  the  miter  gates  by  large  valves 
and  each  of  the  small  culverts  extending  from 
the  middle  wall  culvert  into  the  twin  chambers 
is  controlled  by  a  cylindrical  valve.  The  large 
culvert  in  the  middle  wall  feeds  in  both 
directions  through  laterals,  thus  permitting 
the  passage  of  water  from  one  twin  lock  to 
another,  effecting  a  saving  of  water. 

To  fill  a  lock  the  valves  at  the  upper  end  are 
opened  and  the  lower  valves  closed.  The 
water  flows  from  the  upper  pool  through  the 
large  culverts  into  the  small  lateral  culverts 
and  thence  through  the  holes  in  the  floor  into 
the  lock  chamber.  To  empty  a  lock  the 
valves  at  the  upper  end  are  closed  and  those 
at  the  lower  end  are  opened  and  the  water 
flows  into  the  lower  lock  or  pool  in  a  similar 
manner.  This  system  distributes  the  water 
as  evenly  as  possible  over  the  entire  horizontal 
area  of  the  lock  and  reduces  the  disturbance 
in  the  chamber  when  it  is  being  filled  or 
emptied. 

The  depth  of  water  over  the  miter  sills  of 
the  locks  will  be  40  feet  in  salt  water  and  41  >£ 
feet  in  fresh  water. 

The  average  time  of  filling  and  emptying  a 

By  French  Companies ; 

French  excavation  useful  to  present  Canal. .  . 
By  Americans-y- 

Dry  excavation 

Dredges 

May  4  to  December  31,  1904 

January  1  to  December  31,  1905 

January  1  to  December  31,  1906 

January  1  to  December  31,  1907 

January  1  to  December  31,  1908 

January  1  to  December  31,  1909 

January  1  to  December  31,  1910 

January  1  to  May  1,  1911 


lock  will  be  about  fifteen  minutes,  without 
opening  the  valves  so  suddenly  as  to  create 
disturbing  currents  in  the  locks  or  approaches. 
The  time  required  to  pass  a  vessel  through  all 
the  locks  is  estimated  at  3  hours;  one  hour 
and  a  half  in  the  three  locks  at  Gatun,  and 
about  the  same  time  in  the  three  locks  on  the 
Pacific  side.  The  time  of  passage  of  a  vessel 
through  the  entire  Canal  is  estimated  as 
ranging  from  10  to  12  hours,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  ship,  and  the  rate  of  speed  at  which 
it  can  travel. 

EXCAVATION. 

The  total  excavation,  dry  and  wet,  for  the 
Canal,  as  originally  planned,  was  estimated 
at  103,795,000  cubic  yards,  in  addition  to  the 
excavation  by  the  French  companies. 
Changes  in  the  plan  of  the  Canal,  made  sub- 
sequently by  order  of  the  President,  increased 
the  amount  to  174,666,594  cubic  yards.  Of 
this  amount,  89,794,493  cubic  yards  were  to 
be  taken  from  the  Central  Division,  which 
includes  the  Culebra  Cut.  In  July,  1910, 
a  further  increase  of  7,871,172  cubic  yards 
was  made,  of  which  7,330,525  cubic  yards 
were  to  allow  for  slides  in  Culebra  Cut,  for 
silting  in  the  Chagres  section,  and  for  lowering 
the  bottom  of  the  Canal  from  40  to  39  feet 
above  sea  level  in  the  Chagres  section.  These 
additions  increased  the  estimated  total  ex- 
cavation to  182,537,766  cubic  yards.  The 
present  estimate  is  195,000,000  cubic  yards. 
Active  excavation  work  on  a  large  scale  did 
not  begin  until  1907,  when  15,765,290  cubic 
yards  were  removed.  In  1908,  over  37,000,000 
cubic  yards  were  removed,  and  in  1909,  over 
35,000,000,  making  a  total  for  the  two  years 
of  over  72,000,000  cubic  yards,  or  a  monthly 
average  for  those  two  years  of  3,000,000 
cubic  yards.  In  1910,  over  31,000,000  cubic 
yards  were  removed,  the  monthly  average 
exceeding  2,600,000  cubic  yards.  The  total 
for  thsse  three  years  was  nearly  three-fifths 
of  the  entire  excavation  for  the  Canal. 
Records  of  all  excavation  to  May  1,  1911,  are 
appended: 

78,146,960 

29,908,000 


...  84,112,947 

.  .  .  50,976,485 

243,472 

.  .  .  1,799,227 

.  .  .  4,948,497 

.  .  .  15,765,290 

.  .  .  37,116,735 

.  .  .  35,096,166 

.  .  .  31,437,677 

.  .  .  11,343,456 


135,089,432 


SLIDES. 

In  1911  there  were  in  all  twenty -one  slides 
along  the  Culebra  Cut.  Twelve  covered 
areas  varying  from  one  to  forty-seven  acres, 
and  nine  covered  areas  of  less  than  one  acre 
each,  making  in  all  a  total  of  one  hundred  and 
forty-nine  acres.  The  largest  is  the  Cucaracha 
slide,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Canal,  which 
covers  an  area  of  forty-seven  acres,  and  which 
has  broken  back  1,820  feet  from  the  center 
line  of  the  Canal.  This  slide,  according  to 
French  records,  started  as  early  as  1884,  and 
has  given  the  Americans  considerable  trouble 
since  they  began  work.  Over  two  million 


cubic  yards  have  been  removed  by  the 
Americans,  but  the  slide  is  now  "dead." 
The  next  largest  slide  is  a  combination  of  two 
slides  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cut  at  Culebra, 
just  north  of  Contractor's  Hill,  covering  about 
twenty-eight  acres.  In  1911  over  two 
million  cubic  yards  had  been  removed  from 
this  slide,  and  it  was  estimated  that  one 
million  cubic  yards  were  still  in  motion.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  Cut,  north  of  Gold  Hill, 
was  another  large  slide  covering  an  area  of 
about  seventeen  acres  which  had  broken  back 
1,200  feet  from  the  center  line  of  the  Canal. 
Over  416,000  cubic  yards  had  beea  t^ken  out 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


269 


Courtesy   of    "The   Sphere. 


WHERE  CANAL  MEETS  ATLANTIC. 


Limon  Bay  is  on  the  right;  through  which  the  extended  canal  entrance  leads  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  left. 


of  this  slide  and  about  three-quarters  of  a 
million  more  were  in  motion.  The  total 
distance  across  the  Cut  at  this  point  from 
back  to  back  of  slides  was  1,950  feet.  Over 
nine  million  cubic  yards  have  been  taken  out 
since  July,  1905,  because  of  slides,  and  over 
three  million  cubic  yards  are  still  in  motion. 

CAPACITY  OF  STEAM  SHOVELS  AND  DIRT  TRAINS. 

There  are  several  classes  of  steam  shovels 
engaged  in  excavating  work,  equipped  with 
dippers  ranging  in  capacity  from  1 34  cubic 
yards  to  5  cubic  yards,  and  a  trenching 
shovel,  which  has  a  dipper  with  a  capacity 
of  %  of  a  cubic  yard. 

Each  cubic  yard,  place  measurement,  of 
average  rock  weighs  about  3,900  pounds;  of 
earth,  about  3,000  pounds;  of  "the  run  9f  the 
cut,"  about  3,600  pounds,  and  is  said  to 
represent  about  a  two-horse  cart  load.  Con- 
sequently, a  five  cubic  yard  dipper,  when  full, 
carries  8.7  tons  of  rock,  6.7  tons  of  earth,  and 
8.03  tons  of  "the  run  of  the  cut." 

Three  classes  of  cars  are  used  in  hauling 
spoil — flat  cars  with  one  high  side,  which  are 
unloaded  by  plows  operated  by  a  cable  upon  a 
winding  drum,  and  two  kinds  of  dump  cars, 
one  large  and  one  small.  The  capacity  of  the 
flat  cars  is  19  cubic  yards;  that  of  the  large 
dump  cars,  17  cubic  yards,  and  that  of  the 
small  dump  cars,  10  cubic  yards.  The  flat 
car  train  is  ordinarily  composed  9f  20  cars  in 
hauling  from  the  cut  at  Pedro  Miguel,  and  of 
21  cars  in  hauling  from  the  cut  at  Matachin. 
The  large  dump  tram  is  composed  of  27  cars, 
and  the  small  dump  train  of  35  cars. 

The  average  bad  of  a  train  of  flat  cars,  in 
hauling  the  mixed  material  known  as  "the 
run  of  the  cut,"  is  610.7  tons  (based  on  a  20- 
car  train);  of  a  train  of  large  dump  cars, 
737.68  tons,  and  of  a  train  of  small  dumps, 
562.5  tons. 

The  average  time  consumed  in  unloading 
a  train  of  flat  cars  is  from  7  to  15  minutes; 
in  unloading  a  train  of  large  dump  cars,  15  to 
40  minutes;  and  in  unloading  a  train  of  small 


dump  cars,  6  to  56  minutes.  The  large  dump 
ca.rs  are  operated  by  compressed  air  power 
furnished  by  the  air  pump  of  the  locomotive, 
while  the  small  dump  cars  are  operated  by 
hand. 

The  record  day's  work  for  one  steim  shovel 
was  that  of  March  22,  1910,  4,823  cubic 
yards  of  rock  (place  measurement),  or  8,395 
tons.  The  highest  daily  record  in  the 
Central  Division  was  on  March  11,  1911,  when 
51  steam  shovels  and  2  cranes  equipped  with 
orange  peel  buckets  excavated  an  aggregate 
of  79,484  cubic  yards,  or  127,742  tons. 
During  this  day,  333  loaded  trains  and  as 
many  empty  trains  were  run  to  and  from  the 
dumping  grounds. 

BREAKWATERS. 

Breakwaters  are  under  construction  at  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  entrances  of  the  Canal. 
That  in  Limon  Bay,  or  Colon  harbor,  extends 
into  the  bay  from  Toro  Point  at  an  angle  of  42 
degrees  and  53  minutes  northward  from  a 
base  line  drawn  from  Toro  Point  to  Colon 
light,  and  will  be  10,500  feet  in  length,  or 
11,700  feet,  including  the  shore  connection, 
with  a  width  at  the  top  of  fifteen  feet  and  a 
height  above  mean  sea  level  of  ten  feet.  The 
width  at  the  bottom  will  depend  largely  on 
the  depth  of  water.  It  will  contain  ap- 
proximately 2,840,000  cubic  yards  of  rock, 
the  core  being  formed  of  rock  quarried  on  the 
mainland  near  Toro  Point,  armored  with  hard 
rock  from  Porto  Bello.  Work  began  on  the 
breakwater  in  August,  1910,  and  on  May  1, 
1911,  the  fill  had  been  extended  4,214  feet. 
The  estimated  cost  is  S5.500.000.  A  second 
breakwater  has  been  proposed  for  Limon  Bay, 
but  this  part  of  the  project  has  not  been 
formally  acted  upon.  The  purpose  of  the 
breakwaters  is  to  convert  Limon  Bay  into  a 
safe  anchorage,  to  protect  shipping  in  the 
harbor  of  Colon,  and  vessels  making  the  north 
entrance  to  the  Canal,  from  the  violent 
northers  that  are  likely  to  prevail  from 
October  to  January,  and  to  reduce  to  a 
minimum  the  amount .  of  silt  that  may  be 
washed  into  the  dredged  channel. 


270 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


The  breakwater  at  the  Pacific  entrance  will 
extend  from  Balboa  to  Naos  Island,  a  distance 
of  about  17,000  feet,  or  a  little  more  than 
three  miles.  It  will  lie  from  900  to  2,700 
feet  east  of  and  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
distance  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
Canal  prism;  will  vary  from  20  to  40  feet  in 
height  above  mean  sea  level,  and  will  be  from 
50  to  3,000  feet  wide  at  the  top.  It  is 
estimated  that  it  will  contain  about  18,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  earth  and  rock,  all  of  which 
will  be  brought  from  Culebra  Cut.  It  is  con- 
structed for  a  two-fold  purpose;  •  first,  to  divert 
cross  currents  that  would  carry  soft  material 
from  the  shallow  harbor  of  Panama  into  the 
Canal  channel;  second,  to  insure  a  more 
quiet  harbor  at  Balboa.  Work  was  begun 
on  it  in  May,  1908.  On  May  1,  1911,  it  had 
been  constructed  for  a  distance  of  13,000  feet. 

CANAL  FORCE,  QUARTERS  AND  SUPPLIES. 

The  Canal  force  is  recruited  and  housed  by 
the  Quartermaster's  Department  which  has 
two  general  branches,  labor  and  quarters, 
and  material  and  supplies.  Through  the 
labor  and  quarters  branch  there  have  been 
brought  to  the  Isthmus  43,432  laborers,  of 
whom  11,797  came  from  Europe,  19,448  from 
Barbados,  the  balance  from  other  islands  in 
the  West  Indies  and  from  Colombia.  No 
recruiting  is  required  at  present,  the  supply 
of  labor  on  the  Isthmus  being  ample. 

On  May  1,  1911,  the  total  force  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  actually  at  work,  was 
divided  as  follows: 


Gold 

Silver 

Total 

Isthmian     Canal    Com- 
mission   
Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany (proper)  
Panama    Railroad    Re- 
location   

4,540 
467 
121 

23,592 
3,639 
2,201 

28,132 
4,106 
2,322 

Panama  Railroad  Com- 
missary   

219 

800 

1,019 

Totals  

5,347 

30,232 

35,579 

The  gold  force  is  made  up  of  the  officials, 
clerical  force,  construction  men,  and  skilled 
artisans  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company.  Prac- 
tically all  of  them  are  Americans.  The 
silver  force  represents  the  unskilled  laborers  of 
the  Commission  and  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company.  Of  these,  about  4,500  are 
Europeans,  mainly  Spaniards,  with  a  few 
Italians  and  other  races.  The  remainder, 
about  25,000,  are  West  Indians,  about  3,700 
of  whom  are  employed  as  artisans  receiving 
16,  20,  and  25  cents,  and  a  small  number,  32 
and  44  cents,  an  hour.  The  standard  rate  of  the 
West  Indian  laborer  is  10  cents  an  hour,  but  a 
few  of  these  doing  work  of  an  exceptional 
character  are  paid  16  and  20  cents.  The 
larger  part  of  the  Spaniards  are  paid  20  cents 
an  hour,  and  the  rest  16  cents  an  hour. 

The  material  and  supply  branch  carries  in 
eight  general  storehouses  a  stock  of  supplies 
for  the  Commission  and  Panama  Railroad 
valued  approximately  at  $4,500,000.  About 
$12.000  000  worth  of  supplies  are  purchased 
annually,  requiring  the  discharge  of  one 
steamer  each  day. 


FOOD,  CLOTHING  AND  OTHER  NECESSARIES. 

The  Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  forces  are 
supplied  with  food,  clothing  and  other  neces- 
saries through  the  Subsistence  Department, 
which  is  divided  into  two  branches — Com- 
missary and  Hotel.  It  does  a  business  of 
about  seven  million  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars  per  annum.  The  business  done  by 
the  Commissary  Department  amounts  to 
about  $6,000,000  per  annum,  and  that  done  by 
the  hotel  branch  to  about  $1,500,000  per 
annum. 

The  Commissary  system  consists  of  22 
general  stores  in  as  many  Canal  Zone  villages 
and  camps  along  the  relocated  line  of  the 
Panama  Railroad.  It  is  estimated  that  with 
employes  and  their  dependents,  there  are 
about  65,000  people  supplied  daily  with  food, 
clothing,  and  other  necessaries.  In  addition 
to  the  retail  stores,  the  following  plants  are 
operated  at  Cristobal:  cold  storage,  ice 
making,  bakery,  coffee  roasting,  ice  cream, 
laundry  and  packing  department. 

A  supply  train  of  21  cars  leaves  Cristobal 
every  morning  at  4  a.  m.  It  is  composed  of 
refrigerator  cars  containing  ice,  meats  ?,nd 
other  perishable  articles,  and  ten  containing 
other  supplies.  These  are  delivered  at  the 
stations  along  the  line  and  distributed  to  the 
houses  of  employes  by  the  Quartermaster's 
Department. 

The  hotel  branch  maintains  the  Hotel 
Tivoli  at  Ancon,  and  also  18  hotels  along  the 
line  for  white  gold  employes  at  which  meals 
are  served  for  thirty  cents  each.  At  these 
18  hotels  there  are  served  monthly  about 
200,000  meals.  There  are  sixteen  messes  for 
European  laborers,  who  pay  40  cents  per 
ration  of  three  meals.  There  are  served  at 
these  messes  about  270,000  meals  per  month. 
There  are  also  operated  for  the  West  Indian 
laborers  fourteen  kitchens,  at  which  they  are 
served  a  ration  of  three  meals  for  27  cents  per 
ration.  There  are  about  100,000  meals 
served  monthly  at  these  kitchens.  The 
supplies  for  one  month  for  the  line  hotels, 
messes  and  kitchens  cost  about  $85,000;  labor 
and  other  expenses  about  $17,500.  The 
monthly  receipts,  exclusive  of  the  revenue 
from  the  Hotel  Tivoli,  amount  to  about 
$105,000. 

VALUE  OF  THE  $40,000,000  FRENCH  PURCHASE. 

A  careful  official  estimate  has  been  made  by 
the  Canal  Commission  of  the  value  to  the 
Commission  at  the  present  time  of  the 
franchises,  equipment,  material,  work  done, 
and  property  of  various  kinds  for  which  the 
United  States  paid  the  French  Canal  Com- 
pany $40,000,000.  It  places  the  total  value  at 
$42,799,826,  divided  as  follows: 
Excavation,  useful  to  the 

Canal,      29,708,000      cubic 

yards $25,389,240.00 

Panama  Railroad  Stock 9,644,320.00 

Plant  and  material,  used  and 

sold  for  scrap 2,112,063.00 

Buildings,  used 2,054,203.00 

Surveys,     plans,     maps    and 

records 2,000,000.00 

Land 1,000,000.00 

Clearings,  roads,  etc 100,000.00 

Ship  channel  in  Panama  Bay, 

four  years'  use 500,000.00 

Total $42,799,826.00 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


,  271 


PANAMA  CANAL 

A  T  L  A  N  T  I   C/  O  C  E  A 


SUEZ   CANAL 


S3  A 


JPOKT  SAID 


English  Kile* 
o        lu>        ro        ]u> 


272 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  CANAL  ZONE. 

The  Canal  Zone  contains  about  448  square 
miles.  It  begins  at  a  point  three  marine 
miles  from  mean  low  water  mark  in  each 
ocean,  and  extends  for  five  miles  on  each  side 
of  the  center  line  of  the  route  of  the  Canal. 
It  includes  the  group  of  islands  in  the  Bay  of 
Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra,  and 
Flamenco.  The  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon 
are  excluded  from  the  Zone,  but  the  United 
States  has  the  right  to  enforce  sanitary 
ordinances  in  those  cities,  and  to  maintain 

C'  lie  order  in  them  in  case  the  Republic  of 
ama  should  not  be  able,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  United  States,  to  do  so. 

Of  the  448  square  miles  of  Zone  territory, 
the  United  States  owns  the  larger  portion 
the  exact  amount  of  which  is  being  determined 
by  survey.  Under  the  treaty  with  Panama, 
the  United  States  has  the  right  to  acquire  by 
purchase,  or  by  the  exercise  of  the  right  of 
eminent  domain,  any  lands,  buildings,  water 
rights,  or  other  properties  necessary  and 
convenient  for  the  construction,  maintenance, 
operation,  sanitation,  and  protection  of  the 
Canal,  and  it  can,  therefore,  at  any  time 
acquire  the  lands  within  the  Zone  boundaries 
which  are  owned  by  private  persons. 

RELOCATED  PANAMA  RAILROAD. 

The  new,  or  repeated  line  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  is  47.1  miles  long,  or  slightly  shorter 
than  the  old  line.  From  Colon  to  Mindi,  4.17 
miles,  and  from  Corozal  to  Panama,  2.83 
miles,  the  old  location  is  used,  but  the  re- 
maining 40  miles  are  new  road.  From  Mindi 
to  Gatun  the  railroad  runs,  in  general,  parallel 
to  the  Canal,  and  ascends  from  a  few  feet 
above  tide  water  elevation  to  nearly  95  feet 
above.  At  Gatun  the  road  leaves  the 
vicinity  of  the  Canal  and  runs  east  along  the 
valley  of  the  Gatun  River  to  a  point  about 
4J^  miles  from  the  center  line  of  the  Canal, 
where  it  turns  southward  again  and  skirts 
the  east  shore  of  Gatun  Lake  to  the  beginning 
of  Culebra  Cut,  at  Bas  Obispo.  In  this  sec- 
tion there  are  several  large  fills,  occurring 
where  the  line  crosses  the  Gatun  Valley  and 
near  the  north  end  of  Culebra  Cut,  where  the 
line  was  located  so  as  to  furnish  waste  dumps 
for  the  dirt  from  the  Canal.  Originally  it  was 
intended  to  carry  the  railroad  through 
Culebra  Cut  on  a  40-foot  berm,  10  feet  above 
the  water  level,  but  the  numerous  slides  have 
made  this  plan  impracticable  and  a  line  is 
now  being  constructed  around  the  Cut, 
known  locally  as  the  Gold  Hill  Line.  Leaving 
the  berm  of  the  Canal  at  Bas  Obispo,  the  Gold 
Hill  Line  gradually  works  into  the  foot  hills, 
reaching  a  distance  from  the  center  line  of  the 
Canal  of  two  miles  opposite  Culebra;  thence 
it  runs  down  the  Pedro  "Miguel  Valley  to 
Paraiso,  where  it  is  only  800  feet  from  the 
center  line  of  the  Canal.  This  section  of  the 
line  is  located  on  maximum  grade  of  1.25 
per  cent,  compensated,  and  has  a  total  length 
of  9%  miles.  The  sharpest  curve  on  the 
whole  line  is  7°.  From  the  south  end  of 
Culebra  Cut  to  Paraiaso,  the  railroad  runs 
practically  parallel  with  the  Canal  to  Panama, 
with  maximum  grade  of  0.45  per  cent.  Where 
the  railroad  crosses  the  Gatun  River,  a 
bascule  steel  bridge  is  to  be  erected,  and  a 
steel  girder  bridge,  %  mile  long,  with  200-foot 
through  truss  channel  span,  is  in  use  across 


the  Chagres  River  at  Gamboa.  Small 
streams  are  crossed  on  reinforced  concrete 
culverts.  Near  Miraflores,  a  tunnel  736  feet 
long  has  been  built  through  a  hill.  Total 
cost  of  new  line  is  estimated  at  $9,000,000. 

THE  EQUIPMENT  FOR  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
THE  CANAL. 

The  Equipment  consists  of  the  latest  and 
most  efficient  appliances,  the  quality  of 
which  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  re- 
markable totals  of  excavation  which  have 
been  recorded  during  the  progress  of  the 
work.  It  includes  100  steam  shovels,  most  of 
which  are  of  from  70  to  105  tons  weight  and 
3  to  5  cubic  yards  bucket  capacity;  158 
American  locomotives  of  from  106  to  117  tons 
weight;  112  small  French  locomotives  of  20  to 
30  tons;  45  narrow  gauge  and  electric  loco- 
motives; 560  drills;  4,340  cars;  84  spreaders,  ' 
track-shifters,  unloaders,  etc.,  20  dredges;  57 
cranes;  12  tugs;  70  barges,  scows,  etc.  and 
14  launches.  The  Panama  Railroad  has  70 
locomotives;  57  coaches  and  1,477  freight 
cars. 

CANAL  STATISTICS. 

Length  from  deep  water  to  deep 
water  (miles)  50 

Length  from  shore-line  to  shore- 
line (miles)  40 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  maxi- 
mum (feet)  1,000 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  mini- 
mum, 9  miles,  Culebra  Cut  (feet)  300 

Locks,    in  pairs 12 

Locks,   usable   length   (feet) 1000 

Locks,    usable    width    (feet) 110 

Gatun  Lake,   area  (square  miles) 164 

Gatun    Lake,    channel    depth    (feet)          85  to  45 

Culebra    Cut,     channel    depth     (feet)  45 

Excavation,  estimated  total  (cubic 
yards)  182,537,766 

Excavation,  amount  accomplished 
May  1,  1911  (cubic  yards) 137,750,520 

Excavation  by  the  French  (cubic 
yards)  78,146,960 

Excavation  by  French,  useful  to 
present  Canal,  (cubic  yards) 29,908,000 

Excavation  by  French,  estimated 
value  to  Canal $25,389,240 

Value    of   all    French    property $42,799,826 

Concrete,  total  estimated  for  Canal 
(cubic  yards)  5,000,000 

Time  of  transit  through  completed 
Canal  (hours)  10  to  12 

Time  of  passage  through  locks 

(hours)  3 

Relocated  Panama  Railroad,  esti- 
mated cost  $9, 000, 000 

Relocated  Panama  Railroad,  length 

(miles)  47.1 

Canal   Zone,    area    (square   miles) 448 

Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  force 
actually  at  work  (about) 35,000 

Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  force, 
Americans  (about)  5,000 

Cost    of    Canal,    estimated    total....  $375,000.000 

Work    begun    by    Americans May  4,  1904 

Date    of    completion Jan.  1,  1915 


Approximate  cost  of  various  canals:  Sue?., 
$19,000,000;  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  $15,000,000- 
Kiel  Canal,  $8,000,000;  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal, 
U.  S.,  $1,200,000;  Amsterdam  Canal,  $2,000,000: 
Corinth  Canal,  $1,000,000;  Cronstadt  Canal, 
$2,000,000;  Welland  Canal  (Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Ontario),  $5,000,000. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


273 


COALING  STATIONS  OF  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA. 


274 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


275 


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276 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  P 
inued. 


AND  PORT  TOWNSEND 
HE  UNITED  STATES  — 


NEW  ORLEANS,  SAN  FRANCI 
AND  THE  PRINCIPAL  CITIES 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


277 


DISTANCES  FROM  ATLANTIC  TO  PACIFIC  PORTS  BY  THE  PRESENT  ROUTES. 

(la  Nautical  Miles.) 
(Prepared  expressly  for  The  American  Almanac  by  Captain  W.  H.  H.  Sutherland,  Hydrographer,  U.  S.  Navy.) 


New  York 

Norfolk 

Charleston 

Port  Tampa 

New  Orleans 

Galveston 

Liverpool 

Hamburg 

Antwerp 

Bordeaux 

Gibraltar 


10,423 
10  349 
10,358 
10628 
10!823 
11,005 
11,023 
11,423 

n  [Si 
i 


9,702i   9,221 
---- 


9,628 


B,147| 

'" 


•6,156 

9,321 ; 

9  G21 
9,803| 
10',302  9,821 
10,702  10,221 
10,4371  9.956 
10,157j  9,676 
9,211  8,720 


8,461 
8,387 
8,396 
8,561 
8.861 
9,043 
9,061 
9,461 
9.19fi 
8.916 
7,960 


7,860  17,780 
7,786117,706 
7,795  17,715 
7,960  17,880 
8,260  18,180 
8,442|18,362 
8,460  18,380 
8,860  18,780 
8,595  18.515 
8.315  18.235 
7,359117,009 


18,910  19,530 

18.836  19,450 
18,845  19,465 
19,010  19.630 


13,600 


19.310 


K»  030 


19.492  20,112 

19,510  20,130 


9 
19,365[19,98i 

18,40911 


DISTANCES  FROM  ATLANTIC   PORTS  TO   PACIFIC  PORTS,   VIA  THE   PANAMA   CANAL,    WHEN   CON- 

STRUCTED. 
(From   a   special   report  by   the   United   States   Treasury   Department.) 


Prom. 


New  York . . . 
Norfolk... 
Charkston .  . . 
Port  Tampa . 
New  Orleans. 

Galveston 

Liverpool .... 
Hamburg. . . . 

Antwerp 

Bordeaux 
Gibraltar.  .  . 


;  6,074 
.5,872 

5',477 
5,574 
8813 
9J242 

''S',447 


5,299 
5.iW 
4,898 
4.5831 

4.t;(js 

4. 79!  i 
,s  o::s 
8,467 
8188 
7|938 
7,672 


2.M54 
L-  WL- 
2.463 
2,098 
2.2C3 
2,3M 

eiosl 

-,-;<:: 
5,503, 
5,237' 


3,359 


2,593 
2,758 

2.s:.s 

eioos 

6527 
6248 
5,998 


4,021 
:;>!!» 
3638 
3,255 
3i420 

'i\'.i~\" 

r.Vi.'i 
r,.  i  ;.',o 


5,723|  6,394 


4,630  4,8381   9,835 

4.41>  4.t;:;»j  9.I-.M4 
4,229  4.437  9,344 
3.864  4,072]  9,069 
4.ni;;<  4.2M7  rt.-.'::;4 
4.129  4.:j,::s  y,:-;:-;.j 
7.369  7,577112,574 
7,79818,006  13,003 
7.519  7.727  12,724 
7.269  7,477  12.474 
7,003  7.211  ~ 


10,885 

lo  '1>4 
10^367 

10,119 


'  Via  Honolulu,   add  252  miles. 

T  Omitting  Tahiti  reduces  voyage  from  Brito  by  52  miles. 

t  Voyage  from  Brito.  to  Sydney  by  way  of  Wellington  is  232  miles  less  than  by  wny  of  Tahiti;  from 
Panama  it  is  405  miles  less. 

§  Voyage  from  Brito  to  Wellington  direct  is  185  miles  shorter  than  via  Tahiti,  and  from  Panama  it  19 
358  miles  shorter. 


VIEW  AT  ATLANTIC  ENTRANCE. 


ov^ixui>  i  ir  ivj 


±tiUFJbJK.fcJN(JE  BOOK. 


Copyright  1912,    Munn   &   Co.,   Inc. 

THE  NEW  MUNICIPAL  BUILDING  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK. 

This  building  will  house  many  departments  of  the  city  government  and  will  save  hundreds  ot 

thousands  of  dollars  annually  in  rent, 


CHAPTER  IX. 


TELEGRAPHS   AND   CABLES. 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  DOMESTIC  TELEGRAPH  MESSAGES. 


A  message  to  be  transmitted  by  telegraph 
should  be  written  upon  the  blank  provided  by 
the  Telegraph  Company  for  that  purpose;  or 
it  should  be  attached  to  such  blank  by  the 
sender,  or  by  the  one  presenting  the  message 
a.s  the  sender's  agent,  so  as  to  leave  the  printed 
heading  in  full  view  above  the  written  mes- 
sage. 

Write  the  whole  message,  date,  address, 
body  and  signature  as  clearly  as  possible. 
Avoid  changes,  corrections  and  unusual  ab- 
breviations. Figures,  counted  and  charged 
for  at  the  rate  of  one  word  for  each,  may  be 
used,  but  words  to  represent  them  are  less 
liable  to  cause  error. 

Addresses  are  not  charged  for,  therefore 
they  should  be  full  and  clear  and  written  so  as 
to  be  easily  understood.  If  the  person  ad- 
dressed is  known  to  be  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  office,  or  in  some  locality  where 
the  services  of  a  special  messenger  may  be 
required  to  reach  him,  this  fact  should  be 
made  known  to  the  Telegraph  Company. 
By  such  notice  a  quicker  delivery  of  the 
message  may  be  often  effected. 

If  the  sender's  address  is  not  known  to  the 
Telegraph  Company,  it  should  be  written  on 
the  back  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  blank.  This 
will  enable  the  Telegraph  Company  to  reach 
him  either  with  a  reply,  should  9ne  be  received 
or  for  any  possible  question  which  might  arise 
in  reference  to  the  transmission  or  delivery 
of  his  message. 

Rules  for  counting  messages,  which  will 
completely  coyer  all  the  usual  and  unusual 
words,  abbreviations  and  combinations  used 
in  telegraph  messages,  cannot  be  given  here. 
A  charge  is  made  for  the  first  ten  words  or  less, 
and  a  reduced  rate  for  each  word  over  ten. 
The  address  and  signature  are  not  charged  for. 

In  counting  a  message  "dictionary"  words 
(i.  e.,  words  taken  from  one  of  the  following 
languages,  namely,  English,  German,  French, 
Italian,  Dutch,  Portuguese,  Spanish  and 
Latin),  initial  letters,  surnames  of  persons, 
names  of  cities,  towns,  villages,  states  or  terri- 
tories, or  names  of  the  Canadian  provinces, 
will  be  counted  and  charged  for  each  as  one 
word.  The  abbreviations  for  the  names  of 
towns,  villages,  states,  territories  and  prov- 
inces will  be  counted  and  charged  for  the 
same  as  if  written  in  full.  Abbreviations  of 
weights  and  measures  in  common  use  will  be 
counted  each  as  one  word. 

Examples: 

Signatory  (English)  1  word 

Auf  wiedersehen  (German)  2  words 

A  bon  marche  {French)  3 

Erba  mala  presto  cresce  (Italian)  4 


El  corazdn  menda  las  carnes  (Spanish)  Swords 

Errare  humanum  est  (Latin)  3 

J  G  M  Jones,  Jr.  5 

Van  Dome 

McGregor 

O'Connor 

District  of  Columbia  (or  D.  C.) 

New  York  (or  N.  Y.) 

New  York  State 

St.  Louis 

East  St.  Louis 

New  Mexico  (or  N.  M.) 

Nova  Scotia  (or  N.  S.) 

Lbs. 

Hhds. 

Cwt. 

In  names  of  countries  or  counties  all  the 
words  will  be  counted  and  charged  for. 

Examples: 

United  States  of  Colombia  4  words 

U.  S.  A.  3       " 

North  America  2 

Queen  Anne  County  3 

All  groups  of  letters,  when  such  groups  do 
not  form  dictionary  words,  and  are  not  com- 
binations of  dictionary  words,  will  be  counted 
at  the  rate  of  five  letters  or  fraction  of  five 
letters  to  a  word.  When  such  groups  are 
made  up  of  combinations  of  dictionary  words, 
each  dictionary  word  so  used  will  be  counted. 

Examples: 

Ukugu  (artificial)  1  word 

Babelu  (artificial)  2 

Bacyzafyih  (artificial)  2 

Abycazfybgk  (artificial)  3 

Hhgga  (artificial)  1 

Doyou  (improperly  combined)  2 

Canhe  (improperly  combined)  2 
Allright  (or  alright) 

(improperly  combined) 

Housemate  (dictionary  word)  1 

Figures,  decimal  points  and  bars  of  division 
will  be  counted,  each  separately,  as  one  word. 
In  groups  consisting  of  letters  and  figures, 
each  letter  and  figure  will  be  counted  as  one 
word. 


Examples: 
Al 

x9n8g 
% 

74^ 
4442 
44,  42 
165  East  22d  St. 


2  words 

3 
5 
4 
5 

8 


279 


280 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK, 


Exceptions; 

In  ordinal  numbers  the  affixes  st,  nd 

,  rd  and 

A.M. 
P.M. 

wo 

rd 

th  will  each  be  counted  as  one  word. 

F.  O.  B.  (or  fob) 

C.  O.  D.  (or  cod) 

Examples; 

C.  I.  F.  or  C.  F.  I. 

(or  cif  or  cfi) 

1st 

nnj 

2  words 

C.  A.  F.  (or  caf) 

Ha 

3_j 

I 

0.  K. 

ra 

4tVi 

2 

Per  cent  (or  percent) 

tn 

2      " 

Copyright  1909,  Munn  &  Co. 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GOVERN- 
MENT FOR  THE  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1908. 

While  tho  amounts  shown  are  usually  increasing  annually,  the  relation  they  bear  to  each  other 
is  practically  constant  and  hence  the  drawing  is  useful  as  a  means  of  comparison. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


281 


LAND  LINES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Below  are  given  such  particulars  as  we  have  been  able  to  obtain  of  the  land  line 
telegraphs  throughout  the  world,  corrected  up  to  December,  1911: — 


j   Length  of  Lines  in  Miles.     Length  of  Conductors  hi  Miles. 


Countries. 

Aerial. 
1  584 

Under-      Tntnl         ApH»i         Under- 
ground.       otw>       Aerial,      ground. 

Total. 

UMVIV 

Tubes. 

(Yards) 

African    Transconti- 

1  .«WU 

America  (United 
States  of)  — 

1,595 
27,921 

205,136 
13,596 
28,362 
6 
1,250 

1,595 
28,094 

205,541 
13,616 
28,532 
6 
1  .250 

'     1,595 
202,850 

1,423,159 
32,779 
141,268 

1,595 
212,851 

1,456,759 
32,859 
145,429 

Commercial  Cable 
Co     .      . 

173 

405 
20 
170 

10.001 

33,600 
80 
4,161 

11,066 

^Western  Union 
Tel.  Co  
Argentine  Republic. 
Austria  

94.292 

Belgium       .  . 

4,543 
1,795 

14     1      4,557         23,i98 
1.795   

856 

24,054 

3,352 

Bolivia 

Brazil  
British  East  Africa.  . 
British   Guiana    (in- 
cluding Cable  Co.  's 
lines)  
British  India  
British  North  Borneo 
Bulgaria  
Canada—  Gt.  N.-W. 
Tel   Co 

19,654 
120 

974 
72,553 
800 
3,676 

18,286 

14 

19,668 
120 

974 
72,746 
800 
3,678 

18,286 
12,257 
6,929 

2,718 
1,792 
7,473 
25,314 
620 
835 
7,119 
3,306 
1,444 

1,016 
3,758 
3.666 
90,529 

195 

8.425 
1.430 
1,584 
1,143 

1.600 
141.195 

35,574 
126 

974 
284,067 
800 
7,842 

35.721 
75,872 
6,929 

13.979 
4,558 
13,408 
41,805 

94 

35,668 
126 

974 
287.266 
800 
7,912 

35,721 
76,758 
6.929 

14,023 
4,595 
13,408 

23.731 

193 

3,199 



2 

70 
886 

\ 

Canadian  Pacific 
Telegraphs  
Government    Tel. 
Service 

12,255 
6,929 

c\ 



Western        Union 
Tel.  Co  
Ceylon 

2,707 
1,790 
7,473 
25,308 
620 
835 
7  119 

11 
2 
.  .„  . 

Chili  
China  
Colombia  
Costa  Rica  
Cuba 

102 

41,907 

7.119 
11.725 
1,444 

2,261 

7  119 

4Denmark  
Dominican  Republic 
East     African     Pro- 
tectorate   
Ecuador  

3,242 
1,444 

1.016 
3,754 
3.666 
86.214 

195 

8,417 
1,430 
1.584 
1,143 

1,600 
137.154 

64 

363 

12,088 
1,444 

2,261 

"4" 
'  4,3  is'  ' 

Egypt  
France  and  Corsica. 
French    Guiana 
(Cayenne)  

12.743 
329,525 

195 

14,231 
1,430 
1,584 
1,143 

1,600 
388,420 

12,743 

25,517 

355,042 
195 

14,339 
1  430 

354.987 

French    Indo-China 
(Cochin-China, 
Cambodgia,  An- 
nam,  Tonkin   and 
Laos)  

8 

108 

French  Guinea  
French  Ivory  Coast  . 
French  Dahomey  .  .  . 
French  Congo      and 
Dependencies  
^Germany 

'  4,04  1 



1,584 
1,143 

1,600 

29.601 

418.021 

278,878 

Carried  forward  .  . 

717.746 

i    9,444      727,190  3,119,924 

108,719     3,228.643 

766,306 

Inclusive  of  388  miles  of  submarine  cables,  with  45  conductors. 
•There  are  971  miles  of  telephone  lines. 

•Exclusive  of  206  miles  of  river  cables  and  526  miles  of  conductors 
'Including  inter-urban  telephone  lines  and  also  of  4.602  miles  of  land  lines  (16.233 
miles  of  conductors)  owned  by  Government  Railways. — From  Electrical  Trades  Directory. 


282 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Countries. 

Length  of  Lines  in  Miles. 

Length  of  Conductors  in  Miles. 

Pneu- 
matic 

Tubes. 
(Yards) 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground- 

Total. 

Aerial. 

Under- 
ground. 

Total. 

Brought  forward 

"Great  Britain  & 
Ireland       .... 

717,746 
51  ,972' 

9,444 

5,668  • 

727,190 
57,640  1 

3,119,924 
telegraph 
182,014 
teleph'ne 
249,356 

108,719 

156,655  1 
644,721  f 

J 

3,228,643 
1,232.746 

766,306 
172.480 

Greece 

5,029 
6,230 
15,470 

1  121 

5,029 

'Holland  
Hungary  
Indo-  European 
Persian    Gulf 
System  (Mekran 
Coast) 

300 
72 

6,530 
15,542 

1,121 

1,605 
32,031 
992 
23,035 
455 
2,380 

1,637^ 
185 
22,388 

6,269 
632 
17,591 
12,716 
J3  471 

62,692 
87,180 

2,194 

4,799 
193,208 

1,339 
2,177 

64.031 
89,357 

2,194 

4,799 
194,543 



Indo  -  European 
Teheran  ,  Bushire 
and  Central  Lines 
Italy  ,  
Jamaica 

1,605 
31,994 
992 
23,008 
455 
2,380 

1,632 
185 
22,385 

6,114 
632 
17,387 
12,708 
J3.471 

37 

1,335 

1  Japan  

27 

51A 

110,159 
715 
2,380 

5,135 
494 
48,602 

10,635 
966 
99,606 
'70,652 

1,723 

111,882 
715 

2,380 

5,135 
494 
48,602 

10,817 
966 
119,033 
74,791 

2.507 

Luxemburg  
Madagascar  
Malay   States 
(Federated)  .  .  . 
Mauritius  
Mexico 

3 
155 

182 

Netherlands 
India  
New  Caledonia  .  . 
New  South  Wales 
New  Zealand  
2Nicaragua  

Y.485 

204 

8 

19,427 
4,139 

'  '44 

Norway  

11,600 
8.666 

80 

11,680 
8,666 
5,708 

2,055 
10,573 
4,533 
106,814 

1,361 

3,337 
2,697 
6,248 
16,824 

1,292 
4,998 
6,017 
«4,504 
2,102 
2,082 
27,560 

828 

17,227 

4,898 

4,056 
3,031 
6,905 
6,003 

58,750 
10,092 
12,564 

2,155 
22,799 
11,707 
378,980 

1,897 

4,023 
5,064 
24,905 
42,457 

1,292 
9,422 
19,397 
13,413 
4,001 
5,905 
46,876 

972 

62,531 

4,898 

11,057 
4,740 
11,319 
6,284 

37,000 

"174 
196 
1,026 

4 

95,750 
10,092 
12,564 

2,155 
22,973 
11,903 
380,006 

1,901 

4,023 
5,140 
29,455 
42,600 

1,292 
9,422 
20,165 
16,001 
4,008 
5,965 
46,876 

972 

63,077 
4,898 

11,549 
4,740 
11,319 
6,284 

Peru  

Portugal  
Portuguese  Colo- 
nies   
Queensland 

5,708 

2,055 
10,494 
4,517 
106,656 

1,357 

3,337 
2,694 
6,224 
16,781 

31,292 
4,998 
5,976 
4,242 
2,095 
2,077 
27,560 

828 

17,216 

4,898 

"79" 
16 
158 

4 

"3" 

24 
43 



Roumania  
Russia 

Senegal: 
S6n6gal 



H.   L.   Senegal 
Niger  
Servia  

76 
4,550 
143 

••••••• 

South  Australia.  . 
Spain 

Straits  Settle- 
ments   
Sudan  

"768 
2,588 

fj 

60 

Sweden  
Switzerland.    .  .  . 
Tasmania  
Tunis   . 

41 
262 
7 
5 

::::::: 

Turkey  
Uganda  Protect- 
orate   
Union   of    South 
Africa.  

683 

11 

546 

Uruguay  

Victoria  —  Postal 
Department.  .  . 
Victoria  —  Rail'y 
Department.  .  . 
West'n  Australia 
Postal  Dept  .  .  . 
West'n  Australia 
Rail'y  Dept... 

4,049 
3,031 
6,905 
6,003 

7 

492 

3.967 



Total  

1,193,775  16,  663  ^ 

1,210,438^ 

5,028,21l!    988.047J 

6,016,258 

947,472 

Exclusive  of  23  611  nautical  miles  of  river  cables  and  45.321  miles  of  conductors, 
Exclusive  of  iy2  miles  of  submarine  cable,     including  telephone  lines. 
'Inclusive  of  195  nautical  miles  of  river  cables  and  478  miles  of  conductors. 
7No  distinction  can  be  made  between  telegraph  and  telephone  line  mileages. 
'These  figures  are  for  September  30,  1911.     'Miles  of  Single  Pipe. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


283 


TELEGRAPH  RATES— NORTH  AMERICA 

BETWEEN   NEW   YORK   CITY   AND   PLACES   IN  UNITED    STATES   AND 

CANADA. 

Day  rate  40—3,  means  40  cents  for  ten  words  and  3  cents  for  each  additional  word; 
Night  rate  30-2,  means  30  cents  for  ten  words  and  2  cents  for  each  additional  word,  etc. 
Address  and  signature  are  free.  Western  Union  and  Postal  Rates  are  uniform. 


PLACES. 


ALABAMA 

ALASKA: 

Eagle  City. 

Juneau .... 

Nome 

St.  Michael 

Sitka 

Skagway.. 

Valdez!.... 

ARIZONA 

ARKANSAS 

BRITISH  COLU\ 
Forks,  Nelson 
minster,  Roa 
couver,  Victoria .  . 

Atlm... 

Port  Sii 
CALIFORNIA  . 
COLORADO . . 
CONNECTICU 
DELAWARE  . 


Washington  . 

All  other  p" 

FLORIDA 

GEORGIA 

IDAHO 

ILLINOIS 

INDIANA 

IOWA 

KANSAS 

KENTUCKY 

LOUISIANA 

MAINE:  Portlan< 

All  other  p] 

MANITOBA:  Win 

MARYLAND:  Ani 

timore,     Fre( 

gerstown 

Cumberland. . 


MASSACHUSETTS 
MICHIGAN: 


MINNESOTA 
MISSISSIPPI  . 


ES. 

RATE. 

PLACES 

RATE. 

Day. 

Night. 

Day.       Night. 

60-4 

3.80-35 
2  .  60-23 
4.80-45 
4.30-40 
2.40-21 
2.90-26 
3.40-31 
1.00-7 
60-4 

1.00-7 
3.25-24 
2.75-19 
1.00-7 
75-5 
25-2 
30-2 

30-2 
40-3 
60-4 
60-4 
1.00-7 
50-3 
50-3 
60-4 
60-4 
50-3 
60-4 
35-2 
40-3 
75-5 

30-2 
35-2 
30-2 
to 
40-3 
25-2 
to 
30-2 

40-3 
50-3 
to 
60-4 
60-4 
60-4 

50-3 

3  .  80-35 
2.60-23 
4  .  80-45 
4.30-40 
2.40-21 
2.90-26 
3.40-31 
1.00-7 
50-3 

1.00-7 
3.25-24 
2.75-19 
1.00-7 
60^ 
25-1 
25-1 

25-1 
30-2 
50-3 
50-3 
1.00-7 
40-3 
40-3 
50-3 
50-3 
40-3 
50-3 
25-1 
30-2 
60-4; 

25-1 
25-1  ! 
)     25-1 

f      to 
j     30-2 

I    25-1 

30-2 
1     40-3  j 
4      to 
(     50-3 
50-3: 
50-3 

MISSOURI: 
St.  Louis  
All  other  places  
MONTANA  
NEBRASKA  
NEVADA  

50-3 
60-4 
75-5 
60-4 
1.00-7    1 
50-3 
1.10-9    1 

:tH 

d* 

75-5 

20-1  ' 
25-2  1 
to      - 
35-2  \ 
50-3 
75-5 
50-3 
40-3 
75-5 

40-3 
60-4 
50-3 
to 
1  .  00-7 
1.00-7    1 
25-2  J 
to     V 
40-3  \ 

75-5 
50-3 
30-2 
60-4 
75-5 
50-3 
75-5 
75-5 
30-2  ) 
to      [• 
35-2  j 
40-3   / 
to      [• 
50-3  \ 
1.00-7    1 
40-3 
50-3 
60-4 
75-5 

4.25-294. 

40-3 
50-3 
60-4 
50-3 
.00-7 
40-3 
.00-9 

25-1 

25-1 
60-4 

20-1 
25-1 

40-3 
60-4 
40-3 
30-2 
60-4 

30-2 
50-3 
40-3 
to 
75-5 
.00-7 
25-1 
to 
30-2 

65-5 
40-3 
25-1 
50-3 
60-4 
40-3 
60-4 
60-4 

25-1 

30-2 
to 
40-3 
.00-7 
30-2 
40-3 
50-3 
60-4 

25-29 

NEW  BRUNSWICK  
NEWFOUNDLAND:  St.  John's.  . 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  < 

MBIA:  Grand 
i,  New  West- 
ssland,  Van- 
ria  

NEW  MEXICO           

NEW  YORK: 
New  York  City     

All  other  places  -j 

>on  

>LUMBIA: 
n  
daces 

'NOVA  SCOTIA          

'OHIO 

i  OKLAHOMA          

ONTARIO: 
Niagara  Falls  
Sault  Ste.  Marie  

All  other  places  \ 

I 

d.  '.'.'.'.'.'.  '.'.'.'. 
laces  
mipeg  
napolis,  Bnl- 
derick,  Ha- 

d.  '.'.'.'.  '.'.'.'.'.'. 
laces  < 

,  j 

troit,  Mount 
t  Huron  

laces  - 

PENNSYLVANIA  •< 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND: 
Charlottetown  
QUEBEC  

RHODE  ISLAND         .  .    .  . 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  
SOUTH  DAKOTA  
TENNESSEE  
TEXAS  
UTAH              

VERMONT  •< 
< 
VIRGINIA.                -\ 

( 
WASHINGTON  
WEST  VIRGINIA  
WISCONSIN:  Milwaukee  
All  other  places  
WYOMING  
YUKON  : 
Dawson  City 

284 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NIGHT  LETTERS  AND  DAY  LETTERS. 
Table  of  Tolls  for  1  to  200  Words. 


When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

Message  Rate  is 
25  and  2 

Message  Rate  is 
30  and  2 

Message  Rate  is 
35  and  2 

Message  Rate  is 
40  and  3 

Words 

Night 
Letter 

Day 
Letter 

Night 
Letter 

Day 
Letter 

Night 
Letter 

Day 
Letter 

Night 
Letter 

Day 

Letter 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

1  to    60 

$0.25 

$0.38 

$0.30 

$0.45 

$0.35 

$0.53 

$0.40 

$0.60 

51          60 

.30 

.45 

.36 

.54 

.42 

.63 

.48 

.72 

Cl          70 

.35 

.53 

.42 

.63 

.49 

.74 

.56 

.84 

71          80 

.40 

.60 

.48 

.72 

.56 

.84 

.64 

.96 

81          90 

.45 

.68 

.54 

.81 

.63 

.95 

.72 

.08 

91         100 

.50 

.75 

.60 

.90 

.70 

.05 

.80 

.20 

101         110 

.55 

.83 

.66 

.99 

.77 

.16 

.88 

.32 

111         120 

.60 

.90 

.72 

1.08 

.84 

.26 

.96 

.44 

121         130 

.65 

.98 

.78 

1.17 

.91 

.37 

.04 

.56 

131         140 

.70 

1.05 

.84 

1.26 

.98 

.47 

.12 

.68 

141         150 

.75 

1.13 

.90 

1.35 

.05 

.58 

.20 

.80 

151         160 

.80 

1.20 

.96 

1.44 

.12 

.68 

.28 

.92 

161         170 

.85 

1.28 

1.02 

1.53 

.19 

.79 

.36 

2.04 

171         180 

.90 

1.35 

1.08 

1.62 

.26 

.89 

.44 

2.16 

181         190 

.95 

1.43 

1.14 

1.71 

.33 

2.00 

.52 

2.28 

191         200 

1.00 

1.50 

1.20 

1.80 

.40 

2.10 

.60 

2.40 

When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

When  Day 

Message  Rate  is 

Message  Rate  is 

Message  Rate  is 

Message  Rate  is 

50  and  3 

60  and  4 

75  and  5 

100  and  7 

Words 

Night 
Letter 

Day 

Letter 

Night 
Letter 

Day 

Letter 

Night 
Letter 

Day 
Letter 

Night 
Letter 

Day 
Letter 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

Rate  is 

1  to     50 

$0.50 

$0.75 

$0.60 

SO.  90 

$0.75 

$1.13 

$1.00 

$1.50 

51           60 

.60 

.90 

.72 

1.08 

.90 

1.35 

1.20 

1.80 

61           70 

.70 

.05 

.84 

1.26 

1.05 

1.58 

1.40 

2.10 

71          80 

.80 

.20 

.96 

1.44 

1.20 

1.80 

1.60 

2.40 

81           90 

.90 

.35 

.08 

1.62 

1.35 

2.03 

1.80 

2.70 

91         100 

.00 

.50 

.20 

1.80 

1.50 

2.25 

2.00 

3.00 

101         110 

.10 

.65 

.32 

1.98 

1.65 

2.48 

2.20 

3.30 

111         120 

.20 

1.80 

.44 

2.16 

1.80 

2.70 

2.40 

3.60 

121         130 

.30 

1.95 

.56 

2.34 

1.95 

2.93 

2.60 

3.90 

131         140 

.40 

2.10 

.68 

2.52 

2.10 

3.15 

2.80 

4.20 

141         150 

.50 

2.25 

.80 

2.70 

2.25 

3.38 

3.00 

4.50 

151         160 

.60 

2!40 

.92 

2.88 

2.40 

3.60 

3.20 

4.80 

161         170 

.70 

2.55 

2.04 

3.06 

2.55 

3.83 

3.40 

5.10 

171         180 

1.80 

2.70 

2.16 

3.24 

2.70 

4.05 

3.60 

5.40 

181         190 

1.90 

2.85 

2.28 

3.42 

2.85 

4.28 

3.80 

5.70 

191         200 

2.00 

3.00 

2.40 

3.60 

3.00 

4.50 

4.00 

6.00 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


285 


NIGHT  MESSAGES. 

Night  messages  are  accepted  at  the  follow- 
ing rates. 

NIGHT  MESSAGE  RATES. 


Where  the 
Dav  Rate  is 
"on      i 

The  Night 
Rate  is 
20—1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

95  —  2              .    .  . 

25—1 

30—2  
35—2  
40—3  
50—3  
60-^  
65-^t  
75     5 

25—1 
25—1 
30—2 
40—3 
50—3 
50—3 

75—5  
75     5 

29—  i 

85     6 

60—4 

85     6 

85  —  6 

90  —  6 

60—t 

00—7  
00     7 

75—0 
.    1.00—7 

15     8 

..    1.00—7 

25     8 

1.00—7 

25—8  .  .  . 

.    1.25—8 

NIGHT  LETTERS  OR  "LETTERGRAMS." 

Both  of  the  large  telegraph  companies  have 
inaugurated  the  night  service  which  has  been 
highly  useful  to  the  public,  and  which  serves 
to  utilize  lines  at  night  which  would  otherwise 

Night  lettergrams  may  be  accepted  for  all 
offices  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
also  including  many  telephone  points. 

The  charge  for  night  lettergrams  of  fifty 
words  or  less  will  be  the  regular  day  rate  f9r 
ten  words,  and  one  fifth  (i)  of  this  rate  will 
be  charged  for  each  additional  ten  words  or 

Night  lettergrams  must  be  written  in  plain 
English.  Code  or  cipher  Ls  not  permitted. 
Night  lettergrams  should  be  written  on 
special  night  lettergram  blanks.  Night 
lettergrams  will  be  delivered  as  early  as 
convenient  the  next  morning.  Night  let- 
tergrams may,  at  the  option  of  the  Telegraph 
Company,  be  mailed  at  destination  to  the  ad- 
dressees, and  the  Company  shall  be  deemed 
to  have  discharged  its  obligation  in  such  cases 
with  respect  to  delivery  by  mailing  such  night 
lettergram  at  destination,  postage  prepaid. 
The  instructions  that  night  lettergrams  must 
be  written  in  "plain  English  language"  do  not 
disqualify  words  of  an  artificial  character  rep- 
resenting trade  names  or  terms,  trade  designa- 
tions of  cotton  shipments,  brands  or  grades  of 
flour,  and  other  manufactured  products. 
Trade  names  and  trade  designations  are 
accepted  without  question,  provided  they 
are  used  in  their  natural  sense,  and  are  not 
used  to  convey  a  hidden  meaning  as  code  or 
cipher  words  do.  For  example,  the  expression 
"Uneeda"  is  the  name  of  a  product  of  a 
biscuit  company.  " XXX "'is  used  to  express 
a  certain  brand  or  grade  of  flour.  "FHC," 
"AFC,"  "HLPH,"  represent  cotton  shippers' 
brands. 

The  combined  telegraph  and  telephone 
service  is  proving  very  useful.  The  plan  is 


to  allow  those  telephone  subscribers  whose 
local  telegraph  office  is  closed  for  the  night  to 
call  up  "Central"  and  send  a  telegraph  mes- 
sage which  "Central"  will  transmit  to  the 
next  telegraph  office.  This  plan  was  found 
to  be  so  advantageous  that  it  is  now  possible 
to  send  telegrams  day  or  night.  If  the  service 
of  the  Western  Union  Co.  Ls  desired  it(is  only 
necessary  to  say  "Western  Union."  The 
Postal  Telegraph  must  be  asked  for  by 
name  also. 

MONET  BY  TELEGRAPH. 

All  telegraph  companies  accept  orders,  both 
domestic  and  foreign,  for  immediate  transfer 
of  money  by  telegraph  and  cable.  It  is  some- 
times imperative  to  obtain  large  or  small  sums 
at  the  shortest  possible  moment,  certainly 
within  twenty -four  hours.  Formerly  this 
branch  of  the  business  was  in  the  hands  of 
bankers,  but  now  the  cable  companies  and 
telegraph  companies  are  able  to  pay  r-qney  in 
places  all  over  the  world.  The  organization 
of  telegraph  and  cable  companies  is  a  most 
complicated  one,  and  there  are  many  factors 
which  control  the  rates.  In  general  it  may 
be  stated  that  money  can  be  sent  anywhere 
in  the  United  States  at  a  premium  of  one  per 
cent  ,  minimum  charge  twenty-five  cents,  plus 
twice  the  price  of  a  ten-word  day  message. 
For  money  sent  abroad  the  premium  is  one 
per  cent,  with  a  minimum  charge  of  fifty 
cents,  plus  of  course  the  cable  tolls,  which  will 
vary  with  the  length  of  address,  etc.  Fullest 
possible  information  can  be  obtained  at  any 
telegraph  office  where  a  special  tariff  book  may 
be  consulted.  For  some  countries,  such  as 
those  in  Central  and  South  America,  the  ex- 
pense is  much  greater  than  we  have  noted. 

The  British  Postmaster-General  has  entered 
into  an  agreement  with  the  WTestern  Union 
Telegraph  Company  for  an  exchange  through 
that  company  so  they  will  telegraph  money- 
orders  between  the  United  Kingdom  on  the 
one  hand  and  Canada  and  the  United  States 
on  the  other  after  January  1,  1910.  The 
largest  amount  for  which  a  single  money-order 
may  be  issued  in  the  United  Kingdom  will  be 
£40  sterling,  but  for  orders  issued  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  for  payment  in  the 
United  Kingdom  the  largest  amount  is 
£41  Is.  4d.,  which  is  the  equivalent  of  $200. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SERVICE. 

Persons  who  wish  to  be  notified  of  the  ar- 
rival of  steamers  can  make  arrangements  with 
the  two  telegraph  companies  to  notify  them 
of  the  arrival.  The  companies  maintain  sig- 
nal stations  at  Fire  Island,  The  Highlands, 
and  Sandy  Hook;  also  at  Quarantine,  for  the 
purpose  of  reporting  and  sighting  the  arrival 
of  steamers  from  foreign  ports.  To  those  who 
live  in  New  York,  or  in  nearby  towns  and 
cities,  the  notice  will  be  received  in  ample  time 
to  reach  the  dock  by  the  time  the  steamer 
warps  in.  The  service  for  New  York,  New 
Jersey  and  Hoboken  is  $1.00.  Parties  in  other 
places  who  are  interested  in  incoming  steamers 
can  be  notified  by  paving  this  fee  of  $1.00, 
plus  the  usual  telegraph  tolls  for  the  ordinary 
ten-word  message  For  places  not  adjacent 
to  New  York,  the  notice  conveys  the  intelli- 
gence of  the  near  approach  of  home-coming 
steamers. 


286 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


TOLLS  ON  MESSAGES  OF  FROM  10  TO  50  WORDS. 


No.  of 
Words. 

Rate 
20-1 

Rate 
25-1 

Rate 
25-2 

Rate 
30-2 

Rate 
35-2 

Rate 
40-3 

Rate 
50-3 

Rate 
60-4 

Rate 
75-5 

Rate 
100-7 

10 

20 

25 

25 

30 

35 

40 

50 

60 

75 

100 

11 

21 

26 

27 

32 

37 

43 

53 

64 

80 

107 

12 

22 

27 

29 

34 

39 

46 

56 

68 

85 

114 

13 

23 

28 

31 

36 

41 

49 

59 

72 

90 

121 

14 

24 

29 

33 

38 

43 

52 

62 

76 

95 

128 

15 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

55 

65 

80 

100 

135 

16 

26 

31 

37 

42 

47 

58 

68 

84 

105 

142 

17 

27 

32 

39 

44 

49 

61 

71 

88 

110 

149 

18 

28 

33 

41 

46 

51 

64 

74 

92 

115 

156 

19 

29 

34 

43 

48 

53 

67 

77 

96 

120 

163 

20 

30 

35 

45 

50 

55 

70 

80 

100 

125 

170 

21 

31 

36 

47 

52 

57 

73 

83 

104 

130 

177 

22 

32 

37 

49 

54 

59 

76 

86 

108 

135 

184 

23 

33 

38 

51 

56 

61 

79 

89 

112 

140 

191 

24 

34 

39 

53 

58 

63 

82 

92 

116 

145 

198 

25 

35 

40 

55 

60 

65 

85 

95 

120 

150 

205 

26 

36 

41 

57 

62 

67 

88 

08 

124 

155 

212 

27 

37 

42 

59 

64 

69 

91 

101 

128 

160 

219 

28 

38 

43 

61 

66 

71 

94 

104 

132 

165 

226 

29 

39 

44 

63 

68 

73 

97 

107 

136 

170 

233 

30 

40 

45 

65 

70 

75 

100 

110 

140 

175 

240 

31 

41 

46 

G7 

72 

77 

103 

113 

144 

180 

247 

32 

42 

47 

69 

74 

79 

106 

116 

118 

185 

254 

33 

43 

48 

71 

76 

81 

109 

119 

152 

190 

261 

34 

44 

49 

73 

78 

83 

112 

122 

156 

195 

268 

35 

45 

50 

75 

80 

85 

115 

125 

160 

200 

275 

36 

46 

51 

77 

82 

87 

118 

128 

164 

205 

282 

37 

47 

52 

79 

84 

89 

121 

131 

168 

210 

289 

38 

48 

53 

81 

86 

91 

124 

134 

172 

215 

296 

39 

49 

54 

83 

88 

93 

127 

137 

176 

220 

303 

40 

50 

55 

85 

90 

95 

130 

140 

180 

225 

310 

41 

51 

56 

87 

92 

97 

133 

143 

184 

230 

317 

42 

52 

57 

89 

94 

9£ 

136 

146 

188 

235 

324 

43,- 

53 

58 

91 

96 

101 

139 

149 

192 

240 

331 

44" 

54 

59 

93 

98 

103 

142 

152 

196 

245 

338 

45 

55 

60 

95 

100 

105 

145 

155 

200 

250 

345 

46 

56 

61 

97 

102 

107 

148 

158 

204 

255 

352 

47 

57 

62 

99 

104 

109 

151 

161 

208 

260 

359 

48 

58 

63 

101 

106 

111 

154 

164 

212 

265 

366 

49 

59 

64 

103 

108 

113 

157 

167 

216 

270 

373 

50 

60 

65 

105 

110 

115 

160 

170 

220 

275 

380 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


287 


288 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUBMARINE  CABLES. 

SUMMARY  OF  CABLES  OWNED  BY  GOVERNMENT  ADMINISTRATIONS. 


Country. 

Number 
of  Cables 
with  one 
or  more 
cores. 

Length  in  Nautical  Miles. 

Of  Cables. 

Of 

Conductors. 

Argentine  Republic 

22 
83 
1 
3» 
33 
8 

157 
1 
27 
2 
3< 
142i 
49  » 

16 

84.000 
681.300 
211.000 
76.454 
44.816 
23000 

1,988.652 
0.538 
344.250 
66.000 
955.400 
539.  532' 
2,596.070 

8,479.839 
1.078 
3,099.730 
2,701.777 
59.702 
241.543 
7,837.770 
1,431.708 
3.773.765 
488.5203 
2,741.900 
71.712 
364.627 
1,102.981 
115.050 
53.510 
177.000 
896.660 
12.340 
49.360 
3,132.005 
196.496 
10.685 
4.500 
4.312 
460.844 
6.614 
8.000 
380.995 
13.550 

240.000 
685.000 
211.000 
366.432 
79.914 
50.000 

1,988.652 
0.538 
344.250 
66.000 
955.400 
1,750.399 
2,680.244 

8,479.839 
1.078 
6,346.631 
8,291.115 
58.818 
780.449 
7,837.770 
1,585.981 
4,495.948 
488.520 
2,741.900 
328.928 
370.335 
1,860.383 
115.050 
56.930 
189.000 
1,056.910 
12.340 
49.360 
3,132.005 
346.361 
15.057 
11.500 
4.312 
479.637 
14.501 
8.000 
380.995 
23.350 

Austria  

Bahamas     

Belgium 

Brazil  

British  Guiana 

British  India,   Indo-European  Telegraph   Depart- 
ment Government  Administration   ,  .  . 

Bulgaria  (Widdin  Cable) 

Canada  

Ceylon  and  India  (Joint) 

China 

Denmark  (Telegraphs  and  Telephones)   

France  and  Algeria 

France    (Principal     International     and     French 
Colonial  Cables)  

(French)  Dahomey  and  Dependencies 

Germany  

97  1 
2,6* 

32 
5 
59 
120 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (see  List  of  Cables)  
Greece       

Holland 

Inter-Colonial  System.  . 

Italy 

Japan  

Mexico     •. 

Netherlands  (Indies) 

17 
233 
34 

803  » 
4 
25 

New  South  Wales  

New  Zealand  

Norway 

Portugal  

Queensland 

Roumania  

Russia  in  Europe  and  the  Caucasus 

21 
1 
3 
26 
26 
2 
4 

Russia  in  Asia  

South  Australia  

Spain 

Sweden  

Switzerland     . 

Tasmania  

Tunis  

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia 

24 
2 

1 
3 
3 

Union  of  South  Africa  

Uruguay  .  .  . 

Victoria 

Western  Australia  

2,321^ 

45,529.585 

58,980.832 

'Including  half  of  cables  owned  jointly  with  other  Administrations.  'Exclusive  of 
Iceland,  with  13  cables  of  17  nautical  miles  and  28  miles  of  conductors,  including  20 
miles  of  subfluvial  cable.  'Exclusive  of  several  small  river  cables. 


In  1866  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany had  only  37,380  miles  of  line,  and  75,686 
miles  of  wire.  The  same  year  they  had  only 
2,250  offices.  The  next  year  the  number  of 
offices  had  increased  to  2,565,  and  5,879,282 
messages  were  transmitted.  For  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1911,  there  were  219,219  miles 
of  line,  1,487,345  miles  of  wire,  and  24,926 
offices.  There  were  177,780,732  messages 


sent,  pot  including  those  over  leased  wires  or 
under  railroad  contracts.  The  receipts 
amounted  to  $37,158,989  and  the  expenses 
were  $30,053,632.  The  profits  were  $7,105,357, 
certainly  not  an  extortionate  amount  con- 
sidering the  value  of  the  property  involved. 
The  average  toll  was  38.8  cents  per  message, 
and  the  cost  of  sending  each  message  was 
33.1  cents. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


289 


SUMMARY  OP  CABLES  OWNED  BY  PRIVATE  COMPANIES. 


Number 
of  Cables 
with  one 

or  more 
cores. 


Length 
of  Cables 

in 
Nautical 

Miles. 


African  Direct  Telegraph  Company 9 

Amazon  Telegraph  Company 19 

Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company 18 

Black  Sea  Telegraph  Company 1 

Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  Company 10 

Central  and  South  American  Telegraph  Company 21 

Commercial  Cable  Company 15 

Commercial  Pacific 6 

Commercial  Cable  Company  of  Cuba 1 

Compagnie  Francaise  des  Cables  Telegraphiques 24 

Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Company 10 

Deutsch  Atlantische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft. .    .      5 

Deutsch-Niederlandische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 3 

Deutsch  Sudamerikanische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 3 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Company 3 

Direct  United  States  Cable  Company 3 

Direct  West  India  Cable  Company .        2 

Eastern  Telegraph  Company !  134 

Eastern  Extension,  Australasia  and  China  Telegraph  Company ...  32 

Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph  Company 16 

Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company 2 

flreat  Northern  Telegraph  Company 29 

Halifax  and  Bermudas  Cable  Company 1 

Indo-European  Telegraph  Company 3 

Mexican  Telegraph  Company 4 

Osteuropaische  Telegraphen-Gesellschaft 1 

River  Plate  Telegraph  Company 4 

South  American  Cable  Company 6 

Soanish  National  Submarine  Telegraph  Company 1 

United  States  and  Hay ti  Telegraph  and  Cable  Company 1 

West  African  Telegraph  Company 

West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Company 7 

West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph  Company 22 

Western  Telegraph  Company1 43 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company 8 

Total 475 


3,026 

1,304 

9,548 

327 

102  y, 

11,793 
16,585 
10,010 

1,285 
11,430 

1,143 

9,660 

3,416 

5.811 
710 

3,171 

1,276 
40,961 
24,771 
10,060 

1,057 

8,039 

851 

21 

2,923 
185 
220 

3,817 
927 

1.391 

1,471 

1,973 

4,355 
23,848 

7,351 


GENERAL  SUMMARY. 


Number 
of  Cables 
with  one 

or  more 
cores. 


Length 
of  Cables 

in 
Nautical 

Miles 


Government  Administrations. 
Private  Companies 


Total . 


2.321  H 
473 


45.530  j 
224, 000  j 


2,794  H 


269,531 


Partly  extracted  from  the  Official  Documents  issued  by  the  International  Bureau  of 
Telegraphic  Administrations,  Berne. — Electrical  Trades  Directory. 

This  table  and  that  showing  "Land  Lines  of  the  World"  are  the  best  obtainable,  but 
are  not  believed  to  be  free  from  error,  as  the  footings  in  the  original  source  of  "Land  Lines" 
were  far  from  accurate,  but  these  errors  have  been  corrected  by  the  Editor. 


290 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEST  ESDIES, 
MEXICO,  CEK.  AMERICA 

AND  NORTHERN  PART  OF 

SOUTH  AMERICA 


NORTH         PACIFIC 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


291 


RULES  FOR  CABLE  MESSAGES. 


"1.  Every  message  must  be  prepaid,  un- 
less otherwise  specially  authorized,  and  all 
words  in  the  address,  text  and  signature  are 
counted  and  charged  for.  No  charge  is  made 
for  the  transmission  of  the  name  of  the 
originating  office. 

ADDRESSES. 

2.  In  the  address  of  any  message,  the  name 
of  tiie  office  of  destination,  the  name  of  the 
country  and  the  name  of  the  territorial  sub- 
division are  each  counted  as  one  word,  no 
matter  how  many  letters  are  employed. 

3.  The  address  of  every  message  must  con- 
sist of  at  least  two  words,  the  first  indicating 
the  name  of  the  receiver  and  the  second  the 
name  of  the  office  of  destination. 

4.  The  sender  is  responsible  for  an  incor- 
rect or  insufficient  address.     Corrections  and 
alterations  can  only  be  made  by  a  paid  service 
message. 

5.  No  message  can  be  accepted  (except  at 
"Sender's  Risk")  when  addressed  to  the  care 
of  a  registered  address  unless  the  words  "  care" 
or  "care  of,"  or  their  equivalent,  be  placed 
between  the  addressee's  name,  or  destination, 
and  the  registered  address;    thus  a  message 
for  "Meyer,  Berlin,"  to  be  delivered  to  the 
registered  address  "Dervish,  Berlin,"  should 
be    addressed    "Meyer,    care    (or    'care    of) 
Dervish,  Berlin." 

6.  If  an  indication  of  any  particular  route 
be    given    by    the    sender    and    considered 
necessary  by   the   company,   it  will   be  for- 
warded  free;    such   indication,    when   given, 
must  be  transmitted  immediately  after  the 
address;  that  is,  as  a  part  of  the  address,  and 
before  the  text  of  the  message. 

7.  Messages   destined    for   places   beyond 
the    lines    of    telegraph    must    contain    in- 
structions as  to  the  name  of  the  place  from 
which  they  are  to  be  posted.     Such  instruc- 
tions must  be  inserted  as  a  part  of  the  address, 
and  must  be  paid  for. 

PLAIN  MESSAGES. 

8.  Plain  messages  (i.  e.,  neither  Code  nor 
Cipher)  may  be  written  in  any  language  that 
can  be  expressed  in  Roman  letters.     In  such 
messages  each  word  of  fifteen  letters  or  less 
is  counted  as  a  word,  and  words  of  over  fifteen 
letters    are    counted    at    the    rate    of    fifteen 
letters  or  fractions  of  fifteen  letters  to  a  word. 

CODE  MESSAGES. 

9.  Code    messages    may    contain    words 
belonging  to  one  or  more  of  the  following 
languages:   English,  French,  German,  Italian, 
Dutch,  Portuguese,  Spanish  and  Latin.     The 
use  of  words  of  other  languages  is  not  allowed. 
Code    messages    may    also    contain    artificial 
words — that  is,  groups  of  letters  so  combined 
as  to  be  pronounceable  in  at  least  one  of  the 
eight  admitted  languages.     In  code  messages 
each  code  word  (whether  genuine  or  artificial) 
of  ten  letters  or  less  is  counted  as  a  word,  and 
no  code  word  of  more  than  ten  letters  can  be 
accepted.     If  any  words  in  plain   language, 
and  of  more  than  ten  letters  each,  are  used 
in   code  messages,  they  are  counted   at   the 
rate  of  ten  letters  or  fraction  of  ten  letters 
to  a  word. 


CIPHER  MESSAGES. 

10.  In    cipher   messages,    which    may   be 
composed  of  groups  of  figures  or  of  groups 
of  letters,  the  groups  are  counted  at  the  rate 
of  five  figures  or  letters,  or  fraction  thereof,  to 
a  word. 

COUNTING  OF  WORDS,  ETC. 

11.  Every  isolated  figure,  letter  or  char- 
acter counts  as  one  word. 

12.  Words  joined  by  a  hyphen  or  separated 
by  an  apostrophe  are  counted  as  so  many 
separate  words. 

13.  Signs   of   punctuation,    hyphens    and 
apostrophes  are  not  counted  or  sent  except 
upon  formal  demand  of  the  sender,  in  which 
case  they  will  be  charged  for  as  one  word  each. 

14.  When  the  letters  "ch"  come  together 
in  the  spelling  of  a  word,  they  are  counted  as 
one  letter.     In  artificial  words,  however,  the 
combination  is  counted  as  two  letters. 

15.  Abbreviated    and    misspelled    words 
and  illegitimate  compound  words  and  words 
combined  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  usages 
of  any  of  the  languages  authorized  by  Rule  9, 
also  unpronounceable  groups  of  letters,  (not 
trade-marks  or  marks  of  commerce),  are  in- 
admissible,  but  if   they  should  accidentally 
appear   in    a   message    the    unpronounceable 
groups  will  be  counted  at  the  rate  of  five 
letters,  or  fraction  of  five  letters,  as  one  word, 

I   and  the  others  in  accordance  with  the  number 
of  words  they  actually  contain. 

16.  Inverted  commas,  the  two  signs  of  the 
parenthesis  and  each  separate  figure,   letter 
or  underline  will  be  counted  as1  one  word. 
Groups  of  figures  will  be  counted  and  charged 
for  at  the  rate  of  five  figures,   or  fraction 
thereof,  as  9ne  word. 

17.  Decimal  points  and  commas,  used  in 
the    formation    of    numbers,    also    bars    of 
division  and  letters  added  to  figures  to  form 
ordinal  numbers,  are  to  be  counted  as  a  figure, 
and  charged  for  at  the  rate  of  five  figures,  or 
fraction  thereof,  as  one  word. 

18.  The  following  examples  will  determine 
the  interpretation  of  the  rules  to  be  followed 
in  counting: 


s^-sSi 

Alright 2 

Unconstitutional     (16    letters)..    '2 

A-t-il    3 

Aujourdhui    1 

Aujourd'hui     2 

Newyork    1 

New    York    2     1 

Frankfort    Main    2     1 

Frankfurtmain    1     1 

Starokonstantinow     (Town    in 

Russia)    2     1 

Emmingen   Wurtemberg    2     1 

Van  de  Brande    3 

Vandebrande     1 

Dubois   1 

Du   Bois    2 

Hyde    Park 2 

Hydepark   (contrary  to  usage  of 

the   language)     2 

(Continued  on  page  293.) 


292 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


EUROPE  WITH  CONNECTING 
LINES  AND  CABLES  TO 

ASIA,  AFRICA.  NORTH 

AMERICA  AND  SOUTH 

AMERICA. 


The  general  day  and  night  press  cable  rate 
between  London  and  New  York  is  7  cents  a 
word,  with  the  following  reduction  at  certain 
hours:  London  to  New  York,  12  midnight  to 


6  A.  M.  (London  time),  5  cents  a  word;  New 
York  to  London,  12  midnight  to  6  A.  M.  and 
IP  M.  to  4  P.  M.  (New  York  time),  5  cents 
a  word. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


293 


(Continued  from  page  291) 


Saintjames  Street   ............  2 

Saint   James   Street    ..........  3 

44Va    (4   figures   and   sign)  .....  1 

444,55  (5  figures  and  sign)  .....  2 

$100   ..........  ..............  2 


Onehundred    dollars 
10   fr.    50 


3 

lib    30     .....................  3 

44      .........................  1 

44/2     ......................  1 

2%     .........................  1 

Two  hundred  and  thirty  four.  .  5 
Twohundredandthirtyfour  (23 

letters)     ...................  2 

State  of  Maryland  (name  of 

ship)     .....................  3 

Stateofmaryland   (name  of  ship)  1 

Emvchf    (6   letters)     ..........  2 

Ch  23  (trade  mark)  .........  1 


m 

C.    H.    F.    45 2 

The    business    is    urgent,    start    at    once 

(7  words  and  2  underlines) .  .   9 
Send  reply   (if  any)   by  mail    (6  words 

and    parentheses) 7 

Explain  "reversal"  (2  words  and 

Inverted    commas     3 

REPETITIONS. 

19.  At   the   tune  of   filing  a   message  its 
sender  may,  upon  payment  of  a  quarter  rate 
in    addition    to   the   ordinary    tolls,   order  it 
repeated,    in    which    case    the    various    relay 
offices  en  route  repeat  it  to  each  other  as  it 
passes.     The   words    "REPETITION    PAID,"   or 
the    indication    "T.    C.,"    must    be    inserted 
immediately  after  the  address:    that  is,  as  a 
part  of  the  address  and  before  the  text,  and 
is  charged  for. 

The  indication  "T.  C."  counts  as  one  word. 

20.  If   repetition   of  a   doubtful  word  or 
words   be    requested   by   the   addressee  of  a 
message,  the  same  may  be  procured  by  free 
service   message   to    the   office   at   which    the 
message  reached  the  lines,  or  to  the  CABLE 
DEPARTMENT,  New  York. 

21.  Every    message    exchanged    between 
two  telegraph  offices  to  rectify  a  mistake  o' 
the  sender  is  charged  for  at  full  rates. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT  OF  RECEIPT. 

22.  The  sender  may  request  that  notice  of 
the  date  and   time  at   which   his  message  is 
delivered  to  the  addressee,  or.  when  posted  to 
destination,  the  date  and  time  handed  to  the 
Post  Office,  be  transmitted  to  him  by  telegraph 
or  Postal  Card.     The  words  "ACKNOWLEDG- 
MENT   PAID,"    or   the   indication    "P.    C.,"    if 
notice  is  to  be  given"by  telegraph,  or  "  P.  C.  P.," 
if  notice  is  to  be  given  by  Postal  Card,  besides 
being  transmitted  in  the  check  free,  must  be 
inserted  immediately  after  the  address,  and  is 
charged   for.     The  indications   "P.   C."   and 
"P  C.  P."  count  each  as  one  word. 


The  charge  for  a  telegraphic  "acknowledg- 
ment of  receipt"  is  equal  to  that  for  a  message 
of  five  words  to  same  destination  by  same 
route. 

PREPAID  REPLIES. 

23.  The  sender  of  a  message  may  pay  for 
a  reply  thereto,  but  he  must  decide  as  to  the 
length  of  the  reply  paid  for.  The  indications 
"R.  P."  (meaning  Reply  Paid),  together  with 
the  number  of  words  prepaid,  must  be  in- 
serted in  parentheses  immediately  before  the 
address,  that  is,  as  a  part  of  the  address, 
and  is  charged  for.  The  indication  "R.  P.  5," 
"R.  P.  10,"  "R.  P.  14,"  etc.,  counts  as  one 
word. 

When  accepting  a  message  for  which  a 
reply  has  been  prepaid,  the  originating  office 
will  collect,  in  addition  to  the  charges  there- 
for, the  full  charges  for  the  reply  as  indicated. 

The  sender  of  such  a  message  should  under- 
stand that  the  toll  paid  for  the  reply  is  not  a 
deposit,  but  is  practically  a  remittance  to  his 
correspondent,  to  whom  the  foreign  telegraph 
administrations  deliver  with  the  message  a 
voucher  specifying  the  amount  and  number 
of  words  paid  for,  which  vpucher  entitles 
him  to  send  free  of  charge,  within  the  limits 
of  the  amount  prepaid,  a  telegram  to  any 
destination  whatever,  and  from  any  office 
of  the  administration  whose  office  issued  the 
voucher. 

NIGHT  CABLE  LETTERS. 

Night  Cable  Letters,  accepted  at  any  hour, 
are  taken  at  the  low  rate  of  75  cents  for  12 
words  and  '5  cents  for  each  additional  word, 
plus  small  additional  charges  beyond  the  cable 
stations  and  points  of  destination,  if  written 
in  plain  language  of  the  country  of  origin  or 
destination.  They  are  deliverable  at  the  con- 
venience of  the  company  within  24  hours  or 
the  time  of  filing. 

It  is  necessary  hi  every  case  to  indicate 
whether  mail  or  telegraphic  delivery  beyond 
London  is  to  be  made.  This  indication  may 
be  given  by  endorsing  on  the  message  if 
mailed,  or  transmitting  in  the  check  if  wired, 
the  designation  "  Lettermail"  or  " Letterwire" 
for  cable  letters  to  be  mailed  or  wired  re- 
spectively. To  illustrate*  a  12  word  Cable 
Letter  to  Paris  to  be  mailed  from  London 
would  be  checked  "12  Lettermail." 

All  Cable  Letters  not  destined  to  London  or 
Liverpool  will  be  mailed  beyond  London 
unless  otherwise  arranged  by  sender. 

TABLE  OF  CABLE  WORD  RATES. 

Following  is  a  brief  list  of  rates  to  some  of 
the  principal  countries.  The  rate,  of  course, 
varies  according  to  the  location  of  the  city  or 
town  in  the  United  States.  Thus,  the  rate 
from  New  York  City  to  the  Argentine  Republic 
is  65  cents  a  word,  while  the  rate  from  Mexico 
would  be  74  cents  a  word.  It  is  not  feasible 
to  give  the  rates  from  all  of  the  states,  as  this 
can  be  readily  obtained  from  the  rate  books 
of  telegraph  companies.  The  following  rates 
give  the  cost  per  word  from  New  York  City: 

Argentine  Republic $0.65 

Australia  and  New  Zealand 66 

Austria 32 

Barbados 91 

Belgium 25 


294 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


British  Guiana • $1.44 

Chili 65 

China 1.22 

Cuba,  Havana 15 

Cuba,  other  cities 20 

Denmark .35 

England 25 

France 25 

Germany 25 

Greece 36 

Holland 25 

Honolulu 47 

Hungary... 32 

India 74 

Ireland 25 

Italy 31 

Jamaica 48 

Japan 1.33 

Norway 35 

Panama  Republic 40 

Peru 65 

Philippines  (Manila) 1.12 

Porto  Rico .       .50 

Portugal 39 

Russia  in  Europe '. 43 

Scotland , 25 

Spain,     Prov.     of    Barcelona,    Gerona, 

Lerida  and  Tarragona 38 

Spain,  other  offices 40 

Sweden 38 

Switzerland 30 

Turkey  in  Europe 36 

Uruguay 65 

Wales .25 

The  rate  from  New  York  City  to  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  France,  Germany,  Belgium 
and  Holland  is  25  cents  a  word.  ,The  rate  in 
very  few  cases  is  increased  more  than  31 
cents  a  word  from  inland  places,  except  such 
states,  etc.,  as  Arizona,  British  Columbia, 
California,  Idaho,  Nevada,  Oregon,  Utah  and 
Washington,  where  the  rate  is  37  cents  per 
word.  Arkansas,  Colorado,  most  places  in 
Florida,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Louisiana,  Manitoba, 
Minnesota,  Missouri  (other  than  St.  Louis  and 
a  few  other  places),  Montana,  Nebraska,  New 
Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  South 
Dakota,  Texas  and  Wyoming  have  a  rate  of 
34  cents  a  word.  The  rate  from  all  the  other 
states  is  31  cents  or  less. 

There  are  many  places,  particularly  in 
Eastern,  Northern  and  Southern  Africa, 
which  are  very  difficult  to  reach  by  cable  or 
rather  expensive  and  the  rate  is  very  high, 
amounting  in  some  cases  to  as  much  as  $4.86 
per  word.  Any  telegraph  cable  office  will  be 
glad  to  give  specific  information  relative  to 
such  rates.  The  cable  rates  to  the  West 
Indies  in  some  cases  are  very  high,  as  for  in- 
stance, British  Guiana,  where  the  rate  is 
$1.44  per  word.  The  rates  to  South  America 
are  apt  to  be  very  high,  particularly  to  Peru. 
The  rate  to  Bermuda  from  New  York  City  is 
42  cents  per  word;  to  Turk's  Island,  56  cents 
per  word. 

If  destined  to  points  in  Great  Britain  other 
than  London  or  Liverpool  the  added  charge 
for  telegraphic  delivery  will  be  12  cents  for 
12  words  or  less,  cable  count,  and  1  cent  for 
each  additional  word.  If  sent  by  telegraph 
to  France  the  added  charge  will  be  7  K  cents 
per  word,  cable  count;  to  Germany  9  cents 
per  word,  cable  count;  to  Holland  and 
Belgium  5  cents  per  word,  cable  count,  and 
so  on. 

Plain     English,      or     Anglicized     foreign 


words  in  common  use  such  as  Chauffeur,  Au 
revoir,  etc.,  as  used  in  a  plain  English  message, 
may  be  accepted.  No  code  words  except 
those  in  registered  addresses  will  be  allowed. 

Figures  may  be  used  in  Cable  Letters,  and 
are  counted  as  one  word  for  each  figure. 

The  indication  "R.  P."  including  the 
number  of  words  prepaid  is  counted  and 
charged  for  as  one  word. 

The  term  "deferred  rate"  should  not  be 
used  in  connection  with  Cable  Letters. 

DEFERRED  CABLE  SERVICE 
Commencing  January   1,   1912,  a  deferred 
cable  service  was  inaugurated  subject  to  all 
the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  regular  cable 
service  with  the  following  exceptions: 

1.  Messages  must  be  in   plain   language, 
either  French  or  the  language  of  country  of 
origin    or    destination    authorized    for    inter- 
national correspondence.     The  use  of  two  or 
more  languages  in  the  same  message  is  not 
permitted. 

2.  All  numbers  except  those  used  in  ad- 
dress must  be  written  in  words  at  full  length. 

3.  The  messages  must  contain  at  least  one 
text  word. 

4.  Senders  must  in  every  case  write  before 
the   address   and   pay   for  as  one  word   the 
letters  LCF,  LCO  or  LCD,  as  in  the  nature 
of  a  declaration  that  the  communication  is  in 
the    French    language    or    the    language    of 
country  of  origin  or  destination  as  case  may 
be. 

5.  Messages  are  liable  to  be  deferred  in 
favor  of  those  paid  for  at  full  rates,  for  a  period 
not  exceeding  24  hours.     If  delayed  beyond 
that  time  they  take  their  turn  with  full  paid 
traffic. 

6.  Rate  charged  for  deferred  cables  is  one- 
half    the    rate    charged   for   full   paid    cables 
between  the  same  terminals  except  between 
points  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  on  the  one 
hand  and  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  on 
the  other,  when  the  deferred  rate  is  3^  cents 
less  than  half  the  regular  rate. 

Aden,  Arabia.  Denmark. 

Algeria.  Egypt. 

Argentine  Republic.  France. 

Ascension  Island.  French  Guiana. 

Australia.  French  Indo  China. 

Austria.  French  West  Africa. 
Bathurst,  British  W.         French  Soudan. 

Africa.  Mauretania. 

Belgium.  Senegal. 

Borneo  (British).  Germany. 

Brazil  Gold  Coast,  Africa. 

British  East  Africa.  Great  Britain  and 
Burmah.  Ireland. 

Canary  Islands.  Greece. 

Cape  Colony.  Hungary. 

Cape  Verde  Island.  Iceland. 

Ceylon.  India  (British). 

China:  Italy 

Amoy.  Labuan  Island. 

Chefoo.  Luxemburg. 

Foochow.  Madagascar. 

Hankow.  Madeira  Is. 

Macao.  Mauritius  Island. 

Peking.  Morocco  (except 

Shanghai.  Casablanca, 

Tientsin.  Mogador  and 

Tsingtau.  Rabat). 

Weihaiwei.  New  Zealand. 

Cocos  Island.  Nigeria. 

Cyprus.  Norway, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


295 


8  I  B  E  R  I 


EASTERN  ASIA, 
CHINA  *"°  JAPAN 


296 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Orange  River  Colony, 
Perim  Island. 
Portugal. 
Portuguese  East 

Africa. 
Portuguese  West 

Africa. 
Rhodesia. 

(Southern). 
Rodrigues  Island. 
St.  Helena  Island. 
Servia. 


Sierra  Leone. 
Somaliland  (British). 
Spain. 

Straits     Settlements 
and  Malay  States. 
Sweden. 
Switzerland. 
Tasmania. 
Transvaal. 
Tunis 
Zanzibar. 


WEEK  END  LETTERS 

Week  End  Letters  filed  before  midnight 
Saturday  are  deliverable  the  following  Monday 
morning.  The  rate  is  $1.15  for  24  words  and 
5  cents  for  each  additional  word,  plus  small 
additional  charges  between  the  cable  stations 
and  points  of  destination.  Week  end  letters 
must  be  written  in  plain  language  of  the 
country  of  origin  or  destination. 

It  is  necessary  in  every  case  to  indicate 
whether  mail  or  telegraphic  delivery  beyond 
London  is  to  be  made.  This  indication  may 
be  given  by  endorsing  on  the  message  if  mailed 
or  transmitting  in  the  check  if  wired,  the 
designation  "  Weekmail  "•  or  "Weekwire"  for 
week  end  letters  to  be  mailed  or  wired  re- 
spectively. 

Week  End  Letters  so  transmitted  or  mailed 
will  be  delivered  on  the  following  Tuesday 
morning  after  they  leave  New  York,  Boston  or 
Montreal,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  possible, 
distance  considered  if  mailed  beyond  London 
or  Liverpool. 

All  Week  End  Letters  not  destined  to 
London  or  Liverpool  will  be  mailed  beyond 
London  unless  otherwise  arranged  by  sender. 

If  destined  to  points  in  Great  Britain  other 
than  London  or  Liverpool  the  added  charge  for 
telegraphic  delivery  will  be  as  given  under 
"Cable  Letters,"  same  rules  also  apply  for 
words,  etc. 


A  nine-word  message  has  been  despatched 
from  a  newspaper  office  in  New  York  back  to 
the  starting  point,  the  lapse  of  time  being 
exactly  sixteen  and  one-half  minutes.  The 
message  traveled  via  Honolulu,  Manila,  Hong 
Kong,  Singapore,  Bombay,  Suez,  Gibraltar 
and  the  Azores. 

The  first  telegraph  line  in  the  United 
States  was  opened  for  business  in  1844;  the 
telephone  was  introduced  in  1876  by  Prof 
A.  G.  Bell. 


THE  FIRST  ATLANTIC  CABLE. 

August  5th  of  1908  was  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  Atlantic  Cable,  that  being  the 
day  of  the  month  in  1858  on  which — contrary 
to  authoritative  opinion — the  engineer  of  one 
of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the  nineteenth 
century  completed  the  laying  of  the  submarine 
line  between  Ireland  and  Newfoundland,  the 
length  being  over  two  thousand  miles,  and 
the  depth  nearly  three  miles  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  distance.  The  projectors  were  Mr. 
John  Watkins  Bright,  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir 
Charles)  Bright  and  Mr.  Cyrus  West  Field. 
Mr.  Bright  was  also  the  engineer-in-chief 
of  the  undertaking,  and  he  received  the  honor 
of  knighthood  in  recognition  of  his  services 
to  the  country  in  connection  therewith,  at 
the  unprecedented  age  of  26. 

Electrical  theories  were,  however,  mistaken 
at  that  time,  and  the  electricians  applied  far 
too  much  power  for  the  transmission  of  signals, 
the  result  being  that  the  insulation  suffered 
by  degrees,  until  after  three  months'  useful 
work  the  cable  gradually  succumbed. 

After  a  number  of  cables  had  been  laid  by 
Sir  Charles  Bright,  Mr.  H.  C.  Fqrde,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Siemens  and  others  to  India,  Gibraltar, 
Alexandria,  &c.,  another  Atlantic  Cable  ex- 
pedition started  in  1865.  This  was  the  first 
line  that  was  laid  by  the  manufacturers  of  the 
cable,  these  contractors  being  the  Telegraph 
Construction  and  Maintenance  Company,  with 
Mr.  (afterward  Sir  Samuel)  Canning  for  their 
chief  engineer,  whilst  Sir  Charles  Bright  and 
Mr.  Latimer  Clark  acted  as  consulting  en- 
gineers to  the  proprietors.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  extra  knowledge  and  experience  gained 
in  regard  to  the  subject  generally,  this  ex- 
pedition met  with  as  many  mishaps  as  the 
first  expedition  of  1857;  but  in  1866 — as 
in  1858 — the  same  arrangements  ultimately 
achieved  success,  since  which  the  construction, 
laying,  and  working  of  submarine  telegraphs 
has  passed  from  the  pioneer  stage  to  that  of 
ordinary  routine. 

The  engineering  methods  were  similar  to 
those  adopted  eight  years  previously;  but  the 
line  proved  a  lasting  success,  owing  to  the 
advances  made  in  electrical  science  and  in  the 
practical  working  of  cables.  On  the  electrical 
side,  in  addition  of  the  late  Lord  Kelvin,  the 
names  of  Varley  and  Willoughby  Smith  must 
always  be  honorably  associated  with  the 
subject,  and  the  late  Sir  John  Fender  did  more 
than  any  man  for  the  commercial  develop- 
ment of  submarine  telegraphy. 


THE  CABLE  ALPHABET. 


~^~~r^~JT~r^ 

The  cut  above  shows  the  Morse  Code  as  recorded  by  a  syphon  recorder.  Syphon  recorders 
are  used  for  receiving  cable  messages.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  spaces  are  represented  by 
horizontal  lines,  dots  by  loops  above  the  space  lines,  and  dashes  by  loops  below  the  space  lines. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


297 


AFRICA  AND 
CABLES  TO  INDIA 

AND  SO.AMERICA 


298 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


S 

'  SAVE ' 


o 

'OUR' 


S 

'  SOULS ' 


WIRELESS  ROOM  OF  U.  S.  REVENUE  CUTTER  "GRESHAM. 


CHAPTER  X. 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPHY. 


Wireless  telegraphy  is,  in  theory,  closely 
allied  to  heliography,  or  signaling  with  flashes 
of  light.  The  light  used,  however,  is  produced 
electrically  and  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  made  up  of  very 
long  waves,  called  Hertzian  waves,  which  vi- 
brate too  slowly  to  affect  the  retina.  The  eye 
can  onlv  discern  waves  which  make  from 
4,000  billions  to  7,000  billions  vibrations  per 
minute.  However,  the  Hertzian  ray  resem- 
bles light  in  that  it  can  be  reflected  by  a 
metallic  plate  and  can  be  refracted  by  a  prism 
of  pitch,  can  be  brought  to  a  focus  with  a 
pitch  lens,  and  may  be  polarized.  Owing  to 
the  great  length  of  the  Hertzian  waves,  almost 
all  substances  are  transparent  to  them.  The 
Hertzian  waves  were  discovered  by  Professor 
Heinrich  Hertz,  a  young  German  philosopher, 
during  his  experiments  with  the  spark  dis- 
charge of  Leyden  jars  and  of  the  Ruhmkorff 
coil  in  1886  and  1887. 

He  found  that  when  a  spark  leaped  the  gap 
between  the  terminals,  electric  oscillations 
took  place  in  these  terminals  which  set  up 
magnetic  waves  in  the  surrounding  space, 
capable  in  turn  of  setting  up  similar  oscilla- 
tions in  any  adjacent  conductor  Iving  at  an 
angle  to  them.  The  waves  were  detected  by 
using  a  "resonator,"  which  was  merely  a  circle 
or  a  rectangle  of  copper  wire  formed  with  a 
gap  in  one  side.  When  the  induction  coil  was 
in  operation  and  the  resonator  coil  was  held 
near  the  coil,  a  tiny  stream  of  sparks  would 
leap  across  the  resonator  gap.  To  better 
understand  this  phenomenon  take  as  a  crude 
example  two  vertical  rods  in  a  pool  of  water 
and  on  each  a  float  free  to  slide  vertically  on 
the  rod.  Now,  if  one  of  these  floats  be  moved 
up  and  down  upon  its  rod,  it  produces  waves 
in  the  water  just  as  the  electric  oscillation 
produces  waves  in  the  ether.  These  spread 
out  in  all  directions  and  on  reaching  the  other 
float  cause  it  to  oscillate  up  and  down,  just 
as  the  magnetic  wav»s  produce  electric  oscilla- 
tions in  the  resonator. 

\\  ithout  going  into  a  detailed  history  of 
the  development  of  wireless  telegraphy  from 
Hertz's  experiments,  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  essential  difference  between  the  apparatus 
used  by  Hertz  in  his  experiments  and  the 
several  systems  now  commonly  in  use  lies  in 
the  receiver.  The  transmitter  is  practically 
the  same.  A  vertical  wire  called  the  antenna 
i-^  connected  to  one  terminal  of  the  coil,  and 
the  other  terminal  is  connected  with  the  earth, 
the  purpose  being  to  increase  the  electrical 
capacity  of  the  terminal  rods  and  produce 
larger  waves.  Instead  of  producing  the  oscil- 
lations by  means  of  an  induction  coil,  they 


are  now  ordinarily  produced  by  a  dynamo  and 
a  step-up  transformer  except  for  telegraphing 
over  short  distances.  But  even  with  these 
changes  we  would  not  be  able  to  telegraph 
over  any  appreciable  distance  if  dependent 
upon  the  Hertz  resonator  for  receiving  a  mes- 
sage, for,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  waves 
spread  out  in  all  directions  from  the  trans- 
mitting antenna,  the  receiving  antenna  is 
acted  upon  by  a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
power  expended  by  the  transmitter,  and  this 
proportion  decreases  very  rapidly  as  the  dis- 
tance between  the  transmitter  and  the  receiver 
increases.  In  order  then  to  detect  the  rays 
at  long  distances,  a  very  sensitive  instrument 
called  the  "coherer"  has  been  invented.  The 
coherer  in  its  usual  form  consists  of  a  glass 
tube  with  two  metal  pistons  fitted  therein  be- 
tween which  a  quantity  of  nickel  filings  is 
placed.  The  latter  forms  an  imperfect  elec- 
trical contact  between  the  pistons,  and  takes 
the  place  of  the  spark  gap  in  the  receiving 
antenna.  When  the  oscillations  are  set  up  in 
the  antenna  by  the  Hertzian  waves,  due  to 
their  high  pressure  or  voltage,  they  break 
through  the  imperfect  contact  of  the  coherer, 
causing  the  filings  therein  to  cohere  or  string 
together  and  thus  produce  a  much  better 
electric  path  through  the  coherer.  The  action 
is  microscopic  and  cannot  be  detected  with 
the  naked  eye.  However,  the  coherer,  aside 
from  being  a  part  of  the  antenna  circuit,  is 
also  made  a  part  of  a  local  battery  circuit, 
which  contains  a  telegraph  receiver,  and  when- 
ever the  electric  oscillations  open  a  good  path 
through  the  filings  for  the  local  circuit,  the 
telegraph  instrument  will  be  energized  by  the 
local  battery  only.  In  order  to  break  this 
path  after  the  oscillations  have  ceased,  or,  in 
other  words,  to  cause  the  filings  to  decohere, 
they  are  constantly  jarred  apart  by  means  of 
the  "tapper,"  which  is  in  reality  an  electric 
bell  with  the  gong  removed  and  the  clapper 
striking  the  coherer  tube  instead.  Carbon 
granules  may  be  substituted  for  metallic  fil- 
ings, and  in  this  case  no  tapper  is  necessary, 
the  coherer  being  self-restoring. 

In  transmitting  messages  a  telegraph  key 
in  the  primary  circuit  of  the  induction  coil  is 
operated  according  to  the  usual  Morse  code, 
and  this  causes  sparks  to  leap  the  spark  gap 
at  corresponding  intervals.  These  signals  will 
then  be  transmitted  by  the  Hertzian  waves  to 
the  receiving  station,  where  they  will  be  re- 
corded by  the  telegraph  receiver.  The  co- 
herer is  not  by  any  means  the  only  wave  de- 
tector in  use.  Every  wireless  telegraph  com- 
pany has  one  or  more  different  types  of 
detectors. 


299 


300 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


The  Dover-Calais  and  Folkestone-Boulogne 
turbine  steamers  have  been  equipped  with  the 
Marconi  wireless  apparatus.  The  expense  for 
telegrams  from  the  ship  to  any  part  of  Eng- 
land is  6  cents,  with  a  minimum  charge  of 


62  cents;  to  any  part  of  France,  Germany  or 
Belgium,  9  cents  a  word;  to  Switzerland,  Italy 
and  Austria,  10  cents  a  word,  and  to  Denmark, 
Sweden  and  Norway,  11  cents  a  word,  with  a 
minimum  charge  in  each  case  of  75  cents. 


MARCONI  WIRELESS  STATIONS  FOR  THE  IMPERIAL  TELEGRAPH  SERVICE. 


MARCONI   HIGH   POWER  STATION   AT 

SOUTH  WELLFLEET,  MASS. 

(CAPE  COD.) 


NAVY  STATION  AT  ARLINGTON,  VA. 

Observed  time  will  be  sent  out  regularly 

from  this  station. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


301 


WIRELESS  STATIONS. 


A  complete  list  of  wireless  telegraph  sta- 
tions of  the  world,  including  shore  stations, 
merchant  vessels,  revenue  cutters  and  vessels 
of  the  United  States  Navy,  is  published  peri- 
odically by  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
of  the  Department  of  the  Navy.  The  edition 
for  January  1,  1912,  consists  of  165  pages. 
Copies  of  this  publication  can  be  obtained 
from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
United  States  Printing  Office,  Washington, 
D.  C.,  at  a  cost  of  15  cents.  The  section  de- 
voted to  wireless  telegraphy  in  this  book  as 
regards  the  United  States  is  taken  from  this 
work  and  is  corrected  to  June  12,  1912,  but 
many  who  would  like  to  have  the  call  letters, 
etc.,  of  foreign  wireless  shore  stations,  also  the 
call  letters,  etc.,  of  vessels  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  the  United  States  Army,  revenue  cut- 
ters, and  all  steamships  which  are  equipped 
with  wireless,  should  purchase  this  inexpen- 
sive pamphlet.  Space  forbade  the  publica- 
tion of  this  list  in  full. 

Wireless  communication  was  an  established 
fact  for  more  than  ten  years  before  the  ships 
"Republic"  and  "Florida"  collided  on  Jan- 
uary 23,  1909.  The  wonderful  salvage  opera- 
tion which  was  only  rendered  possible  by  the 
prompt  action  of  the  vessel  summoned  by 
wireless  called  instant  attention  to  the  im- 
portance of  wireless  as  a  safeguard  from  the 
dangers  of  the  sea.  The  "Republic"  might 


have  gone  down  to  the  bottom  without  news 
of  the  disaster  and  with  none  of  the  passengers 
and  crew  saved,  except  possibly  a  few  of  them 
who  escaped  by  life  boats,  had  it  not  been  for 
this  most  practical  invention.  It  was  two 
days  after  "La  Bourgoyne"  sank  before  the 
story  of  the  catastrophe  became  known.  The 
next  interesting  use  of  the  wireless  was  per- 
haps the  detection  and  arrest  of  Dr.  Crippen 
for  the  crime  of  murder.  There  is  no  more 
weird  story  in  the  annals  of  crime  than  how 
the  unseen  wireless  brought  Dr.  Crippen  to 
the  noose.  Stations  that  were  practically  un- 
known became  suddenly  vitalized,  and  to-day 
Cape  Sable,  Belle  Isle,  Fame  Point  and  Father 
Point  are  household  words. 

On  the  14th  of  April,  at  11.46  P.  M.,  ship's 
time,  the  "Titanic"  struck  an  iceberg.  Within 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the  Captain  visited 
the  wireless  room  and  instructed  the  operator 
to  get  assistance.  The  two  calls  "C.Q.D." 
and  "S.O.S."  began  to  flash  from  the  aerials, 
and  the  message  of  despair  from  the  sinking 
vessel  was  heard  by  the  "Mount  Temple, "  the 
"Frankfurt"  and  the  "Carpathia."  The  Cap- 
tain of  the  "Carpathia"  immediately  turned 
around  and  succeeded  in  reaching  the  "Ti- 
tanic" after  she  sank,  and  rescued  a  portion 
of  her  passengers  and  crew.  Had  it  not  been 
for  the  wireless  the  probabilities  are  that  very 
few,  if  any,  survivors  would  have  remained  to 
tell  the  awful  tale. 


WIRELESS  STATIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA.     A  GREAT 
CENTER  OF  WIRELESS  ACTIVITY. 


302 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH  SHORE  STATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  CANADA. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 

Call 
Letters 

Range  in 
Nautical 
Miles. 

Power 
in 

Kilowatts. 

Wave 
Length  in 
Meters. 

Character  of 
Station. 

UNITED  STATES. 

ATLANTIC    AND    GtTLF    COASTS. 

Eastport  Me  

WQ 
NAB 
FV 

NAG 
HY 

"  F  C  " 
FBO 
AU 
MU 
FBN 
NAD 
WSA 
NAE 
MSW 
MCC 
MSC 
BH 

400-1,000 

• 

4 

1 
^ 

2 
1 

1 
7  Va  and  100 
o 

800-1,500 
1,000 

i',666 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Gov.  (Army). 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Experimental. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Army). 
Experimental. 
Commercial. 
Experimental. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Experimental. 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Private. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Private. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Private. 
Do. 
Experimental. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Gov.  (Army). 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Private. 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Do. 
Experimental. 

Gov.  (Army). 

Do. 

3rov.  (Navy). 
Gov.  (Army). 
Do 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Portland.  Me                   .    ... 

Fort  Levitt,  Me  

Portsmouth,  N.  H  
Amesbury  Mass   ' 

Cambridge,  Mass  
Fort  Andrews,  Mass  
Brant  Rock,  Mass  

••••••••• 

Variable. 
480 

Chatham,  Mass  
Chelsea  Mass 

Boston  Mass     

5 
5 
5 

e 
O 

Variable. 
1,000 
Variable. 
1,000 

Boston  Mas* 

Boston  Mass  



Cape  Cod   Mass         

Cape  Cod,  South  Wellfleet1  . 
Cape  Cod,  Mass  
Siasconsett,  Mass  
Quincy,  Mass  

35 
o 

2 

1,500 
,  350 
550 

400-1,000 

Quincy  Mass.         

Nantucket  Shoals  Lightship  . 
Newport,  R.  I  
Providence  R  I 

NLA 
NAF 
HG 
PJ 
BI 
WS 
MSB 
MSK 
NAG 
NY 
TWT 
MHI 
OHX 
FNK 
NAH 
FW 
FT 
FD 
FN 
AX 
MCY 
BS 

MHE 

BS 
NAI 
NAJ 
B 
NAK 
NAL 
QK 

SC 

BS 

NAV 
FO 
CAS 
NF 
NAM 

::::::::: 

2 
5 

400 
1,000 

Point  Judith,  R.I  

2 

1A 
5 

325 
280 
480 
350 
350 
1,000 
350-1.000 
425 

Block  Island,  R.  I  
New  London,  Conn  
Sea  Gate  N.  Y     

Sagaponack,  N.  Y.  . 

2 

7 
2 

Fire  Island,  N.  Y  
N  Y    (42  Broadway) 

180-500 

N.  Y.  (Ill  Broadway)  
N.  Y.  (Wanamaker's)  
N.  Y.  (Herald,  Battery)  

2 
2 
15 
1 
1 
3 
1 
2 

'  '2 

2 
3 
2 
5 
2 
5 
2 

3 

2 
100 
1 
2 
2 
5 

640 
3,000 
1,000 

Brooklyn  N  Y 

Fort  H.  G.  Wright,  N.  Y..  .  . 
Fort  Totten   N.  Y 



Fort  Wood,  N.  Y  

'366^606 

i  56^566 

500 

Fort  Hancock,  N.  J  
Atlantic  City   N  J 

700 
550 

550 
1,000 
1,000 
750 
1,000 
1.000 

Cape  May,  N.  J  
Camden   N  J 

Philadelphia,     Pa.      (Wana- 
maker's)           .... 

Philadelphia.  Pa.   (Bellevue- 
Stratford)  
Philadelphia  Pa 

Cape  Henlopen,  Del  

350 

Sparrows  Point,  Md. 

Annapolis,  Md  

Washington,  D.  C  
Washington   D   C 

Washington,    D.    C.     (Mills 
Building) 

"580 
1,000 

Washington,  D.  C.   (Bureau 
of  Standards)  

Arlington  Va.2 



Fort  Monroe,  Va  

Fort  Monroe,  Va. 

Norfolk,  Va  .  .  . 

150 

Norfolk,  Va  

1  High  Power  Marconi  Station. 

2  Under  construction  three  large  wireless  towers. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


303 


WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH  SHORE  STATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND 

CANADA.— Continued. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 

Call 
Letters. 

Range  in 
Nautical 
Miles. 

Power 
in 
Kilowatts. 

Wave 
Length  in 
Meters. 

Character  of 
Station. 

ATLANTIC  AND   GULF 

c  o  A8T8  —  Continued. 
Beaufort  N   C 

NAN 
NLB 
HA 
NAO 
NLC 
SV 
JX 
NAP 
NAQ 
NAR 
PD 
NAS 
MB 
FM 
HK 
HB 
NAT 
SW 
GW 
RU 
MXI 
GV 
SA 

FL 
FP 

FS 

BF 
CI 
CO 
CX 
CN 
CT 
DR 
CF 
CJL 
CW 
CH 
CY 
CAN 

IS 

BN 
RO 
GH 
BH 
GO 
CG 
MK 
MW 
PA 
SC 
SH 
CQ 
FK 
AS 
CM 
DM 
GM 

5 
1 
5 
5 
2 
2 
2 
2 
5 
25  and  2 
5 
5 
2 
2 
5 
5  and  25 
5 

*1 

2 

1,000 
400 
600 
1,000 
400 
450 
600 
1,000 
1,000 
1,000-2,000 
600 
1,000 
400 
350 
500 
1,750 
1,000 
250 
1,000 
450 

Gov.  (Navy)- 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Private. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Private. 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Army). 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Experimental. 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Diamond  Shoals  

'450-Y.666 

Cape  Hatteras,  N.  C  

Charleston,  S.  C  
Frying  Pan  Shoals  
Savannah,  Ga  
Jacksonville   Fla  



150-600 
150-300 

St    \ugustine   Fla              .  .  . 

Jupiter,  Fla  
Key  West   Fla                .    ... 



. 

Tampa   Fla 

500-1,500 

Pensacola   Fla               

Mobile   Ala 

Fort  Morgan,  Ala  
New  Orleans,  La  
New  Orleans   La  

100 
300-500 
700 

"75 
450-1,000 
200 

New  Orleans   La                 .  .  . 

Grand  Island   La            

Port  Arthur,  Tex  
Port'  Arthur  Tex 

Galveston  Tex                    .  .  . 

200-400 

2 
10 

3 
3 
3 

2 
5 
5 
2 
10 
5 
2 

450 

Fort  Sam  Houston,  Tex.1  .  .  . 

INTERIOR. 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans  
Fort  Riley   Kans 



Fort  Omaha   Neb  

GREAT  LAKES. 

Buffalo  N.  Y  

75 

Variable. 

"566 
Variable. 
1,000 

"Variable.' 
Variable. 
Variable. 
750 
850 
750 
500 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
900 
Variable. 
Variable. 

Erie  Pa                                .    . 

\shtabula,  Ohio  

Cleveland   Ohio              

150 

Cleveland.  Ohio  
Toledo,  Ohio  
Detroit,  Mich  
Detroit,  Mich  
Detroit   Mich 

150 

5 
5 
10 
5 
5 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

»1 

2 
2 

1 
5 

71 

2 
2 
5 
2 

Detroit   Mich  

Port  Huron   Mich. 



Bay  City,  Mich  
Sa^inaw  Mich 

'ioo 

150 

Mackinac  Island,  Mich  
Ludington.  Mich  
Harbor  Beach.  Mich  
Isle  Roval   Mich. 

Grand  Haven.  Mich.  ...."... 

100 
100 
150-200 

200 
150 

Benton  Harbor.  Mich  
Chicago.  111.  (Hotel)  
Chicago.  Ill  
Milwaukee  Wis 

Manitowoc.  Wis  

Waupaca  Wis. 

Scandinavia   Wis 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich  
Marquette  Mich 

250 

Variable. 
900 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 
Variable. 

Frankfort,  Mich  
Manistique,  Mich  
Calumet,  Mich  
Duluth  Minn 

150 
150 
150 

"iso 

Grand  Marais,  Minn  

i  Projected. 


304 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WIRELESS    TELEGRAPH    SHORE    STATIONS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES    AM) 

CANADA. — Continued. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 

Call 
Letters. 

Range  in 
Nautical 
Miles. 

Power 
in 
Kilowatts. 

Wave 
Length  in 
Meters. 

Character  of 
Station. 

PACIFIC  COAST. 

Friday  Harbor,  Wash  
Seattle,  Wash  

PD 
PA 

82 
HC 
RH 
NPC 
T2 
NPD 
NPE 
FX 
PC 
PX 
FJ 
NPF 
PM 
NPG 

2 
5 
5 
4 
4 
5 
2 
5 
10 
1 
2 
2 

1 
5 
5 
5 
5 
10 
1 
2 
5 
2 
3 
5 
2 
2 
1 
2 
5 

3 
5 
10 
3 
10 
20 
3 
5 
5 
10 
3 
1 
10 
10 
1 
1 
2 
2 
5 
2 
2 
2 
2 
5 

1  ,500 
500 

1,666 
400 
1,000 
1,000 

425 

i',666 

425 
1,000 
1,000 
600 

Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Private. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Navy;. 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Do. 
Gov.  (Army).  ' 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 
Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Army). 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Commercial. 
Gov.  (Navv). 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Gov.  (Navy). 

Gov.  (Navy). 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Government. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Seattle,  Wash  
Seattle,  Wash  
Roche  Harbor  Wash 

Bremerton,  Wash.  .  .  
Tacoma   Wash 

Tatoosh  Island.  Wash  
North  Head,  Ilwaco,  Wash. 
Fort  Worden,  Wash  
Astoria,  Oreg  
Marshfleld   Oreg 

200 

Fort  Stevens,  Oreg  
Cape  Blanco,  Denmark,  Ore. 
Eureka,  Cal  
Eureka  Cal                     .    . 

Farallon  Islands,  Cal  
San  Francisco,  Cal  
S   F    Cal    (Presidio) 

NPI 
PH 
PS 
NPJ 
NPH 
DN 
NPK 
PJ 
PJ 
G2 
A2 
PI 
NPL 

NPQ 
NPR 
NPV 
NFS 
NPA 
NPB 
FK 
FG 
FB 
FG 
FM 
FE 
FD 
FU 
FP 
FW 
PB 
DU 
HA 
HB 
HC 
HF 
HG 
HT 

MNR 
MDO 
MAT 
MVI 
MBH 



Yerba  Buena  Island,  S.  F.  .  . 
Mare  Island   Cal.           .    . 

::::.':::: 

600 
1,000 
100 
1,000 
425 
425 
500 
500 
425 
1,000 

,000 
,000 
,000 
,000 
,000 
,000 

San  Luis  Obispo,  Cal  
Point  Arguello,  Surf,  Cal.  .  .  . 
San  Pedro   Cal 

Los  Angeles,  Cal  
I  ./os  Angeles   Cal 

Avalon,  Cal  

Avalon,  Cal  
San  Diego  Cal 

ALASKA. 
Pribilof  Islands 

Dutch  Harbor 

Unalga  Island1  
Kodiak 

Cordova  
Sitka                         .    . 

Circle  City  

Fort  Egbert  
Fairbanks 

Fort  Gibbon  
Fort  St.  Michael 

Kotlik  

Nome  
Nulato 

Petersburg  
Wrangell 

Ketchikan  

Juneau  
Karluk 

••••••••• 

Kogginung  
Chignik 

Nushagak  

Clarks  Point  
Nak  Nek  

"iso 

ISO 
150 

CANADA. 

Indian  Harbor,  Labrador...  . 
Domino  Island,  Labrador.  .  . 
American  Tickle,  Labrador.  . 
Venison  Island,  Labrador.  .  . 
Battle  Harbor,  Labrador  

220 

'226 
220 



'Projected. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


305 


WIRELESS   TELEGRAPH   SHORE    STATIONS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES   AND 

CANADA. — Continued. 


Name  and  Location 
of  Station. 

Call 
Letters. 

Range  in        Power 
Nautical           in 
Miles.       Kilowatts. 

Wave 

Length  in 
Meters. 

Character  of 
Station. 

(  '  A  \  A  DA  —  Continued  . 

Chateau  Bay,  Labrador  

Belle  Isle.  Xewfoundland.  .  .  . 
Point  Rich.  Newfoundland... 
('ape  Ray,  Xewfoundland.  .  . 
(  'ape  Race,  Newfoundland.... 
Harrington.  Quebec  
Heath  Point.  Anticosti  Isd.. 
(  irindstone,  Magdalen  Isd...  . 
Fame  Point,  Quebec  
Clarke  City,  Quebec  
Father  Point,  Quebec  
(Jrosse  Isle.  Quebec  
Quebec   Quebec 

MCB 
MBI 
MCH 
MCR 
MCE 
MWK 
MHP 
MUD 
MFP 
MCK 
MUA 
MGI 

M\-(' 
MTL 
MND 
GB 
MUB 
MHX 
MSD 
MSB 
MS.I 
MUG 
CST 
PRD 
CAD 
DKD 
TLD 
SKD 
USD 
PGD 
KPD 
VSD 

Government. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Do. 
Do. 
Government. 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Government. 
.      Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Commercial. 
Government. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

230  .  . 

600 
6OO 
600,   1,600 
600,   1,600 
300 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
300 
300 
600 
600 
300 

300 
600 

400 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 

230 

270  

350 

135  
230  
13."> 

230  .  . 

230  
230 

100  
100 

Three  Rivers,  Quebec  
Montreal    Quebec 

135  

100 

North  Svdnev    ..»-.. 

135  

(  'ape  Breton,  Glace  Bay  
Pictou,  Nova  Scotia  
(  'amperdown.  Nova  Scotia.  . 
Sable  Island.  Nova  Scotia.  .  . 
Cape  Sable,  Nova  Scotia.  .  .  . 
St.  John.  Partridge  Island  .  .  . 
Port  Arthur,  Ontario  
St.  Thomas.  Ontario  
Prince  Rupert,  B.  C. 

ioo 

230  

300 

230|  

230  

350  
•> 
250  
225  

Dead  Tree  Point,  B.  C  
Ikeda  Head,  B.  C  
Triangle  Island,  B.  C  
Cape  Lazo,  Vancouver,  B.  C. 
Estevan,  Vancouver,  B.  C..  . 
Point  Grey,  Vancouver,  B.C. 
Pachena,  Vancouver,  B.C.. 
Victoria   B.  C. 

250  

350  
175  
100 

100  

250  .  .     . 

200 

COMMERCIAL  TELEGRAPH  STATIONS  CONSTRUCTED  BY  MARCONI'S  WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPH  CO.  LTD.,  AND  IN  OPERATION*. 


306 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MARCONI  TRANS-OCEANIC  WIRELESS  STATIONS 


MUNCH 

! -CSiV^—. '  » 

XoBERNE/. 

5vrr3SBiu,iy      ./-~',  ± 


WIRELESS  STATIONS  IN  EUROPE. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


307 


On  June  12,  1912,  there  were  1,577  mer- 
chant ships  equipped  with  wireless  telegraph 
installations.  The  total  number  of  commer- 
cial coast  stations  was  286. 

Under  the  Imperial  Wireless  System  all  of 
the  stations  will  be  fitted  with  apparatus  for 
the  automatic  transmission  and  receipt  of 
messages,  guaranteeing  a  speed  of  not  less 
than  fifty  words  a  minute.  Arrangements  are 
progressing  and  the  work  will  be  carried  out 
as  expeditipusly  as  possible  for  the  construc- 
tion of  stations  placing  Great  Britain  in  direct 
communication  with  Xew  York,  instead  of 
having  the  messages  pass  through  Glace  Bay; 
also  for  the  construction  of  stations  in  San 
Francisco  for  communication  through  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  with  the  Philippines,  China 
and  Japan.  Arrangements  are  also  being 
made  for  stations  to  send  messages  from 
Xew  York  south  to  Cuba,  Panama,  and 
subsequently  to  each  South  American  State. 

The  New  York  Times  has  made  more  use 
of  the  wireless  station  than  perhaps  any  other 
paper  in  the  world,  and  nearly  all  of  their 
foreign  news  in  the  Sunday  edition  is  trans- 
mitted by  wireless.  When  the  new  stations 
in  London  and  New  York  are  completed  wire- 
less messages  will  be  received  in  less  than  ten 
minutes  from  the  time  of  their  dispatch,  inde- 
pendent between  these  two  points.  When  the 
stations  are  completed  the  Marconi  Company 
will  be  independent  of  land  lines  and  will  pro- 
vide a  service  which  will  not  be  surpassed  for 
speed  and  accuracy.  The  world's  rights  in 
the  wireless  compass  of  Messrs.  Bellini  and 
Tosi  has  also  been  acquired  by  the  Marconi 
Company.  This  will  undoubtedly  prove  of 
considerable  value  when  worked  in  conjunc- 
tion with  existing  wireless  installations  aboard 
ships,  enabling  the  Captain  to  define  the  posi- 
tion of  an  approaching  ship  or  of  the  land  in 
a  dense  fog. 

The  United  States  Navy  is  now  planning 
the  construction  of  a  chain  of  wireless  stations 
embracing  two  oceans  and  a  continent  within 
the  range  of  this  chain,  so  that  naval  vessels, 
whether  near  the  African  coast  or  in  Chinese 
waters,  will  be  under  direct  control  from 
Washington  by  aerial  communication.  Funds 
for  this  plan  were  not  forthcoming  at  the  last 
session  of  Congress.  The  first  section  is  now 
in  course  of  erection  at  Arlington,  Va.,  and 
will  be  ready  shortly  after  the  publication  of 
this  book.  Each  of  the  stations  is  to  have  a 
semi-radius  of  3,000  miles  or  more. 

The  Arlington  station  consists  of  three  steel 
towers  in  the  form  of  an  isosceles-triangle.  At 
the  apex  of  the  triangle  the  tower  is  650  feet 
high,  or  95  feet  higher  than  the  tip  of  the 
Washington  monument.  At  the  base  are  two 
towers,  each  450  feet  in  height.  The  antennae 
are  to  be  strung  from  the  tallest  tower  to  the 
other  two.  These  immense  towers  are  strik- 
ing features  of  the  landscape  as  viewed  from 
any  point  of  vantage  in  Washington.  It  is 
contemplated  to  move  all  of  our  naval  vessels 
by  the  use  of  these  towers.  The  range  of  the 
Arlington  station  will  cover  practically  all  of 
the  North  Atlantic  ocean.  Guautana.  Cuba, 
falls  easily  within  the  range  of  this  station, 
and  regular  communication  with  the  station 
to  be  erected  at  Panama  will  be  had  with 
equal  facility 


TRANSATLANTIC  MARCONIGRAMS. 

Marconigrams  for  transmission  to  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  to  ships  at  sea  are 
accepted  at  all  offices  of  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Co.  and  the  Great  North- Western 
Telegraph  Co. 

The  established  rules  and  regulations 
governing  the  method  of  counting  and  charg- 
ing of  Cable  Messages  are  applicable  to 
Ma  rconigrams. 

RATES. 


II 


Points  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  New  York  City, 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Hoboken,  Jersey  City 
Union  Hill,  N.  J.,  Points  in  the'Mari- 
time  Provinces,  New  Brunswick. 
Nova  Scotia  and  in  the  Eastern 
Canadian  Provinces,  Quebec  and 
Ontario . . . 


$0.15 


Delaware,  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  (ex- 
cept Hoboken,  Jersey  City  and  Union 
Hill.)  New  York  (except  New  York 
City  and  Yonkers),  Pennsylvania  and 
the  District  of  Columbia . . . 


Alabama,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Kentucky,  Michigan,  Mississippi, 
North  Carolina,  Ohio,  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Virginia,  West  Virginia 
and  Wisconsin,  Pensacola,  Fla., 
Burlington,  Clinton,  Cedar  Rapids, 
Davenport,  Dubuque,  Ft.  Madison, 
Keokuk  and  Muscatine,  la.,  New 
Orleans,  La.,  Duluth,  Hastings,  Lake 
City,  Minneapolis,  Redwing,  St.  Paul, 
Stilhvater,  Wabasha  and  Winona, 
Minn.,  Hannibal,  La.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 


.18 


Arkansas,  Colorado,  Florida  (except 
Pensacola  and  Key  West),  Iowa  (ex- 
cept Burlington,  Clinton,  Cedar 
Rapids,  Davenport,  Dubuque,  Ft. 
Madison,  Keokuk,  and  Muscatine), 
Kansas,  Louisiana  (except  New 
Orleans),  Manitoba,  Minnesota  (ex- 
cept Duluth,  Hastings,  Lake  City, 
Minneapolis,  Redwing,  St.  Paul, 
Stillwater,  Wabasha  and  Winona), 
Missouri  (except  Hannibal,  Louisiana 
and  St.  Louis),  Montana,  Nebraska, 
New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Okla- 
homa, South  Dakota,  Texas,  Wyo- 
ming  


Arizona,  California.  Idaho,  Nevada, 
Oregon,  Utah  and  Washington,  Key 
^yest,  Fla.,  Vancouver.  Victoria  and 
New  Westminster,  B.  C 


.27 


Deferred  messages  subject  to  a  maximum 
delay  of  24  hours  and  written  in  plain  English 
language  are  also  accepted  at  one-half  these 
rates. 


308. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


1! 
13 


w    i 

«       | 

Q      ^ 


X 


C}         09 

3    5 


.5 


§       2. 


i    8| 
§    gg 


I-H 
g§ 


P  fa 

5§  B 

f*  2^* 

jsS  ^§ 

H|  H^ 

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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


309 


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310 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MARCONI   TELEGRAPH 

COMMUNICATION    CHART 

DECEMBER       1904. 


NORTH'  ATLANTIC 


AN  EARLY  WIRELESS  CHART 
MARCONI    TELEGRAPH. 

COMMUNICATION      CHART. 

—  DECEMBER  1911.— 


mitusicnen  OF  Lines  SHEWS  I 


SEVEN  YEARS  LATER  THE  INTERLACING  LINES  SHOW  POSSIBLE  INTERCOM- 
MUNICATIONS WHICH  HAVE  ROBBED  THE  SEA  OF  MANY  OF  ITS  TERRORS. 

PHENOMENAL  INCREASE  IN  WIRELESS  ACTIVITY, 


CHAPTER  XI. 

TELEPHONE   STATISTICS   OF   THE 

WORLD. 


There  were  approximately  12,453,000  tele- 
phones and  29,566,000  miles  of  telephone  wire 
in  use  in  the  world  January  1,  1912.  A  careful 
estimate  places  the  world  s  telephone  invest- 
ment January  1,  1912,  at  about  $1,729,000,000 
which  is  very  nearly  the  value  of  all  gold 
coin  and  bullion  in  the  United  States.  The 
annual  number  of  telephone  conversations 
may  be  placed  at  22,000,000,000,  which  is 
about  five  times  the  annual  number  of  pas- 
sengers carried  by  all  the  railroads  of  the 
world. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  compilation  the 
world's  telephone  statistics  are  generally  tabu- 
lated in  four  territorial  divisions,  as  follows: 


The  geographical  distribution  of  telephones 
and  wire  is  shown  below: 


41300 
IMjOOO 
17X01 


212XXX) 
ISjOOO 
I9OD 


70400 
UUOO 

MJOOO 

28JOOO 


The  year  1911  is  the  thirty-fifth  since  the 
invention  of  the  telephone  by  Prof.  Alexander 
Graham  Bell.  A  survey  of  the  progress  of 
telephone  service  during  the  past  year,  and  of 
the  many  notable  events  in  connection  with 
this  progress,  justifies  the  statement  that  all 
civilized  nations  have  awakened  to  the  value 
of  the  telephone  in  commercial  and  social  life. 

In  the  United  States  commercial  service  has 
been  opened  between  New  York  and  Denver. 
2,160  miles,  this  being  now  the  longest  dis- 
tance over  which  oral  communication  is  given 
commercially.  In  Europe  long  distance  service 
has  been  greatly  extended  by  utilizing  both 
the  new  loaded  cable  between  Great  Britain 
and  Belgium — by  which  telephone  service  is 
expected  to  be  given  between  London  and 
Berlin — and  the  new  telephone  cable,  con- 
structed also  on  the  Pupin  principle,  between 
Dover  and  Calais.  The  latter  enables  conver- 
sation tc  be  carried  on  between  Glasgow,  Edin- 
burgh and  Paris,  and  also  between  Aberdeen 
and  the  French  capital,  a  distance  of  910  miles. 


Successful  trials  have  also  been  made  between 
London  and  Geneva,  a  distance  of  560  miles, 
and  from  London  to  Bale,  a  distance  of  600 
miles. 


Recent  progress  in  the  art  of  submarine 
telephone  cable  manufacture  will  have  far 
reaching  consequences.  At  the  present  time 
there  are  over  400  miles  of  submarine  tele- 
phone cable  in  use  in  the  world,  and  of  this 
total  about  one-half  is  represented  by  the  four 
cables  between  France  and  England,  and  the 
two  between  Belgium  and  England.  The  long- 
est submarine  telephone  cable  lies  between 
La  Panne  (Belgium)  and  St.  Margaret's  Bay 
(England),  a  distance  of  55  miles. 

The  European  international  long  distance 
land  line  systems  have  likewise  received  im- 
portant additions,  due  to  the  opening  of  the 
line  between  Paris  and  Madrid,  900  miles,  and 
the  direct  line  between  Berlin  and  Rome  still 
under  construction,  a  distance  of  over  1,000 
miles.  As  regards  the  Continent,  there  is  now 
scarcely  any  important  city  that  cannot  talk 
with  any  other  important  city.  By  far  the 
largest  interurban  or  toll  telephone  plant  in 
Europe  has  been  built  by  the  German  Govern- 
ment, which  according  to  the  latest  official 
statistics,  had  about  one-half  of  the  total 
interurban  or  toll  telephone  wire  of  Europe. 

Finally,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  during  the 
year  1911  the  great  United  States  railway  sys- 
tems have  made  rapid  advances  toward  the 
general  use  of  the  telephone  for  train  dispatch- 
ing. Since  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  the 
telephone  for  that  purpose,  over  200  of  the 
United  States  railroads  have  adopted  that  sys- 
tem. In  fact,  the  telephone  has  supplanted  the 
telegraph  on  over  50,000  miles  of  railroad, 
which  is  over  20^  of  the  total  railroad  mileage 
of  the  country.  A  careful  estimate  places  the 
miles  of  wire  used  by  railroad  companies  for 
train  dispatching  at  120,000,  and  the  corre- 
sponding number  of  telephones  at  10,000. 


311 


312 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Considering  telephones  per  100  population 
and  referring  only  to  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada and  Europe,  the  following  chart  shows 
their  respective  condition  during  the  past  ten 
years.  At  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  period 
the  exact  figures  are:  . 

United 

States  Canada  Europe 

Jan.  1,1902 2.3          1.2         0.3 

Jan.  1,1912 8.8          4.2         0.7 

From  this  it  appears  that  it  takes  Europe 
about  two  years  to  advance  0.1.  Assuming 
that  European  telephone  progress  continues  at 
this  rate,  to  reach  the  present  development  of 
the  United  States  (8.8),  Europe  must  gain  8.1, 
which  at  the  rate  of  0. 1  every  two  years  would 
require  162  years.  As  such  a  forecast  makes 
no  allowance  for  the  impetus  in  future  progress 
due  to  the  use  of  rates  better  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  public  and  important  advances 
in  the  art,  the  abbve  period  will  be  shortened 
materially.  One  thing,  however,  is  certain: 
Europe  offers  yet  a  vast  field  for  telephone 
progress,  because  at  the  beginning  of  1912  it 
has  reached  only  the  development  of  the  United 
States  Jan.  1,  1898. 


TELEPHONES  PER  100  POPULATION 

UNITED  STATES,  CANADA  AND 

EUROPE,  1902  TO  1912. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  United  States, 
Jan.  1,  1912,  had  over  one-half  the  total  tele- 
phone wire  of  the  world,  and  nearly  twice  the 
total  mileage  of  Europe,  while  the  latter  at  the 
same  date  had  almost  the  same  telephone  wire 
mileage  as  the  United  States  had  at  Jan.  1, 
1907.  The  pronounced  increase  in  the  wire 
mileage  of  "all  other  countries"  is  largely  due 
to  more  accurate  information. 

The  combined  number  of  telephone  conver- 
sations of  the  rest  of  the  world  is  bat  one-half 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  telegraph  traf- 
fic of  the  United  States  presents  quite  a  con- 
trast. Placing  the  world's  telegraph  traffic 
during  1910  at  about  579,000,000,  the  United 
States  took  but  17%of  the  total,  while  Europe 
had  62%.  In  other  words,  Europe  has  about 
the  same  proportion  of  the  world's  telegraph 
traffic  as  the  United  States  has  of  the  world's 
telephone  traffic. 

Going  back  to  the  first  authentic  publica- 
tion of  telephone  traffic  in  the  United  States 
(1883)  the  total  number  of  telephone  conver- 
sations was  estimated  to  be  217,000,000.  Dur- 
ing the  intervening  twenty-eight  years  the 
United  States  traffic  has  reached,  as  shown 
above,  the  colossal  total  of  over  fourteen  bil- 
lion, an  increase  of  6500%,  or  an  average  an- 
nual increase  of  232%. 

The  annual  increases,  both  in  the  telephone 
and  telegraph  traffic  and  in  the  wire  plant  of 
the  world  are  shown  on  the  chart  on  page  315, 
covering  the  period  1900-1910.  The  curves 
represent  the  percentage  increases  over  the 
traffic  during  1900  and  mileages  at  the  end  of 
the  year  1900. 


Referring  first  to  the  traffic  curves,  the  tele- 
phone has  gained  277%  and  the  telegraph 
36%.  In  other  words,  the  percentage  increase 
in  telephone  traffic  is  about  eight  times  that 
in  telegraph  traffic.  During  the  same  period 
the  increase  in  wire  plant  was  448%  for  the 
telephone  as  compared  with  57%  for  the  tele- 
graph, so  that  the  percentage  increase  in  tele- 
phone wire  is  also  approximately  eight  times 
that  of  telegraph  wire. 

The  following  chart  depicts  the  telephone 
conversations  of  the  world  for  the  years  1901 
to  1911  inclusive,  for  the  United  States,  Eu- 
rope, and  all  other  countries,  and  shows  the 
proportion  of  each  to  the  total. 

TELEPHONE  CONVERSATIONS  or  THE  VMDRLD 

COMPARING  THE  UNITED  STATES.  EUROPf  AND 

THE  REST  Of  THE  WORLD 

1901  TO  I9ii  incl 


.:.!•...  -i  I 


'  :"•:  ;-vi      1 


The  chart  annexed  depicts  the  total  esti- 
mated telephone  investment  of  the  world,  sub- 
divided according  to  territorial  divisions  at 
Jan.  1st  of  each  year  from  1902  to  1912  inclu- 
sive. During  this  period  the  world's  invest- 

DISTRIBUTION  OF 
TELEPHONE  INVESTMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 

JAN  1,1902  TO  JAN  1.1912 


fsoo 


1903      1904      1905      1906      1907       1906      1909       1910 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


313 


ment  almost  quadrupled,  increasing  from 
$482,000,000  to  $1,729,000,000.  .Over  one-half 
of  this  enormous  increase  was  in  the  United 
States,  where  the  annual  increase  averaged 
approximately  $66,000,000.  This  was  about 
$27,000,000  more  than  the  corresponding  aver- 
age increase  in  Europe.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  year  1912  the  total  estimated  invest- 
ment in  the  United  States  ($1,025,000,000) 
was  about  twice  that  in  all  Europe  ($593,000,- 
000)  and  was  over,  one-half  the  investment  of 
the  whole  world.  At  the  same  date  Canada  is 
estimated  to  have  $44,000,000  invested  in  tele- 
phones and  "all  other  countries"  $67,000,000. 

RELATIVE  TELEPHONE  DEVELOPMENT 

IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES, 

JAN.  1,  1911. 

TELEPHONE  STATIONS 

COMPARING  THE  UNITED  STATES  WITH  EUROPE 
JAN.U911 


UNITED  STATES 
7.586,000 


TELEPHONES  ix  USE. 

The  statistical  table  shows  the  telephone 
development  of  the  world  January  1,  1911. 
At  that  date  the  United  States  had  67.4%  of 
the  total  telephones.  Europe  had  26.3%,  Can- 
ada 2.5%,  thus  lea  ring  but  3.8%  for  all  other 
countries.  The  high  percentage  increase  dur- 
ing 1910  for  Bosnia,  Greece  and  Servia,  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  these  countries  are  just  begin- 
ning to  be  developed. 

The  table  sho\vs,  that,  as  in  former  years, 
the  German  Empire  and  Great  Britain  remain 
the  leaders  in  European  telephone  develop- 
ment, the  German  Empire  having  about  '.',<'>'  , 
and  Great  Britain  22 %  of  all  European  tele- 
phones. Of  the  remaining  countries,  only  one, 
France,  exceeds  200,000  telephones,  and  only 
three  others — Austria,  Russia  and  Sweden — 


TELEPHONE  DEVELOPMENT  Of  TH*  WORLD.  JAMUART  1.  Mil 


4,978 
»5.Z2S 
I3.6C 


have  over  100,000  telephones  each.  The  com- 
bined number  of  telephones  in  six  important 
European  States — Belgium,  Norway,  Den- 
mark, Hungary,  Italy,  and  the  Netherlands- 
is  still  less  than  the  number  of  telephones  in 
New  York  City,  while  Chicago  has  more  tele- 
phones than  France,  and  Boston  more  than 
Austria;  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms 
combined  do  not  equal  the  total  number  of 
telephones  in  New  York  City  by  about  57,000. 
The  following  chart  presents  graphically  the 
statistics  shown  in  the  above  table  in  the  col- 
umn "Telephones  per  100  Population."  De- 
spite considerable  activity  in  some  European 

TELEPHONES  PER  100  POPULATION 

JAN  1,1911 


countries,  the  relative  positions  have  n9t 
changed  during  the  past  year.  Denmark  still 
leads  Sweden  by  a  small  margin.  As  the  aver- 
age for  Europe  January  1,  1911,  was  0.7  tele- 
phones per  100  population,  the  development 
of  the  United  States  at  the  same  date — 8.1  per 


314 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


100  population  —  was  almost  twelve  times  that 

MJUS  OF  TELEPHONE  WTO 

of  Europe     South  America  advanced  to  0  2 

telephones  per  100,  and  Canada  to  3.7,  or 

Mile,  erf 

Increase  during  1910 

Per  cento! 

more   than   five   tunes   the   development   of 

Jan.  1.  1911 

mm 

% 

Jaa.  1.  1911 

Looking  at  the  telephone  development  from 

United  State.  

16,613,590 

1,381141 

90* 

617 

Canada  

709708 

102,960 

16,9 

If. 

that  the  United  States  January  1,  1911,  aver- 

Europ.:- 

287,523 

31,179 

aged  one  station  to  each  12  inhabitants,  as 

Belpum  

147.252 

9076 

6j 

0.6 

against  the  European  average  of  one  to  148. 

Bulgaria  

5762 

523 

100 

Of  the  European  States,  Denmark  and  Sweden 

Denmark   

2X989 

29,817 

112 

09 

are  about  equal,  the  former  having  one  station 
to  every  28,  and  the  latter  one  station  to  every 
29  inhabitants.      The  German   Empire   and 

France  
German  Empire  
Grcll  Britain  
Greece  

Ml.  169 
3,551,504 
2.116.368 

UB 

91J27 
129  ,027 
91.420 
IJ064 

127 
10.2 
45 
240 

M 
13.2 
7.9 

Great  Britain  have  about  twice,  France  six 

H.nf»nr  

•MM 

22,604 

IM 

0* 

times  and  Austria  eight  times  the  population 
per  station  of  Sweden. 

L«en,bourt 

I4M78 

• 
MB 

17 
ISA 

05 

In  actual  number  of  telephones,  Jan.  1  ,  1911 

W  

21,114 

1358 

9* 

Berlin,  London  and  Paris,  with  a  combined 

v      RuMil   

MM 

18.630 

77 

10 

total  of  403,500  telephones,  are  about  even 

Spain  

54027 

4306 

92 

with  New  York  (402,000).  The  latter  approxi- 

Sweden  
SwiuertMd  

245/57 
210W2 

23.108 
9,192 

4.5 

09 

08 

.    Ton!  

via 

719.999 

89 

325 

South  America  

136*76 

05 

All  other  eoantrit. 

720.168 

27 

WIRE  MILEAGE. 

Total  World  

26.962.107 

JSS 

97 

VXfO 

The  next  statistical  table  and  chart  view 
the-  telephone  development  of  the  world  in 
point  of  wire  plant  January  1,  1911.  At  date 
the  grand  total  of  telephone  wire  mileage 
was  about  27,000,000,  of  which  the  United 
States  possessed  61.7%,  Europe  32.5%,  Can- 
ada 2.6%,  South  America  0.5%  and  all  other 
countries  2.7%.  Thus  the  United  States  has 
almost  twice-  the*  total  telephone  wire  of  all 
Europe.  The  German  Empire,  though  pos- 
sessing the  largest  number  of  telephones  of 
any  of  the  European  States,  has  but  one-fifth 
the  telephone  wire  of  the  United  States,  and 
Great  Britain  but  one-eighth. 


TELEPHONE  WIRE  MILEAGE  OF  THE  WORLD 

JAN.  lit  1911 
21062000  MILES 


UNITED  STATES-  w.7s«»oo« 

9  _  S 

H 

-                                   EUROPE  -8.762.ooo     U 
f  

it 

'  f 

CANADA-710,000                                        m     * 

ft 

~*i 

SOUTH  AMERICA-  IjejOOO                                                                        9 

n* 

g  ALL  OTHER  COUNTRJE3-72CIOOO                                     - 

1 

COMPARISON  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
AMERICAN  AND  EUROPEAN  CITIES 

BY  FIVE  YEAR  PERIODS 
B0  European  City 


PARIS  AND  PHILADELPHIA 


0      I      2      3     4      9     e      7      69     IOIII2l3MI»ieiTiai9eoZIC2a3M 

Telephones  per  100  Population 

The  table  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the 
estimated  total  length  of  telephone  and  tele- 
graph wires  January  1,  1911,  including  rail- 
road telephone  and  telegraph  wire. 

The  statistics  place  the  total  length  of 
telephone  and  telegraph  wires  in  the  world 
January  1,  1911,  at  34,500,000  miles.  Of  this 
total,  telephone  wire  took  78%,  telegraph  wire 
(including  cables)  17%,  and  railroad  telegraph 
wire  5%.  Again,  the  United  States  took  62% 
of  the  total  telephone  wire,  and  34%  of  the 
total  telegraph  wire  (excluding  cables  and 
railroad  telegraph  wire). 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


315 


LENGTH  OF  WORLD'S  TELEPHONE  AND 
TELEGRAPH  WIRE. 

(Partly  Estimated) 


JANUARY  I,  19U 


TELEPHONE  WIRE: 

United  States 

Canada  

Europe 

All  other  Countries. 


U.  S.  RAILROAD  TELEPHONE  WIRE. 
Total  Telephone  Wire 

TELEGRAPH  WIRE: 

United  States 

Canada  

Europe   

All  other  Countries 


Miles 

16,634,000 

709,000 

8762,000 

857,000 

26,962,000 
120,000 


1349X100 

153.000 

2,352400 

1,090,000 

5,444X100 
314,000 
1726.000 


SUBMARINE  TELEGRAPH  WIRE  (in  cables). 
RAILROAD  TELEGRAPH  WIRE 

Total  Telegraph  Wire 

Grand  Total 


A  more  comprehensive  view  of  the  relation 
between  telephone  development  and  popula- 
tion is  gained  from  the  following  chart.  This 
chart  compares  European  countries,  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  representing  in  each  case 
both  population  per  square  mile  and  tele- 
ptwnes  per  100  population.  The  greatest  popu- 
lation per  square  mile  is  found  in  Belgium, 
which  has  663  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile, 
and  the  largest  number  of  telephones  per  100 
population  is  found  in  the  United  States.which 
January  1,  1911,  had  8.1  telephones  per  100 
population. 

COMPARISON  OF 

DENSITY  DEPOPULATION 
TELEPHONE'DEVELOPMENT 

JAN  I.  1911 


It  is  evident  from  the  chart  that  Canada 
has  by  far  the  lowest  density  of  population; 
next  conies  South  America  and  then  Norway, 
while  Sweden  is  about  equal  to  the  United 
States,  and  Italy  to  Germany.  In  telephone 
development  Canada  ranks  next  to  the  United 
States.  Denmark  and  Sweden,  which  have 
about  the  same  development,  are  still  con- 
siderably below  one-half  the  telephone  de- 
velopment of  the  United  States. 


THE  GROWTH  OF 

TELEPHONE  AND  TELEGRAPH  TRAFFIC 

AND  WIRE  MILEAGE  COMPARED 
THE    WORLD 


TELEPHONE  INVESTMENT  PER  CAPITA 

UNITED  STATE*  CANADA  AM)  EUROPE 


UNITED  STATtS 
CANADA  .  . 
SWITZERLAND 


316 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ANNUAL  INCREASES  OP 

TELEPHONE  WIRE  MILEAGE  OF  THE  WORLD 
DIVIDED  BY  COUNTRIES 

1901  TO  1911 


nillllllllllH  ALL  OTHER  COUNTRIES 
CANADA. 
EUROPE 
UNITED  STATES 


YEAR   190' 


1902         1903        I90A 


1906 


1906         1907         1908         1909        I9IO 


i9n 


TELEPHONE  INVESTMENT. 

The  statistics  referring  to  investment  do  not 
always  represent  the  actual  replacement  values 
of  the  various  telephone  plants,  as  such  infor- 
mation is  not  recorded  by  the  majority  of 
foreign  telephone  administrations.  The  only 
data  available  in  many  cases  are  the  aggregate 
amounts  that  have  been  put  into  the  business 
since  its  inception.  The  world's  telephone  in- 
vestment January  1,  1911,  is  estimated  at 
$1,561,800,000,  equivalent  to  $139  per  tele- 
phone. This  total  investment  is  thus  approxi- 
mately equal  to  the  value  of  the  corn  crop  of 
the  United  States  in  1911. 

Of  this  total  investment  of  $1,561,800,000, 
the  United  States  invested  $956,700,000,  or 
61.2  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Canada  $36,700,- 
000,  or  2.4  per  cent,  of  the  total;  Europe 
$518,400,000,  or  33.2  per  cent,  of  the  total; 
and  all  other  countries  $50,000,000,  or  3.2 
per  cent,  of  the  total. 

Figured  on  the  respective  number  of  tele- 
phones on  Jan.  1,  1911,  the  investment  per 
telephone  is: 

United  States $126 

Canada 129 

Europe 175 

All  other  countries 118 

Total  world 139 

The  investment  representing  "all  other 
countries"  includes  $16,456,000  for  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
$4,795,000  for  the  Union  of  South  Africa, 
$15,223,000  for  Japan,  and  about  $6,668,000 
for  Brazil  and  Chili  together. 

During  the  year  1910,  $145,500,000  was 
added  to  the  telephone  investment  of  the 


world,  so  that  the  above  total  of  $1,560,800,000 
represents  an  increase  of  10%  over  the  corre- 
sponding investment  Jan.  1,  1911.  In  the 
United  States  alone,  the  estimated  increase  in 
investment  during  1910  amounted  to  $97,- 
600,000,  or,  excluding  Europe,  considerably 
more  than  the  total  cost  of  all  telephone  plants 
in  service  in  the  entire  world. 

In  regard  to  the  more  detailed  investment 
statistics  given  on  the  following  page,  perhaps 
the  most  striking  feature  of  the  table  is  the 
high  figure  for  investment  per  telephone  in 
many  of  the  important  European  States.  For 
instance,  Austria,  Belgium,  France,  Great 
Britain,  Hungary,  Spain,  and  Switzerland  all 
show  an  investment  per  telephone  of  over  $200. 

The  German  Empire,  Great  Britain,  and 
France  combined  have  slightly  more  than  two- 
thirds  the  entire  telephone  investment  of 
Europe. 

Excepting  the  German  Empire  and  Great 
Britain,  none  of  the  European  States  exceeds 
$100,000,000,  and  the  majority  have  invested 
less  than  $20,000,000  apiece.  Of  the  Scandi- 
navian kingdoms,  Sweden  has  approximately 
twice  the  investment  of  Denmark,  which  in 
turn  has  about  twice  that  of  Norway. 

Viewing  telephone  investment  from  a  per 
capita  basis,  a  very  different  situation  is  re- 
vealed. A  glance  at  the  chart  on  page  315 
shows  that  of  the  European  countries  Switzer- 
land leads,  and  Denmark  has  advanced  to 
second  position;  on  the  other  hand,  though 
the  German  Empire  occupied  first  rank  in 
point  of  total  investment,  it  takes  fifth  place  in 
point  of  investment  per  capita.  The  per  capita 
investment  of  the  United  States  ($10.27)  is 
about  nine  times  that  of  Europe  ($1.18).  Of 
the  European  countries  shown  on  the  chart, 
Hungary  has  the  lowest  per  capita  investment 
($0.59),  and  Austria  has  not  yet  reached  an 
investment  of  $1.00  per  capita. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


317 


INVESTMENT — TELEPHONE  AND 
TELEGRAPH. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  telephone 
investment  of  the  world  with  that  of  the  tele- 
graph (including  submarine  cables).  In  the 
absence  of  any  definite  information  covering 
the  entire  world  on  that  subject,  only  an  esti- 
mate can  be  made.  Using  the  total  telegraph 
wire  mileage,  January  1,  1911,  as  a  basts,  the 
telegraph  investment  may  be  estimated  at 
about  $700,000,000.  There  are  also  314,000 
miles  of  submarine  cables  representing  an  esti- 
mated investment  of  $350,000,000,  so  that 
the  total  telegraph  investment  of  the  world 
January  1,  1911,  may  be  placed  at  $1,050,- 
000,000,  as  compared  with  a  telephone  invest- 
ment of  ?1,561,777,000  at  the  same  date. 

This  makes  a  total  investment  of  $2,619,- 
497,000  for  telephone  and  telegraph  (includ- 
ing submarine  cables)  for  the  world,  January 
1,  1911.  Of  this  total  60  per  cent,  is  invested 
in  telephones,  27  per  cent,  in  telegraphs  and 
13  per  cent,  nr-cables. 


COMPARISON  OF  ' 


OF  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES  FOR  : 


I.7JIJW 
1.159*6* 
240316 
27790 

5.ZK938 
5^575 

831. LZ5 
3559765 

1S96.439 


SJ.I62.571 
1.191.450 
281 J24 
ZM.610 


1<01I.*75 
6*2*75 
M9.862 
S95.W6 


3,258.190 
292*79 
359.745 


2743,175 
1J02.739 

1.000.378 

173/153 


EARNINGS  FOR  1909 — TELEPHONE 
AND  TELEGRAPH. 

The  figures  for  gross  telephone  earnings  in 
European  countries  are  official,  but  those 
qu9ted  for  "all  other  countries"  are  mostly 
estimated.  The  total  gross  telephone  earnings 
of  the  world  for  the  year  1909  may  be  placed 
at  $329,000,000,  of  which  the  United  States 
earned  $221,471,000  (67.4^),  Canada  $6.752,- 
000  (2%),  Europe  $91,331,000  (27.8^),  and 
all  other  countries  $9,163,500  (2.8f  t  ). 

The  adjoined  table  shows  the  gross  tele- 
phone earnings  of  the  various  European  coun- 
tries, ranging  from  $241,000  (Portugal)  to 
$32,331,000  (German  Empire).  The  average 
earnings  per  telephone  for  total  Europe  was 
$35.40. 

On  account  of  the  almost  universal  custom 
af  European  governments  of  conducting  the 
telephone  as  a  branch  of  the  postal  and  tele- 
graph services,  practically  no  European  gov- 
ernment keeps  its  accounts  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  reveal  the  true  net  financial  result  of  its 
telephone  service. 

TRAFFIC — MAIL,  TELEGRAPH  AND 
TELEPHONE. 

Instructive  as  it  would  be  to  compare  the 
traffic  of  the  other  two  branches  of  transmis- 
sion of  intelligence — the  mail  and  the  tele- 
graph— with  the  telephone  traffic  of  the  world, 
such  a  comparison  would  only  be  speculative 
on  account  of  the  lack  of  statistical  material- 
There  is,  however,  sufficient  statistical  infor- 
mation to  permit  a  comparison  of  the  traffic 
of  these  three  services,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Europe,  during  the  year  1&09. 
The  result  is  as  follows: 

Out  of  a  total  of  20,669,000,000  messages 
transmitted  by  the  three  services  in  Europe, 
15,387,000,000  (74.4  per  cent.)  were  by  first 
class  mail  matter,  345,000,000  (1.7  per  cent.) 
by  telegrams  and  4,937,000,000  (23.9  percent.) 
by  telephone.  In  the  United  States,  out  of  a 
total  of  21,508,000,000  messages,  8,793,000,000 
(40.9  per  cent.)  were  by  first  class  mail  matter, 
98,000,000  (0.4  per  cent.)  by  telegrams  and 
12,617,000,000  (58.7  per  cent.)  by  telephone. 

The  figures  show  that  although  Europe  has 
about  three  and  a  half  times  the  telegraph 
traffic  and  nearly  twice  the  first-class  mail 
traffic,  it  has  only  one-third  the  telephone 
traffic  of  the  United  States. 

The  first  class  mail,  telegraph  and  telephone 
traffic  per  1,000  population  for  Europe  and 
the  United  States  during  1908  and  1909  was 
as  follows : 

For  Europe;  35,533  pieces  of  first  class  mail 
matter  in  1909,  as  against  34,766  in  1908,  an 
increase  of  2.2  per  cent.;  798  telegrams  in 
1909,  as  against  769  in  1908,  an  increase  of 
3.7  per  cent.;  11,400  telephone  conversations 
in  19<)<>.  as  against  10. 585  in  1908.  an  increase 
of  7.7  per  cent.  For  the  United  States: 
96,090  pieces  of  first  class  mail  matter  in  1909, 
as  against  90,062  in  1908.  an  increase  of  6.7 
per  cent.;  1.076  telegrams  in  1909,  as  against 
1,039  in  1908,  an  increase  of  3.5  per  cent; 
137,882  telephone  conversations  in  1909,  as 
against  134,335  in  1908,  an  increase  of  2.f 
per  cent. 


318 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


A  COMPARISON  WITH  OTHER 
INDUSTRIES. 

The  magnitude  of  the  United  States  tele- 
phone investment  per  capita  may  be  empha- 
sized by  comparing  the  telephone  with  some 
of  the  other  leading  United  States  industries. 
Such  a  comparison  is  based  on  recent  special 
reports  by  the  United  States  Census  Office, 
publishing  the  requisite  data  as  of  January  1, 
1910.  The  chart  shown  below  gives  the  result 
of  a  comparison  of  the  telephone  business  with 
ten  large  United  States  industries.  Despite 
the  fact  that  the  telephone  has  been  in  use  but 
thirty-five  years,  the  telephone  investment  per 
capita  January  1,  1910  is  the  fourth  largest, 
yielding  only  to  the  Iron  and  Steel,  Lumber, 
and  Gas  and  Heating  industries. 


PER  CAPITA  INVESTMENT  OF  LEADING 

UNITED  STATES  INDUSTRIES 

AND  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYEES 
JAN.  1. 1910 


The  New  York  Telephone  Company  dis- 
tributed 1,385,000  new  telephone  directories 
of  the  issue  dated  May  9,  1912.  It  required 
the  service  of  400  men  working  fifteen  days  to 
make  the  deliveries  of  this  book,  which  com- 

E  rises  804  pages.  The  number  of  subscribers 
sted  is  280,000,  not  including  the  many 
thousands  of  branches  in  apartment  houses, 
hotels  and  pay  stations.  The  approximate 
cost  of  the  telephone  directory  is  $1,000  a  day, 
or  $365,000  annually.  The  first  telephone 
directory  was  issued  in  1878;  at  that  time 
the  total  number  of  subscribers  was  252. 


One  of  the  earliest  experiments  for  repro- 
ducing sounds  by  means  of  sound  boards 
connected  by  a  rod  was  Wheatstone's  "Magic 
Lyre,"  1831.  In  1861  Philip  Reis  conducted 
experiments  to  reproduce  human  speech  by 
means  of  electric  pulsation.  In  1875  Prof. 
Bell  invented  the  electric  telephone,  which 
he  patented  in  1876.  Edison  patented  an 
invention  of  his  July,  1877. 


RATIO  OF  MAIL,  TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE  MESSAGES 
EUROPE:  AND  UNITED  STATES 


909   1904   1905   1306   1907   190*   J»00 


RATIO   OF 
MAIL.  TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE  MESSAGES 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


319 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE 
WORLDS  TELEPHONES 

JANUARY  1. 1912. 


DISPOSITION    OF   THE    GROSS    REVE- 
NUE OF  THE  BELL  SYSTEM, 
YEAR  1911. 


50% 


Diagram  i/luitraling  *  tcltffono  trvnt  tint  of  41  mint,  ooing  ono  of  a  mmmoor  of  uot  tr* 
joining  two  largo  metropolitan  aroat  2SO  milot  a»arf  anO4  toning  informoo'iato  eitiot,  tomnt  ana"  rorml  aatrictt 
of  torrHor,  on  ooet  tHo.     fto*  otof  for  tlio  tolooooto  oiclotnol}  Hit  tn*t  liao  ftnuttot  30  loloft 
circfiti,  HtcMing  oott  okaatom  anj  ft/tieaJ.  roacHng  700,000  tolofliOM  ttaimu. 


WESTERN  UNION  SYSTEM 

\ 


Diagram  illutfraiing  a  tologroft  trunk  lino  of  40  mint,  Mug 
loo  tarn,  largo  contort 

gi,oi  SO  lolograf*  eireoitt  roaching  300  ttatiotu  at  rntie*  tolagrafo 


f  tret  trout  lieot  jotting; 
tolograft  oidotirol/.  foa 
may  oo  to*t  on* 


Diagram  illuttraling  Uoto  tamo  tmo  trunk  linot  mortal  in  co-oaoraiion  to  at  to  fro,iaa  ktth  tolooaono 
anil  lolograji»  torrico  uton  oaci  iimu/tantoui//.     ftitn  tout  oooratoo"  tnoro  aro  oUainoo"  a  total  of  ISO  tfinug/i 
tologrofk  circuit*,  a  gain  of  80,  ant"  a  total  of  SO  tnnvgli  tolopnona  circuit!,  a  gain  of  30, 
of  too  tmo  liaot  mkon  ono  it  not  on//  lor  too  toloffomo  o*4  too  otoor  ool,  for  t»o  tologroft.        Too  oomoor  of  ttatwit 
m/ioro  tologramt  mar  »«  rocoiroo1  oat1  toot  it  mcroctoo"  from  300  to  700,000. 


320 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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5.900,000 

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-    5,700.000 

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-   -   4,100,000o) 

------    3.900.000P 

-    3.700.000W 
-    3.600.000. 
-j  -    -    3.500,000g 
-    3,400,  OOOUI 

rr  :  :  :  :  3,200.0000 

-    3,100,000$ 

2,900.000W 
-   2,800.000  £ 

2.600,000  £ 
-    -                 -    2,500,00000 

.   _    2,200.000 

1876 

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78 

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80 

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84 

886 
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-    2,000,000 
-       ,800,000 
,600,000 

,300,000 
-    -      ,100,000 

900.000 
800,000 
700,000 

:  _  _  .  .  _     600,000 

400,000 
.-.._-        200,000 

906  1908  19  0   1912 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


321 


The  growth  of  the  Bell  System,  its  broader 
usefulness  and  resulting  prosperity,  are  shown 
in  the  annual  report  of  the  American  Tele- 
phone and  Telegraph  Company  for  1911  by 
the  financial  statement  and  other  comparative 
statistics. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1911  there  was  a 
total  of  6,632,'625  subscriber  stations,  of  which 
2,158,454  were  operated  by  connecting  com- 
panies. 

The  Bell  toll  lines  now  reach  70,000  places, 
which  is  5,000  more  than  the  number  of  post 
offices  and  10,000  more  than  the  number  of 


railroad  stations  in  the  United  States.  The 
total  wire  mileage  has  been  increased  to 
nearly  13,000,000  miles,  of  which  over  half  is 
underground,  and  the  new  450-miJe  subway 
between  Boston  and  Washington  has  been 
completed  except  for  the  drawing  in  of  some 
of  the  cable. 

The  traffic  over  the  Bell  lines  shows  a  daily 
average  of  24,129,000,  or  at  the  rate  of 
7,770,000  000  connections  a  year. 

There  was  spent  in  plant  additions  $55,- 
660,738  in  the  year.  There  was  applied  to 
maintenance  and  reconstruction  during  the 
year  ?58,840,000,  making  a  total  provision  for 
the  last  nine  years  of  $342,300,000. 


BELL  TELEPHONE  SYSTEM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
CONDENSED    STATISTICS. 


Dec.  31, 
1895. 

Dec.  31, 
1900. 

Dec.  31, 
1905. 

Dec.  31, 
1910. 

Dee.  31, 
1911. 

Increase, 
1911. 

Miles  of  Exchange  Pole  Lines  
Miles  of  Toll  Pole  Lines  

25,330 
•52,873 

30,451 
101,087 

67,698 
145,535 

120,175 
162,702 

131,379 
163,351 

11,204 
649 

Total  Miles  of  Pole  Lines 

78203 

131  538 

213233 

282877 

294730 

11  853 

1S4  515 

705  ">69 

2  345  742 

5  992  303 

6831  667 

839364 

Miles  of  Submarine  Wire  

2,028 

4,203 

'     9^373 

24,636 

26',936 

2300 

Miles  of  Aerial  Wire  

488,872 

1  252  329 

3  424,803 

5  625  273 

6  074  012 

448  739 

Total  Miles  of  Wire  

675,415 

1,901  801 

5,779,918 

11,642212 

12,932  615 

1290403 

Comprising  Toll  Wire 

215687 

607  599 

1  205  236 

1  963  994 

2060514 

96  520 

Comprising  Exchange  Wire  

459,728 

1,354,202 

4,514,682 

9,678,218 

10372il01 

1,193,883 

Total 

075  415 

1  961  801 

5  779  918 

11  642212 

19  932  615 

1  290  403 

Total  Exchange  Circuits  .... 

237837 

508262 

1  135  449 

2082960 

2306360 

223  400 

Number  of  Central  Offices 

1  613 

4  532 

4  933 

5  014 

81 

Number  of  Bell  Stations.  .  .  . 

281  695 

800  8SO 

2^41  367 

4  030668 

4  474  171 

443  503 

Number  of  Bell  Connected  Stations*  

27,807 

55,031 

287,348 

1,852,051 

2,158,454 

306,403 

Total  Stations   

309  5Qo 

855911 

0503715 

5  88°  719 

6  639  625 

749  906 

Number  of  Employees  

14.517 

37,067 

89,661 

120,311 

128,439 

8,128 

Number  of  Connecting  Companies,  Lines  and 
Systems   .  . 

17845 

21  454 

3  609 

Exchange  Connections  Daily  

2,351,420 

5,668,985 

13,543,468 

21,681,471 

23,483,770 

1,802,299 

Toll  Connections  Dailv    

51.123 

148,528 

368,083 

602,539 

644,918 

42,379 

'Includes  Private  Line  Stations. 

EARNINGS  OF  THE  BELL  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Gross  earnings  

§138,144,300 

$149,914,700 

§165,612,881 

5179,477,998 

Kx;>enses  —  operation  
Maintenance  and  depreciation  

48,081,900 

39,736.700 
5  558  100 

49,732,000 

44.  838,900 
6  976  300 

54,235,449 

52,028,009 
8  355  015 

60,085,425 

59,840,354 
8  965  922 

Total  expenses 

93  376  700 

101  547  200 

114  618  473 

127  891  701 

Xet  earnings  

44  767  600 

48,367,500 

50  994,408 

51  586  297 

Deduct  interest.  

10,874,100 

10,221,400 

11,556,864 

13,610,860 

Balance  —  net  profits  
Deduct  dividends  paid  

33,893,500 
20.719,000 

38,146,100 
23,910,600 

39,437,544 

25,  Kin.  7  xi  ; 

37,975,437 
25,966.876 

Surplus  earnings  

L3.174.MQ 

1  t,_>:r>.  .-)(!<) 

144(76,758 

12.00*..  Mil 

322 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINTERS'  MARKS. 


C 

n 


7    or 


0  Period. 
t  Comma. 
-   Hyphen. 
:    Colon. 
'}  Semicolon. 
Apostrophe. 
.  Quotations. 
Em  quadrat. 
~ri  One-em  dash. 
5£  Two-eni  parallel  dash. 
•^   Push  down  space. 
O  Close  up. 
\S  Less  space. 
A   Caret— left  out,  insert. 
y    Turn  to  proper  position. 
^  Insert  space. 

Move  to  left  or  to  right. 
Move  up  or  move  down. 
Transpose. 
Let  it  stand. 
<=%      Dele— take  out.       1 
<Z>  Broken  letter. 
j[   Paragraph. 
/t^r  2/     No  paragraph. 

xcc/  •£  Wrong  font. 

ft 
£j?s  7F      Equalize  spacing. 

Capitals. 
Q,.        Small  capitals. 

G*.      Lower-case 
•^1        Superior  or  inferior. 


rYPOO«APHICAL 


not  appear  that  the  earliest  printers  had    € 
any^methodAofwcorrcctinaverror8vbeforew'the  form    /j  K 
©/  was  on  the  press/  The  learned  -Tb«-t«»rs«*  cor-       e> 
rectors  of  the  first  two  centuries  of  printing  were         / 
not  proof/readers  in  our  sense/they  w/C-re  rather    _jA 
what  we  should  Term  office  editors.    Their  labors     / 
wcreAchiefly  to  sec  that  the  proof  corresponded  to 
the  copy,  but  that  the  printed  page  was  correct 
in  its  Xatinity/-am»  i_hy  wojfe 


U 
-f- 


j  A 


/tc?tTs    Roman. 
Brackets. 
Parentheses. 


that  the  sense  was  right.  They  cared  A«rt  little 
about  orthography,  bad  letters!  or  purely  prinleif^j 
errors,  and  when  the  text  seemed  to  them  wrong 
they  consulted'  fresh  authorities  or  altered  it  on 
their  own  responsibility.  Good  proof sAin  the 
modern  sense,  were  /^possiTjle  until  professional 
readers  were  employed/  men  who  (hnijj  rirsi]  a 
printer's  education,  and  then  spent  many  years 
ia  the  correct|6n  of  proof.  The  orthography  of  , 
English,  which  for  the  past  century  has  underA  »/ 

Jgonc  little  change,  was  very  fluctuating  until  aftci        ^if- 

_the  publication  of  Johnson 's  Dictionary,  and  eapi-  ,:.'  . 
tals,  which  have  been  used  with  considerable  reg-  _^^  jP^j 
ularity  for  the  past@ years,-  were  previously  used 
on  Ihefmissfonhifrplan.  The  approach  to  regu- 
larity, «o  far  as  we  have^  may  be  attributed  to  the 
growth  of  a  class  of  professional  proof  readers,  and 
it  is  to  them  that  we  owe  the  correctness  of  mod- 
ern printing. A  More  er/ors  have  been  found  in  the 
Bible  than  in  any  other  one  work..  For  many  gen^ 
crations  it  was  frequently  the  case  that  Bibles^ 
were  brought  out  stealthily,  from  fear  of  povern- 
fjmental  interference.  A  They  were  frequently 
printed  from  imperfect  texts,  and  were  often  mod- 
ified to  meet  the  views  of  those  who  publisod 
them.The  story  is  related  that  a  certain  woman 
in  Germany,  who  was  the  wife  of  a  printer,  a*d 
had  become  disgusted  with  the  continual  asser- 

.  tion/o/  the/si<pcrto>r^of  man  over  woman  which 
she  had  heard,  hurried  into  the  composing  room 
while  her  husband_  was  at  supper  and  altered  a 

^sentence  in  thev  .Bible.^vhich^he  was^rinting.  so 
that  it  read^'ar^instead  ofAHcrr,Athus  making     {jsk>s 
the  verse  read  "And  he  shall  be  thy  fool  "  instead       £  7 
of  "^(nd  he  shall  be  thy/ord."    The  word^not. 
was  omitted  by  Barker,  the  X'nR  s  printer  in  En- 

nd  in  1632, in  printing  the?pventheommand|mentA 
He  was  fined  X6\000  on  this  account. 


NUMBER  OF  WORDS  AND  EMS   TO  THE  SQUARE  INCH. 


Sizes  of  typo. 

Number  of  words. 

Num- 
ber of 
ems. 

Solid. 

Leaded. 

14-point 

11 

14 
17 

21 
32 
47 
«9 

8 
11 
14 
16 
23 
34 
50 

26} 
36 
43 
52 
Rl 
144 
207 

12-point 

11-point 

10-point  

8-point  4». 

6-point  

5-point  

CHAPTER  XII. 


POST   OFFICE  AFFAIRS.* 


PART  I. 
STATISTICAL   INFORMATION. 

UNITED  STATES  POST  OFFICE. 


For  the  first  time  since  1883  the  an- 
nual financial  statement  of  the  Post 
Office  Department  of  the  United  States, 
shows  a  surplus  instead  of  a  deficit. 
The  revenues  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30.  1911,  amounted  to  $237.879,- 
823.60  and  the  expenditures  to  $237.- 
H60.705.48.  leaving  a  surplus  of  $219.- 
118.12.  The  wiping  out  of  the  deficit 
has  been  accomplished  without  curtail- 
ment of  postal  facilities.  On  the  con- 
trary, important  extensions  have  been 
made  in  every  branch  of  the  service. 


SUMMARY     OF     ALL     CLASSES     DOMESTIC 

MAIL     SERVICE     IN     OPERATION 

JUNE   30,    1911. 

Number  of  routes 12,208 

Length  of  routes,  miles 2,710,894,592 

Number  of  miles  traveled  per 

annum  483,683,998.79 

Annual  rate  of  expenditure $77,689,935.44 

Average  rate  of  cost  per  mile 

of  length  $286.58 

Average  rate  of  cost  per  mile 

traveled,  cents  16.06 

Average  number  of  trips  per 

week 17.15 


SOURCE   OF   REVENUE. 

Total  for 
fiscal  year. 

Sale        of        postage        stamps, 
stamped      envelopes,       postal 

cards,    etc $213,666,348.47 

Second-class    postage,    paid    in 

money   8,933,098.93 

Third    and    four    class   postage, 
paid   in    money    5,049,918.73 


Box   rents 

Miscellaneous  receipts   

Letter  postage,    paid    in   money 

Fines   and   penalties 

Dead  letters  

Revenue       from       money-order 

business    

Unpaid     money      orders     more 


4,406,843.78 
95,726.42 
355,223.54 
67,542.77 
32,854.65 

4,792,453.12 


than   1    year    old. 


Total     $237, 878, 324. 69 


EXPENDITURE    BY    ITEMS    FOR    YEAR    1911. 

Service  in  post  offices: 

Salaries  of   postmasters $28,284,964.11 

Salaries    of    clerks,    etc 40,364,930.39 

City   Delivery    Service 33,165,067.58 

All    other   expenditures 11,083,406.74 

Total     .  ...$112,898,368.82 


Railway  Mail   Service  ..............  $20,106,909.40 

Rural    Delivery    Service  ............     37,145,756.65 

Transportation   of  domestic  mail: 
By    railroads    ....  ................  $50,583,122.96 

By  other  means  of  transportation    13,175,365.83 

Total    ...........................   $63,758,488.79 


Transportation  of  foreign  mail  ----     $3,315,349.28 


Payments    on    account    of    invalid 
money  orders    .................... 


$424,  053.  74 


RAILROAD  TRANSPORTATION. 


SERVICE    AND    EXPENDITURE. 

Number  of  routes 3,378 

Length  of  routes,  miles 223,899.91 

Annual  travel,  miles 449,654,863.96 

Annual  rate  of  expenditure $46,172,472.93 

Average  rate  of  cost  per  mile 

of  length  $206.21 

Average  rate  of  cost  per  mile 

traveled,  cents  10. 26 

Average  number  of  trips  per 

week 19.31 

On  June  30,  1911,  there  were  in  operation 
171  full  railway  post-office  lines,  manned  by 
1,750  crews  of  8,429  clerks  (including  88  acting 


clerks).  Of  these  171  full  lines,  151  had 
apartment-car  service,  manned  by  987  crews,  of 
1,489  clerks.  There  were  also  1,413  apartment 
railway  post-office  lines,  manned  by  4,208 
crews,  of  5,543  clerks;  18  electric  car  lines, 
with  20  crews,  of  21  clerks;  55  steamboat  lines, 
with  101  crews,  of  93  clerks;  a  total  of  1,657 
lines  of  all  kinds,  manned  by  15,575  clerks, 
representing  the  working  force  of  the  lines. 
In  addition  there  were  30  officials,  130  chief 
clerks,  784  transfer  clerks  employed  in  handling 
the  mails  at  important  junction  points,  and  509 
clerks  detailed  to  clerical  duty  in  the  various 
offices  of  the  service — an  aggregate  of  17,028 
employees  in  the  service. 

(Continued   on   page    324.) 


*  This  chapter  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  first  gives  statistics  relative  to  the  Post 
Office  Affairs  of  the  United  States  and  the  World,  the  second  deals  with  information  rela- 
tive to  rates,  etc..  domestic  and  foreign  and  the  "Parcels  Post."  Revised  through  the  cour- 
tesy of  Postmaster-General  Hitchcock. 


323 


324 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


(Continued  from  page  323.) 
Of  the  1,464  full  railway  post-office  cars  In 
use  and  In  reserve,  369  are  all-steel  cars,  147 
steel-underframe  cars,  and  948  wooden  cars, 
and  of  the  3,819  apartment  cars  in  use  and  in 
reserve,  111  are  all-steel  cars,  106  steel-under- 
frame  cars,  and  3,602  wooden  cars. 

In    view    of    the    rapid    development    of    the 
aeroplane  as  a  practical  means  of  aerial  trans- 


portation,   recommendation   has   be 
an  appropriation  of  $50,000  for  an 
aerial    mail    service.      During    the 
number    of    experiments    in    aerial 
portation    have    been    permitted, 
pense  to  the   department,    and    it 
give  this  method  of  transportation 
more    practical    conditions    where 
of  transportation  are  difficult. 


ien  made  for 
experimental 
past  year  a 
mail  trans- 
without  ex- 
is  desired  to 
a  test  under 
other  modes 


MAIL  SERVICE  IN  OPERATION  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1911. 


Service. 

Number. 

Aggregate 
length. 

Annual  rate  of 
expenditure. 

Star  service  in  Alaska 

22 

Miles. 
4  248 

$196  896  93 

Steamboat  service  

226 

29*283  91 

758  109  88 

Railroad  routes  

3  378 

223  899  91 

46  172  472  93 

Railway  post-office  cars  

4  737  788  75 

Railway  Mail  Service  (officers  and  clerks)  

17  028 

1  20'  152  904  18 

Mail-messenger  routes  ^  .  .  . 

7  739 

5  128  51 

1  591  676  97 

Wagon  routes  (in  cities) 

'290 

1  127  24 

1*643*  332  70 

Electric  and  cable  car  routes 

547 

7'  347  44 

681  073  72 

Pneumatic-tube  routes 

6 

'  54  4492 

925  636  40 

Mail  equipment  

l  428  153  04 

Freight  on  mail  bags,  postal  cards,  etc  

1  401'  598  19 

l'  291  75 

* 

Total  inland  parvicfl  ,  

77,689  935  44 

Foreign  mails: 
Aggregate  cost  . 

$3  519  036  26 

Less  intermediary  service  to  foreign  countries.  

$314'  436  09 

Total  . 

80  894  535  61 

i  Actual  expenditure. 

COMPARISON  OF  REVENUES  AND  EXPENDITURES  OF  THE 
POST  OFFICE,  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1911. 


Items. 

Fiscal  year. 

1910 

1911 

BE  VENUES. 

Ordinary  postal  revenues....-  ,.T-  *,.....  . 

$219,338,536.62 
4,790,121.00 

1232,607,557.29 
5,272,266.31 

Revenues  from  money-order  business  

Total  revenues  from  all  sources          .         .  . 

224,128,657.62 

237,879,823.60 

EXPENDITUEES. 

223,190,830.39 
6,786,394.11 

230,516,814.45 
7,132,112.23 

Expenditures  on  account  of  previous  years  

Total  expenditures  during  the  year  

229,977,224.50 
224,128,657.62 

237,648,926.68 
237,879,823.60 

Excess  of  expenditures  over  revenues  

6,848,566.88 

Excess  of  revenues  over  expenditures         ... 

230,896.92 
11,778.80 

219,  118.  12 

Amount  of  losses  by  fire  burglary,  bad  debts  etc 

32,915.07 
5,881,481.95 

Deficit  in  the  postal  revenues  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1910.  . 
Surplus  in  the  postal  revenues  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  Tune  30  1911 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


32r, 


EXPENDITURES,    APPROPRIATIONS    AND     ESTIMATES    FOR    ALL 
TRANSPORTATION  SERVICES  EXCEPT  RURAL  DELIV- 
ERY AND  STAR  ROUTE  SERVICE. 


Service,  etc. 

Expenditures 
for  fiscal  year 
ended  June 
30,  1911. 

Appropriation 
for  fiscal  year 
ending  June 
30,  1912. 

Estimate 
for  fiscal  year 
ending  June 
30,  1913. 

Star  service  in  Alaska  

i  $194,  112.  09 

$250,000  00 

$250,000  00 

Steamboat  service    

775,416.32 

790,900  00 

882  000  00 

Mail-messenger  service  

1.553,590.89 

1  605  000  00 

1  689  000  00 

Pneumatic-tube  service....  .....  ...  ....  .       ........ 

904,  092.  11 

966  800  00 

979  600  00 

Wagon  service  (in  cities) 

1,659,744.07 

1,862  500  00 

1  748  000  00 

Mail  bags  etc 

283,382  38 

285  000  00 

282  000  00 

Labor  in  mail-bag  repair  shop 

98  813.63 

110  000  00 

102  000  00 

3  258.81 

3  000  00 

2  400  00 

8,  131.  42 

12,000.00 

12,000.00 

33,845.20 

36,500.00 

36,500.00 

Railroad  transportation  

Tabulating  information  relative  to  railroad  companies  .  . 

46,498,000.27 
13,571.64 

*  50,  092,  200.  00 
10,000.00 

48,150,000.00 

Freight  on  mail  bags  postal  cards  etc  .            "    

363,112.89 

»  425,  000.  00 

525,000  00 

Railway  post-office  cars             .          .              .       .  . 

4,729,495.84 

5,010,000.00 

4,783  000  00 

20,101,303.11 

21,748,280.00 

22,780,163  00 

Electric  and  cable  car  service 

688,952.20 

725,500.00 

734  000  00 

50,  000.  00 

Aerial  mail  service  

50,000.00 

Total  inland  service  

77,908,822.87 

83,932,680.00 

83,055,663.00 

Foreign  mail  service: 
Transportation                          

2,916,728.55 

3,322,600.00 

3,544,000.00 

Assistant  superintendent  New  York,  N.  Y......... 

2,500.00 

2.500.00 

2,500.00 

Balances  due  forpipn  countries              ,.,-,  -      -  -- 

213,866.82 

«  734,  800.  00 

486,400.00 

291.75 

1,000.00 

1,000.00 

81,042,209.99 

87,993,580.00 

87,089,563.00 

» Star  service,  except  in  Alaska,  transferred  to  office  of  Fourth  Assistant  Postmaster  General. 

J  Includes  $1,121,200  made  immediately  available  and  applied  to  deficiency  for  fiscal  year  1911. 

3  Includes  $48,200  made  immediately  available  and  applied  to  deficiency  for  fiscal  years  1910  and  1911. 

<  Includes  $247,400  made  immediately  available  and  applied  to  deficiency  for  fiscal  year  1911. 


The  postal  business  of  all  states  of  the  world. 

Annual  number  of  detivtred  pitcn  of  mail  (internal,  international  and  transit)  in  thousands  (1906,1907). 


America:  14.643.129 


Euroce:  25,618,740  thousand  delivered  pieces  of 


Asia:  2,677,498 

•  26,090  Straits- 
SeW- 

0   15,100  Fr.todo- 
China  and  oth  Poss. 


326 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


POSTAL  SERVICE  OF 


Name  of 
Countries. 

No. 
of 
Post 
Offices. 

1 

No. 
of 
Letter 
Boxes. 

2 

No. 
of 
Em- 
ployees. 

3 

Number  of  Letters. 

Number  of  Post  Cards. 

Postage 
Prepaid. 
4 

Not 

Prepaid. 
5 

Single 
6 

With 
reply   paid. 

7 

Germany  
Austria         .    . 

50,563 
10,106 
1,597 
1,574 
14,016 
24,245 
11,124 
7,717 
2,858 
3,395 
1,498 
4,044 
15,701 
5,674 
4,056 
4,230 

153,187 
43,317 
10,795 
11,849 
83,100 
70,765 
37,075 
65,420 
2,204 
4,972 
6,092 
6,077 
29,636 
9,010 
7,524 
13,076 

232,153* 
69,733t 
10,360 
8,239 
109,191t 
212,814* 
38,184 
73,068t 
9,294 
5,850 
10,391 
7,313t 
18,083 
14,980 
11,373 
17,075 

2,369,986,250 
558,428,300 
134,586,478 
92,7*6,408 
1,206,  155,972 
2,916,247,700 
254,2^5,900 
328,253,356 
64,631,875 
47,567,700 
108,041,934 
27,370,152 
671,467,162 
109,772,420: 
113,930,337 
133,489,003 

33,046,590 
10,449,700 
591,292 
347,922 
4,285,461 
See  Col.  4 
4,340,400 
See  Col.  4 
36,889 
157,400 
854,750 
99,406 
20,649,074 

1,547,489,750 
431,816,400 
93,129,686 
30,188,249 
15,214,650 
884,962,800 
137,137,833 
894,379,003 
7,728,100 
12,854,000 
88,942,386 
15,904,259 
276,401,295 
8,815,992 
34,089,412 
81,552,164 

See  Col.  6 
3,975,400 
274,664 
94,380 
81,050 
See  Col.  6 
10,288,791 
See  Col.  6 
81,460 
238,400 
583,518 
25,112 
13,411,112 
18,576 
342,168 
435,722 

Belgium  
Denmark  
p  ranee 

Great  Britain.  . 
Italy  
Japan  
Mexico  
Norway  
Netherlands..  . 
Portugal 

Russia  v 
Spain  
Sweden  
Switzerland  .  .  . 

320,361 
330,703 

*  Includes  employees  in  postal,  telegraph  and  telephone  services, 
t  Includes  employees  in  postal  and  telegraph  services. 


Copyright  1912 


FOREIGN  MAIL  SERVICES. 


The  cost  of  the  Foreign  Mail  Service 
during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1911,  was  distributed  as  follows : 

Trans-Atlantic   service    $1.567,369.42 

Trans-Pacific  service   190,721.36 

Miscellaneous  service  703,783.49 

Panama  Railroad  service  for  transit 

of  mails  of  United  States  origin..        60,659.02 

Sea  post   service 77,093.23 

Steamboat     transfer     service,      New 

York,      and      other     miscellaneous 

expenditures     919,409.74 


Making   the  aggregate  cost   of   the 

service    $3,519,036.26 


The   weights   of  the   mails  dispatched   by   sea 
to    foreign    countries    was: 

Pounds. 

Letters  and  post  cards 2,908,678 

Other  articles    ..16,972,033 


Total   19, 880, 71 1 

In  the  Trans-Pacific  service,  steamers  of 
United  States  register  carried  a  total  of 
18,986,929  grams,  equal  to  41,866  pounds  of  let- 
ters, and  251,110,593  grams,  equal  to  553,698 
pounds  of  prints;  and  the  total  compensation 
they  received  was  $111,974.84. 


PRINTING  POSTAL  CARDS. 
This   work   is   now   done    in   the    Government 
Printing  Office  at  Washington. 


COILING  POSTAGE  STAMPS 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


327 


THE  WORLD— Domestic. 


Printed 
matter. 
8 

Commercial 
papers. 
9 

Samples 
of 
merchandise. 

10 

Total 
including 
free 
matter. 
11 

Money  orders. 

Number 
12 

Value  in 
dollars. 
13 

1,440,102,130 
142,747,200 
378,410,209§ 
15,780,341 
1,784,221,310 
1,197,212,000 
645,443,157 
217,555,454 
83,407,251 
8,680,100 
240,769,620 
39,571,767 
131,690,955 
128,124,000 
35,935,874 
59,220,802 

19,141,080 
'3,428,282 

64,515,140 
14,763,700 
6,774,326 
717,064 
71,241,393 
See  Col.  4 
8,560,100 
6,942,134 
.246,705 
285,600 
2,425,254 
1,040,443 
10,150,678 
1,183,092 
942,508 
1,463,725 

5,609,082,570 
1,265,338,900 
653,013,713 
139,874,364 
3,247,152,480 
4,958,422,500 
1,136,853,951 
1,516,685,410 
160,834,364 
75,990,500 
455,348,218 
87,385,949 
1,338,676,368 
266,341,256 
191,327,181 
295,262,417 

186,891,690 
31,143,956 
4,370,217 
4,323,200 
60,454,209 
137,994,000 
24,064,001 
17,055,517 
1,522,101 
817,694 
6,181,751 
767,362 
39,710,581 

$2,346,241,523.19 
298,828,287.65 
79,451,574.48 
48,003,081.13 
519,107,524.36 
433,653,166.80 
505,239,303.30 
116,541,934.85 
26,172,637.70 
12,466,373.34 
35,210,678.75 
10,850,547.05 
1,077.529,662.86 

52,688,462 
See  Col.  4 
7,003,370 
16,137,795 
128,019 
102,500 

628,081 
10,318,290 

483,65  1 

7,304,614 
0,349,307 

67,758,990.44 
119,134,990.98 

J  Prepayment  of  ordinary  letters  is  required  in  Spain. 

§  Includes  9,640,852  visiting  cards  mailed  in  open  envelopes. 

Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


VALUE  OF   POSTAGE   STAMPS   ISSUED   IN   THE   UNITED    STATES, 
YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1911. 


Postage  stamps. 

Ordinary. 

Postage  due. 

1-cent  ,  

3.798,961,039 

10,393,419 

1  -cent,  in  coils  

37,940,000 

1-cent,  in  stamp  books   . 

203,084,376 

2-cent'    ....*.... 

5,130,249,018 

28,747,919 

2-cent  in  coils    . 

106,635,000 

2-cent.  in  stamp  books 

312  601,032 

3-cent' 

68  871  439 

601  889 

.tr.#nfr,   in  coils 

223  500 

4-cent 

96  049  509 

4-<>$nt   jn  coiLs 

161  000 

5-cent  

119,640,739 

1,972,299 

5-cent  in  coils                                                                      « 

100  500 

6-cent  

40,583,609 

8-cent  

31,197,039 

10-cent  

82,263,539 

6,076,169 

13-cent  ...       .                          .            

603,244 

15-cent.. 

16,093,089 

30-cent. 

6  179 

50-cent 

697,787 

1,657 

1-dollar     . 

110  492 

2-dollar 

131 

5-dolla'. 

2  646 

15,371  040 

Total 

10  061  439  768 

47  799  531 

Value 

$180  957  385  76 

$1  405  863  29 

The  total  issue  of  postage  stamps,  stamp  books, 
stamped  envelopes,  newspaper  wrappers,  postal 
cards  and  international  reply  coupons  for  the 


fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911,  was  $202,553,- 
755.61.  The  international  reply  coupons  was  the 
smallest  item,  the  amount  being  only  $5,422.80. 


328 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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330 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ESTIMATED  TOTAL  MAIL  DELIVERED  AND  COLLECTED  BY  RURAL  DELIVERY 
CARRIERS  ANNUALLY,  BASED  ON  A   COUNT  IN  MAY,  1911. 


Class  of  matter. 

Delivered. 

Collected. 

Total. 

Number. 

Weight. 

Number. 

Weight. 

Number. 

Weight. 

First  class: 
Letters 

462,346,951 

220,824,766 
1,488,779 

Pounds. 
12,224,392 
2,707,168 
303,453 

260,288,602 
128,116,628 
302,740 

Pounds. 
6,086,496 
1,530,636 
65,276 

722,635,553 
348,941,394 
1,791,519 

Pounds. 
18,310,888 
4,237,804 
368,729 

Postal  cards  

Miscellaneous  

Total  

684,660,496 

15,235,013 

388,707,970 

7,682,408 

1,073,368,466 

22,917,421 

Second  class: 
Newspapers 

996,710,156 
95,318,801 
169,349,819 
11,606,341 

175,322,207 
29,165,207 
24,557,233 
2,542,016 

1,459,579 
225,608 
124,710 
3,178,762 

333,379 
82,890 
19,286 
600,019 

998,169,735 
95,544,409 
169,474,529 
14,785,103 

175,655,586 
29,248,097 
24,576,519 
3,142,035 

Magazines 

Free  in  county 

Transient 

Total....  

Third  class: 
Books    . 

1,272,985,117 

231,586,663 

4,988,659 

1,035,574 

1,277,973,776 

232,622,237 

4,033,761 
258,855,886 
34,723,736 

3,364,075 
20,331,815 
7,840,204 

256,209 
3,804,808 
_  1,637,869 

175,066 
271,634 
361,915 

4,289,970 
262,660,694 
36,361,505 

3,539,141 
20,603,449 
8,202,119 

Circulars. 

Miscellaneous 

Total  

297,613,383 

31,536,094 

5,698,886 

808,615 

303,312,269 

32,344,709 

Fourth  class: 
Merchandise  packages.  .  . 

Franked  and  penalty: 
Franked  letters 

30,161,408 

14,266,782 

3,255,429 

1,463,269 

33,416,837 

15,730,051 

4,125,727 
6,450,969 
11,591,630 
3,600,444 

295,126 
1,292,804 
548,580 
487,313 

230,649 
108,277 
1,060,715 
102,  139 

10,898 
27,404 
58,511 
18,659 

4,356,376 
6,559,246 
12,652,345 
3,702,583 

306,024 
1,320,208 
607,091 
505,972 

Franked  documents  . 
Penalty  letters  
Penalty  documents  

Total  ..  . 

25,768,770 

2,623,823 

1,501,780 

115,472 

27,270,550 

2,739,295 

Foreign: 
Letters 

4,683,176 
2,262,328 

200,392 
374,018 

2,295,487 
305,852 

110,  171 

44,292 

0,978,663 
2,568,180 

310,563 
418,310 

Miscellaneous  
Total  

6,945,504 

574,410 

2,601,339 

154,463 

9,546,843 

728,873 

Registered: 
Letters..              

1,165,474 
376,651 

119,937 
225,557 

734,593 
129,617 

65,300 
52,718 

1,900,067 
506,268 

185,237 
278,275 

Miscellaneous  

Total 

1,542,125 

345,494 

864,210 

118,018 

2,406,335 

463,512 

Grand  total  .  . 

2,319,676,803 

290,168,279' 

407,618,273 

11,377,819 

2,727,295,076 

307,546,098 

RURAL  DELIVERY. 

On  June  30,  1911,  service  was  in  operation 
on  41,656  routes  served  by  41,559  carriers  at  an 
annual  cost  of  $37,130,000. 

The  total  mileage  of  rural  routes  in  opera- 
tion June  30,  1911,  was  1,007,772,  and  the  daily 
travel  by  carriers  was  1,000,277  miles,  the  aver- 
age mileage  per  route  being  24.19.  Excluding 
the  cost  of  substitutes  and  of  toll  and  ferry 
service,  the  average  cost  per  mile  traveled  was 
$0.11775. 

GROWTH   OF    THE    SERVICE. 

There  were  41,656  routes  in  operation  on 
June  30,  1911;  of  these  608  routes  were  operated 
tri-weekly,  being  an  increase  of  108  over  the 
previous  year. 

In  1897  there  were  82  routes,  for  which  an 
appropriation  of  $40,000  was  made;  the  ex- 
penditure that  year  was  $14,840.  In  1900  there 
were  1,259  routes,  the  appropriation  was  $450,- 
000,  the  expenditure  $420,433,  which  was  an 
increase  of  $270,421  over  that  of  the  preceding 
year.  In  1905  the  number  of  routes  was  32,055, 
the  appropriation  $21,116,600,  the  expenditure 


$20,864,885,  an  excess  of  $8,219,610  over  that  of 
the  year  before.  In  1911  there  were  41,656 
routes,  the  appropriation  was  $38,860.000,  the 
expenditure  $37,126,812,  an  increase  of  $212,043 
over  the  expenditure  of  1910. 

AMOUNT   OF   MAIL   HANDLED. 

In  May,  1911,  a  count  was  made  of  the 
amount  and  weight  of  mail  of  all  classes  de- 
livered and  collected  by  the  rural-delivery 
carriers.  From  this  count  the  estimate  ariven 
in  the  table  above  has  been  made  of  the 
amount  and  weight  of  mail  handled  annually 
on  rural  routes. 

The  first  aerial  dispatch  of  United  States 
mail  occurred  in  September,  1911,  when  43,000 
pieces  were  carried  from  Aeroplane  Postal  Sta- 
tion No.  1  on  Nassau  Boulevard  to  Mineola, 
Long  Island.  The  progress  being  made  in  the 
science  of  aviation  encourages  the  hope  that 
ultimately  the  regular  conveyance  of  mail  by 
this  means  may  be  practicable.  Such  a  serv- 
ice, if  found  feasible,  might  be  established  in 
many  districts  where  the  natural  conditions 
preclude  other  means  of  rapid  transportation. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


331 


PARCELS  DISPATCHED  TO  AND  RECEIVED  FROM  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  DUR- 
ING THE  FISCAL  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1911,  AND  INCREASE 
OVER  PREVIOUS  YEARS. 


Country. 

Dispatched. 

Received. 

Number. 

Percent 

iCCr  6£LS6  • 

Weight. 

Percent 
increase. 

Number. 

•Per  cent 
increase. 

Weight. 

Percent 
increase. 

Australia  

12,572 
9,091 
4,559 
4,009 
4.372 
4,564 
6,416 
145 
2,290 
6538 
9,383 
18,444 
12,644 
2,663 
7,187 
284 
5,838 
9^848 
54,505 

166,768 
11,399 
3,663 

5,340 
112 
2,133 
5,696 
42,208 
12,981 
33,460 
2,376 
74,478 
3,371 
5,599 
6,698 
5,342 
14,221 
7,060 
4,357 
20,547 
3,467 

Cm 

6,599 
936 

16.30 
33.02 
9.67 
17.74 
24.20 
32.51 
77.80 

Pound*. 
37,040 
22,333 
10,891 
9,598 
8,810 
9,211 
49,163 
620 
4,829 
34,064 
28,269 
114,535 
71,215 
6,927 
12,565 
799 
32,616 
15,579 
143,681 

279,368 
51,278 
8,605 

26,976 
291 
6,770 
12,630 
93,  472 
26,219 
89,319 
6,905 
365,241 
8,166 
9,682 
22,589 
58,846 
22,842 
39,017 
27,073 
33,166 
9,564 
3,885 
37,636 
2,338 

35.72 
41.23 
15.75 
19.39 
27.16 
36.03 
78.95 

2,895 
2,115 
583 
1,017 
2,555 

'•<i 

2.25 
17.37 
2.35 
15.18 
25.61 
1415 
13.70 

Pounds. 
7,334 
12,376 
1  143 
1  785 
12,631 
3,304 
207 

16.45 
25.02 
»1415 
12.42 
56.34 
21.36 
12.44 

Austria  

Bahamas  

Barbados  

Belgium  ....         .    . 

Bermuda 

Bolivia 

Brazil  * 

British  Guiana.  .  . 

9.90 
20.03 
935.65 
33.82 
20.00 
10.26 
14.13 
97.22 
40.00 
14.39 
12.30 

20.20 
111.13 
13.02 

7.55 

1400 
2490 
236.41 
36.30 
36.03 
17.20 
17.98 
130.92 
51.37 
20.79, 
10.18 

27.53 
69.23 
7.41 

.77 

337 
715 
2,244 
449 
340 
198 
7,390 
65 
209 
3,357 
115,532 

115,755 
114 
249 

61 

13.12 
65.34 
19427 
48.67 
5.20 
1  16.  46 
8.61 
200.00 
8.30 
43.28 
12.88 

22.77 
13.10 
6,40 

31.13 

694 
2,356 
6,450 
1544 
1,112 
458 
2L342 
253 
612 
12,680 
774,731 

466,790 
470 
468 

140 

11.90 

13.65 
48.53 
49.03 
122.77 
1  15.  18 
11.00 
22.02 
425 
6446 
13.48 

20.56 
7.06 
125.00 

37.50 

Chile  

China*  1  

Colombia  

Costa  Rica  .  . 

Danish  West  Indies.. 
Denmark  . 

Dutch  Guiana 

Ecuador 

France  

Germany  

Great    Britain    and 
Ireland 

Guatemala 

British  Honduras  
Republic  of  Hondu- 
ras 

Haiti* 

Hongkong  

i  11.  75 

8.89 

1,111 
1  398 

118.07 

2,546 
8,195 
112,181 
4,609 
119,714 
950 
41,281 
3,972 
2,865 
2,759 
135 
28,907 
1,131 
339 
19,287 
1,585 
197 
753 
438 

119.63 

TT  \vngnry  "* 

Italy 

19.00 
8.22 
1  11.  13 
4.71 
10.04 
20.40 
18.40 
10.42 
72.10 
11.41 
38.51 
21.06 
21.65 
29.27 
37.32 
6.83 
7.46 

42.02 
2.17 
1440 
7.10 
1.43 
40.91 
22.10 
12.21 
89.96 
60.00 
37.80 
23.07 
2.19 
38.75 
27.88 
7.69 
22.09 

15,076 
2,420 
36,915 
412 
17,569 
1,040 
1,656 
1,031 
50 
14,433 
386 
81 
6,683 
770 
67 
199 
189 

9.22 
23.53 
9.40 

<U 

28.90 
10.47 
3.60 
13.63 
59.25 
22.93 
15.71 
27.73 
12.24 
76.32 
166.04 
40.00 

.86 
27.00 
30.12 
3.15 
132.59 
12.39 
17.08 
181.56 
5.40 
12.35 
11.76 
59.05 
2490 
6.30 
18.73 
25.85 
41.19 

Jamaica 

Japan  

Leeward  Islands  
Mexico.  . 

Netherlands 

Newfoundland 

New  Zealand 

Nicaragua  

Norway  

Peru 

Salvador 

Sweden 

Trinidad  

Uruguay.  .  . 

Venezuela 

Wind  ward  Islands... 
Total  .  .  . 

615.260 

1.824.623 

359.219 

1.G80.724 

i  Decrease.  — 

•  Convention  effective  May  29, 1911. 

1  Received  in  parcel  mails  from  Hongkong  and  Japan. 


*  Convention  effective  May  1, 1911. 

*  Convention  effective  July  1, 1910. 

*  No  change. 


During  the  last  fiscal  year  the  Department 
paid  $1,546,088.68  for  the  manufacture  of 
stamped  envelopes  and  newspaper  wrappers. 
Under  the  new  contract  beginning  July  1,  1911, 
the  prices  for  the  four-year  term  will  be  $297,- 
880  less  than  the  same  quantities  would  have 
cost  under  the  old  contract. 

The  annual  rate  of  expenditure  for  the  sal- 
aries of  presidential  postmasters  on  July  1, 
1911,  was  $14,216,700,  as  follows:  First  class, 
$1,579,600;  second  class,  $4,494,800;  third  class, 
$8,142,300. 


To  reward  postal  employees  for  the  inven- 
tion of  labor-saving  devices  legislation  was  ob- 
tained as  follows: 

"The  Postmaster  General  is  hereby  author- 
ized to  pay,  in  his  discretion,  rewards  to 
postal  employees  whose  inventions  are  adopted 
for  use  in  the  postal  service,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose the  sum  of  $10,000  •  is  hereby  appropri- 
ated." 

The  postal  service  is  using  nearly  2,000,000,000 
yards  of  jute  twine  yearly  for  tying  packages 
of  letters. 


332 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MAILINGS  OF  SECOND 
Totals  of  the  number  of  publications 
of  the   various  frequencies  of  issue  and 
news  agents  mailing  at  the  pound   rate 
of   postage   June   30,    1911. 

Daily  2,569 

Tri-weekly  66 

Semi-weekly    673 

Weekly  17,373 

Semi-monthly   538 

Monthly   4,952 

Bi-monthly    307 

Quarterly    1,291 

Other   periods    95 

Total  27, 864 

News  agents  3,046 

Publications  admitted  under  the  act  of 

March  3,  1879 r 26,504 

Publications  admitted  under  the  act  of 

July  16,  1894 1,346 

Publications  admitted  under  the  act  of 

June    6,    1900 14 

Total   ..  ...27,864 


Stamps  were  first  introduced  in  America  by 
the  English  Stamp  Act  of  1765;  this  act  was 
opposed  by  the  First  American  Congress  in 
Nov.  1765  and  repealed  in  1776. 


CLASS  PUBLICATIONS. 

Number    of    pounds    of    second-class    matter 
mailed  at   the   cent-a-pound   and  free-in-county 
rates  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1911: 
Subscribers'   copies: 

Free   in    county 57,704,761 

At  cent-a-pound  rate 880,422,146 

Sample  copies  at  cent-a-pound  rate  12,874,762 

Total   at   cent-a-pound   rate 893,296,908 

Total     mailings     at     cent-a-pound 

rate  and   free-in-county 951, 001, 669 

Estimated  weights  of  mailings  of  second- 
class  matter  at  other  than  the  cent-a-pound 
and  free-in-county  rates  during  the  fiscal  year 
1911,  based  on  the  special  weighing  of  mails 
in  1907: 

Pounds. 
At   transient   second-class    rate    of 

1   cent  for  each  4  ounces 30,427,074 

At  special  rate  of  1  cent  a  copy..     1,763,585 
At  special  rate  of  2  cents  a  copy..     3,605,551 

Total    '. ...  35,796,210 

RECAPITULATION. 

Weight      of      mailings      of      second- 
class  matter  at  the  cent-a-pound 
and   free-Jn-county   rates 951,001,669 

Weight   of  mailings  at  other  rates  35,796,210 


Aggregate     weight     of     mailing 
of   second-class   matter 986,797,879 


REGISTERED    MAIL     ITEMS     WITH     TOTAL 

AMOUNTS    FOR    THE    YEAR    ENDING 

JUNE    30,    1911. 

Paid   registrations: 

Domestic  letters    26,153,943 

Domestic  parcels 7,375,274 

Foreign  letters  4,219,872 

Foreign    parcels    781,022 

Official    paid    113,079 

Total    paid    registrations 38,643,190 

Official  letters  and  parcels  registered 

free 3,973,450 

Official   free   (special) 149,819 

Total    free   registrations 4, 123, 269 

Total  number  of  letters  and  parcels 

registered,    paid  and   free 42,766,459 

Distribution      letters      and     parcels 

re-registered    free    1,493,449 

Aggregate    number    of    letters    and 
parcels     registered,     paid,     official 

free,   and  distribution  free 44,259,938 

Total     free     and     distribution     re- 
registered free   5,616,718 

Amount  collected  for  registry  fees.  $3,864,319.00 

GROWTH     OF    THE     DOMESTIC     MONEY- 
ORDER    SYSTEM. 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1911,  the  total 
number  of  money-order  offices  in  operation 
was  51,809;  the  number  of  orders  issued  was 
81,146,233,  their  value  $578,111,005.11;  the  num- 
ber of  orders  paid  and  repaid,  81,481,930, 
their  value  $578,246,320.76;  the  number  of  ex- 
cess of  payments  and  repayments  over  issues, 
335,697,  their  value  $135,315.65;  the  amount  in 
fees  received,  $4,840,722.59;  average  amount  of 
orders,  $7.12;  average  amount  of  fees,  $0.0557. 


STAMP   BOOKS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911, 
26,716,406  stamp  books  were  issued,  having  a 
value  of  $8,550,028.46. 

STAMP   COILS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911, 
276,285  stamp  coils  were  issued  for  use  in 
stamping  machines.  The  total  value  of  the 
stamps  which  were  made  up  in  coils  was 
$2,549,568.75. 

POSTAL   CARDS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911, 
975,138,748  postal  cards  were  issued,  having  a 
value  of  $9,988,422.98.  By  far  the  largest  num- 
ber of  postal  cards  were  the  one-cent  card 
bearing  a  portrait  of  the  late  President  McKin- 
ley.  There  were  944,927,198  cards  issued  of 
this  variety. 

STAMPED    ENVELOPES    AND      NEWSPAPER 

WRAPPERS. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1911, 
494,838,140  ordinary  stamped  envelopes  and 
wrappers  were  issued,  the  value  being  $9,109,- 
652.93,  while  1,195,937,245  return  card  envelopes 
were  issued,  having  a  value  of  $24,715,647.92, 
making  a  total  of  1,690,775,385,  with  a  value 
of  $33,825,300.85. 


Fees  of  8  cents  each  on  special  delivery 
mail  were  claimed  by  postmasters  last  year  to 
the  total  amount  of  $1,340,519.94,  indicating 
that  16,756,499  pieces  of  mail  of  this  character 
were  delivered,  being  an  increase  of  1,316,467 
pieces  over  last  year,  or  8.52  per  cent.  These 
figures  relate  to  all  post  offices,  irrespective  of 
class. 


IMITATIONS  OF  STAMPS. 

No  adhesive  stamps,  of  any  form  or  design 
whatever,  other  than  lawful  postage  stamps, 
are  permitted  to  be  affixed  to  the  address  side 
of  domestic  mail  matter,  but  such  adhesive 


stamps,  provided  they  do  not  in  form  resem- 
ble lawful  postage  st"  nps,  and  do  not  bear 
numerals,  may  be  affixed  to  the  reverse  side 
of  domestic  mail  matter. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


333 


PART  II. 

PRACTICAL  POSTAL  INFORMATION. 

DOMESTIC  MAIL  MATTER. 


CLASSIFICATION. 

1.  Domestic   mail   matter   includes   matter   de- 
posited  in  the   mails  for   local    delivery,    or   for 
transmission  from   one  place   to  another  within 
the    United    States,    or   to    or   from    or    between 
the    possessions    of    the    United    States,    and    is 
divided  into  four  classes: 

First.  Written  and  sealed  matter,  postal 
cards  and  private  mailing  cards. 

Second.  Periodical  publications.  (Rates  for 
publishers  and  news  agents  only.) 

Third.  Miscellaneous  printed  matter  (on 
paper). 

Fourth.  All  matter  not  included  in  previous 
classes. 

2.  Porto    Rico    and    Hawaii    are    included    in 
the    term     "United     States."       The     Philippine 
Archipelago,    Guam,    Tutuila   (including  all   ad- 
jacent islands  of   the  Samoan   group    which  are 
possessions     of    the     United     States),     and     the 
Canal   Zone  are   included  in  the  term    "Posses- 
sions of  the  United   States."     The  term    "Canal 
Zone"     includes     all     the     territory     purchased 
from    the   Republic   of   Panama,    embracing   the 
"Canal    Zone"    proper   and    the    islands    in    the 
Bay    of    Panama    named    Perico,    Naos,    Culebra 
and  Flamenco. 

3.  Domestic    rates    and     conditions    apply    to 
mail    matter   addressed    to    officers    or   members 
of   the    crew   of   vessels    of    war    of    the    United 
States,    to    matter    sent    to    the    United    States 
Postal    Agency   at   Shanghai,    China,    and,    with 
certain    exceptions,     to    that    sent    to    Canada, 
Cuba,     Mexico    and    the    Republic    of    Panama. 
The   domestic    rate   applies   also   to    letters,    but 
not  to   other  articles,    addressed  to   Great   Brit- 
ain,   Ireland   and    Newfoundland,    and  to   letters 
for     Germany     despatched     only     by     steamers 
which  land    the  mails  at  German  ports. 

4.  Pamphlet   of  General   Postal   Information. — 
A   pamphlet   of   general   postal    information   has 
been   issued  for  free   distribution   to  the  public 
through    postmasters.      It    contains    the    classifi- 
cation,    conditions    and    postage    rates    for    do- 
mestic and  foreign  mail  matter.     The   informa- 
tion   given    herewith    is    usually    sufficient.      A 
new    edition    of    the    pamphlet    has    just    been 
issued. 

FIRST-CLASS    MATTER. 

5.  Written    matter,    namely:      Letters,    postal 
cards,   private  mailing  cards   (post  cards),    and 
all  matter  wholly  or  partly  in  writing,   whether 
sealed     or     unsealed     (except     manuscript     copy 
accompanying    proof    sheets    or    corrected    proof 
sheets  of  the  same)  and  the  writing  authorized 
by    law    to    be    placed    upon    matter    of    other 
classes.     All   matter   sealed   or  otherwise   closed 
against    inspection    is    also    of    the    first    class. 

Xote. — Typewriting  and  caroon  and  letter  press 
copies  thereof  are  held  to  be  an  equivalent  of 
handwriting  and  are  classed  as  such  in  all 
cases. 

DROP  LETTERS. 

•6.  See    page    336. 

POSTAL  CARDS. 

7.  Postal  cards  issued  by  the  Post  Office  De- 
.partment  may  bear  written,  printed,  or  other 
additions  as  follows: 

(a)  The  face  of  the  card  may  be  divided  by  a 
vertical   line  placed   approximately   one-third   of 
the    distance    from    the    left    end    of    the    card: 
the    spare    tn    the    left    of   the    line    to    be    used    : 
for  a  message,   etc..   but  the  space  to  the  right    ! 
for  the  address  only,  J 


(b)  Addresses   upon   postal   cards    .    .     .     may 
be  either  written,  printed  or  affixed  thereto,   at 
the  option  of  the  sender. 

(c)  Very    thin    sheets    of    paper    may    be    at- 
tached to  the  card  on  condition  that  they  com- 
pletely adhere   thereto.     Such   sheets  may   bear 
both  writing  and  printing. 

(d)  Advertisements,     illustrations     or    writing 
may   appear   on   the   back   of   the   card    p  »d   on 
the  left  third  of  the  face. 

(e)  The   addition   to    a   postal    card    of   matter 
other  than   as  above   authorized  will   annul   its 
privileges  as  a  postal  card  and  subject  it,   when 
sent  in  the  mails,   to  postage   according  to  the 
character   of  the  message — at  the   letter   rate   if 
wholly   or  partly   in   writing   or  the   third-class 
rate   if   entirely    in   print.      In    either    case   the 
postage  value  of  the  stamp  impressed  upon  the 
card  will  not  be  impaired. 

(f)  Postal    cards   must    be   treated    in    all    re- 
spects as  sealed   letters,   except  that  when   un- 
deliverable    to   the   addressee   they   may    not   be 
returned  to  the   sender. 

(g)  Postal    cards    bearing    particles    of    glass, 
metal,     mica,     sand,     tinsel     or    other    similar 
substances    are    unmai table,     except    when    en- 
closed   in    envelopes    tightly    sealed    to    prevent 
the  escape  of  such  particles  with  proper  postage 
attached,    or   when   treated    in    such   manner    as 
will  prevent   the  objectionable  substances   from 
being  rubbed  -off   or   Injuring  persons   handling 
the  mails. 

Note. — Used  postal  cards  which  conform  to 
the  conditions  prescribed  for  post  cards  may  be 
remailed  with  one  cent  postage  prepaid 
thereon. 

8.  Double   postal   cards   should   be    folded   be- 
fore mailing.    Intact  double  postal  cards  should 
be  folded   before   mailing. 

9.  Either  Half  Usable  Separately.— Either  half 
of  a  double  domestic  postal  card   may  be  used 
separately,    but    postmasters    will    not    separate 
them. 

10.  Mailing  Reply  Part  With  Initial  Half  At- 
tached.—If  the   initial   half   of  a   double  postal 
card    be    not    detached    when    the    reply    half    is 
mailed  for  return,   the  card  is  subject  to  post- 
age according  to  the  character  of  the  message. 
The   enclosure   in   a  double   postal   card   of'  un- 
authorized   matter    annuls    its    privileges    as    a 
postal   card. 

11.  Reply  Postal   Cards  to  and  from  the  Phil- 
ippines.—The     reply     half     of    the     Philippine 
double     postal     card     of     1-cent     denomination, 
overprinted  with  the  word  Philippine,    shall  be 
valid    for   postage    when    mailed    in    the    United 
States   and   addressed   to   points   in   the   Philip- 
pine  Islands.     The   United   States  1-cent  double 
postal    card    may    be    mailed    from    the    United 
States   to    the    Philippine    Islands,    and    by   ar- 
rangement   with    the    Bureau    of    Posts    of    the 
Philippines  the  reply  half  of  the  card   is  valid 
for    postage    when    mailed    in    the    Philippines 
and  addressed  to  points  in  this  country. 

PRIVATE   MAILING  CARDS   (POST   CARDS). 

12.  Private   mailing    cards    ("post    cards")    in 
the   domestic    mails   must   conform   to   the   fol- 
lowing conditions: 

(a)  A  "post  card"  must  be  an  unfolded  piece 
of  cardboard  not  exceeding  9  by  14  centi- 
meters (approximately  3  9-16  by  5  9-16  inches) 
nor  less  than  7  by  10  centimeters  (approxi- 
mately 2  3-1  by  4  inches). 


334 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


(b)  It  must  In  form  and  in  the  quality  and 
weight  of  paper  be  substantially  like  the  Gov- 
ernment postal  card. 

-    (c)  It    may    be    of    any    color   not    interfering 
with  a  legible  address  and  postmark. 

(d)  It  may  or  may  not,   at  the  option  of  the 
sender,     bear    near    the    top    of    the    face    the 
words    "Post  Card." 

(e)  The   face  of   the  card  may  be   divided  by 
a  vertical   line;   the   left  half  to  be  used   for  a 
message,    etc.,    but   that   to   the    right    for   the 
address  only. 

(f)  Very    thin    sheets    of    paper    may    be    at- 
tached to  the  card,   and  then  only  on  condition 
that     they     completely     adhere    thereto.       Such 
sheets  may  bear  both  writing  and  printing. 

(g)  Advertisements   and   illustrations  may   ap- 
pear  on  the  back   of  the  card  and   on  the  left 
half  of  the  face. 

(h)  Cards,  without  cover,  conforming  to  the 
foregoing  conditions,  are  transmissible  in  the 
domestic  mails  (including  the  possessions  of 
the  United  States)  and  to  Cuba,  Canada,  Mex- 
ico, the  Republic  of  Panama,  and  the  United 
States  postal  agency  at  Shanghai,  China,  at  the 
postage  rate  of  1  cent  each. 

(i)  When  post  cards  are  prepared  by  printers 
and  stationers  for  sale  it  is  desirable  that  they 
bear  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  face 
an  oblong  diagram  containing  the  words  "Place 
postage  stamp  here,"  and  at  the  bottom  of 
the  space  to  the  right  of  the  vertical  dividing 
line  the  words  "This  space  for  the  address." 

(j)  Cards  which  do  not  conform  to  the  condi- 
tions prescribed  by  these  regulations  are,  when 
sent  in  the  mails,  chargeable  with  postage 
according  to  the  character  of  the  message — at 
the  letter  rate  if  wholly  or  partly  in  writing, 
or  at  the  third-class  rate  if  entirely  in  print. 

(k)  Cards  bearing  particles  of  glass,  metal, 
mica,  sand,  tinsel  or  other  similar  substances 
are  unmailable,  except  when  enclosed  in  en- 
velopes tightly  sealed  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
such  particles,  or  when  treated  in  such  manner 
as  will  prevent  the  objectionable  substances 
from  being  rubbed  off  or  injuring  persons  han- 
dling the  mails.  Cards  mailed  under  cover  of 
sealed  envelopes  (transparent  or  otherwise)  are 
chargeable  with  postage  at  the  first-class  rate; 
if  enclosed  in  unsealed  envelopes  they  are  sub- 
ject to  postage  according  to  the  character  of 
the  message — at  the  first-class  rate  if  wholly 
or  partly  in  writing,  or  the  third-class  rate  if 
entirely  in  print;  and  the  postage  stamps 
should  be  affixed  to  the  envelopes  covering  the 
same.  Postage  stamps  affixed  to  matter  en- 
closed in  envelopes  cannot  be  recognized  in 
payment  of  postage  thereon. 

ARTICLES     INCLUDED    IN     FIRST-CLASS 
MATTER. 

13.  Assessment  notices  (printed)  with  amount 
due  written  therein.  Albums  (autograph)  con- 
taining written  matter.  Blank  books  with 
written  entries;  bank  checks  filled  out  in  writ- 
ing, either  canceled  or  uncanceled;  legal  and 
other  blank  printed  forms  signed  officially. 
Blank  forms,  filled  out  in  writing.  Cards  or 
letters  (printed)  bearing  a  written  date,  where 
the  date  is  not  the  date  of  the  card,  but  gives 
Information  as  to  when,  the  sender  will  call 
or  deliver  something  otherwise  referred  to,  or 
is  the  date  when  something  will  occur  or  is 
acknowledged  to  have  been  received.  Cards 
(printed)  which  by  having  a  signature  attached 
are  converted  into  personal  communications, 
such  as  receipts,  orders  for  articles  furnished 
by  addressee,  etc.  Cards  (visiting)  bearing 
written  name,  except  single  cards  enclosed 
with  third  or  fourth  class  matter,  and  bearing 
the  name  of  the  sender.  Certificates,  checks, 
receipts,  etc.,  filled  out  in  writing.  Communi- 


cations entirely  in  print,  with  exception  of 
name  of  sender,  sent  in  identical  terms  by 
many  persons  to  the  same  address.  Copy 
(manuscript  or  typewritten)  unaccompanied  by 
proof  sheets  thereof.  Diplomas,  marriage  or 
other  certificates,  filled  out  in  writing.  Draw- 
ings or  plans  containing  written  words,  letters 
or  figures,  indicating  size,  price,  dimensions, 
etc.  Envelopes  bearing  written  addresses. 
Folders  made  of  stiff  paper,  the  entire  inner 
surface  of  which  cannot  be  examined  except 
at  the  imminent  risk  of  breaking  the  seal, 
and  those  having  many  folds  or  pages,  requir- 
ing the  use  of  an  instrument  of  any  kind  in 
order  to  thoroughly  examine  the  inner  sur- 
faces are  subject  to  the  first-class  rate  of 
postage.  Hand  or  typewritten  matter  and  letter 
press  or  manifold  (carbon)  copies  thereof. 
Imitations  or  reproductions  of  hand  or  type- 
written matter  not  mailed  at  the  post  office 
window  or  other  depository  designated  by  the 
postmaster  in  a  minimum  number  of  twenty 
identical  copies.  Legal  and  other  blank  print- 
ed forms  signed  officially.  Letters  (old  or  re- 
mailed)  sent  singly  or  in  bulk.  Manuscripts 
or  typewritten  copy,  when  not  accompanied  by 
proof  sheets  thereof.  Marriage  certificates 
filled  out  in  writing.  Old  letters  sent  singly 
or  in  bulk.  Original  typewritten  matter  and 
manifold  or  letter-press  copies  thereof.  Plans 
and  drawings  containing  written  words,  letters 
or  figures,  indicating  size,  price,  dimensions, 
etc.  Price  lists  (printed)  containing  written 
figures  changing  individual  items.  Receipts 
(printed)  with  written  signatures.  Sealed  mat- 
ter of  any  class,  or  matter  so  wrapped  as  not 
to  be  easily  examined,  except  original  pack- 
ages of  proprietary  articles  of  merchandise  put 
up  so  that  each  package  may  be  examined  in 
its  simplest  mercantile  or  sample  form,  and 
seeds  and  other  articles  that  may  be  enclosed 
in  sealed  transparent  envelopes.  Stenographic 
or  shorthand  notes.  Typewritten  matter,  orig- 
inal letter-press  and  manifold  copies  thereof. 
Unsealed  written  communications.  Visiting 
cards  (written),  except  single  cards  enclosed 
with  third  or  fourth  class  matter,  and  bearing 
the  name  of  the  sender. 

SECOND-CLASS    MATTER. 

14.  Includes  newspapers  and  periodicals  bear- 
ing  notice   of  entry  as   second-class  matter.     A 
pamphlet   containing   the    laws   governing    mail- 
able  matter  of  the  second  class  and  regulations 
thereunder    will    be    furnished    postmasters,    in- 
terested publishers  and   news  agents. 

THIRD-CLASS   MATTER. 

15.  Printed  matter  under  the  following  condi- 
tions is  third-class  matter: 

16.  Printed     Matter    Defined.— Printed     matter 
is  the  reproduction  upon  paper  by  any  process, 
except  handwriting  and  typewriting,  not  having 
the    character    of    actual    personal    correspond- 
ence,   of    words,    letters,    characters,    figures    or 
images,     or    any    combination    thereof.      Matter 
produced   by   the   photographic    process    (includ- 
ing blueprints)    is  printed   matter. 

17.  Circulars. — A  circular  is  defined  by  law  to 
be    a    printed    letter    which,     according    to    in- 
ternal evidence,   is  being  sent  in  identical  terms 
to    several    persons.      A    circular    may    bear    a 
written,     typewritten     or     hand-stamped  '  date, 
name   and   address    of  person   addressed   and    of 
the     sender,     and     corrections     of     mere     typo- 
graphical errors. 

18.  Where    a    name    (except    that    of    the    ad- 
dressee   or    sender),     date    (other    than    that    of 
the  circular),    figure,    or  anytMng   else   is   writ- 
ten,   typewritten   or   hand   stamped    in    the   body 
of    the    circular    for    any    other   reason    than    to 
correct    a    genuine    typographical    error,     it    is 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


335 


subject    to    postage    at    the    first-class    (letter) 
rate,   whether  sealed   or   unsealed. 

19.  Exception. — If    such    name,    date    or    other 
matter  be  hand  stamped,   and  not  of  a  personal 
nature,    the    character   of    the    circular   as    such 
is  not  changed  thereby. 

20.  Reproductions   or    imitations    of   handwrit- 
ing  and  typewriting  obtained   by   means  of  the 
printing     press,     neostyle,     hectograph,     multi- 
graph,    or    similar   process,    will    be    treated    as 
third-class  matter,   provided  they  are  mailed  at 
the    post     office    window    or    other    depository 
designated    by    the    postmaster    in    a    minimum 
number     of     20     perfectly     identical,     unsealed 
copies.     If  mailed    in  a   less  quantity  they  will 
be  subject  to  the  first-class  rate. 

21.  Correspondence   of  the    blind;    mailable   at 
the  third-class  rate. 

22.  Seeds,    bulbs,    roots,   scions,    etc. ;   mailable 
at   the    third-class   rate    of   postage. 

22a.  Identical     pieces     of     third-class     matter 
mailed  without   stamps  affixed. 

ARTICLES    INCLUDED    IN    THIRD-CLASS 
MATTER. 

23.  Address    tags    and    labels    (printed).      Ad- 
vertisements   printed    on    blotting    paper.      Al- 
manacs.     Architectural    designs    (printed).      As- 
sessment notices,    wholly  in  print.     Blank  notes 
(printed).       Blanks     (printed    legal)    and    forms 
of     insurance     applications,     mainly     in     print. 
Blind,    indented    or   perforated    sheets    of   paper 
containing    characters    which    can    be    read    by 
the   blind,    except   such   as   are   entitled   to   free 
transmission.      Blue    prints.       Books    (printed). 
Bulbs.      Calendar    pads   mainly    in   print.      Cal- 
endars    (printed     on    paper).       Canvassing    and 
prospectus  books  with  printed  sample  chapters. 
Cards     printed      on     paper.        Cards,      printed, 
with     perforations     for    carrying     coin.     Cards, 
Christmas,      Easter,     etc.,     printed     on     paper. 
Catalogues.          Check        and        receipt        books 
(mainly      in      print).        Circulars.        Clippings 
(press)    with   name   and   date   of   paper   stamped 
or    written    in.      Correspondence    of    the    blind. 
Coupons,    printed.      Engravings   and    wood    cuts 
(printed   on   paper).      Grain   in    its   natural   con- 
dition    (samples    of).      Imitations    of    hand    or 
typewritten    matter,    when    mailed    at    the    post 
office    window    or    other    depository    designated 
by    the    postmaster    in    a   minimum    number    of 
20     identical     copies.       Indented     or    perforated 
sheets    of    paper    containing    characters    which 
can   be   read    by   the   blind,    except   such   as   are 
entitled  to  free  transmission.     Insurance  applica- 
tions   and    other   blank    forms   mainly    in   print. 
Labels     and     tags     bearing     printed     addresses. 
Legal    blanks    (printed)    and    forms    of    insurance 
applications,     mainly     in     print.       Lithographs. 
Maps    printed    upon    paper,    with    the    necessary 
mountings.       Memorandum     books,     mainly     in 
print.      Music    books.       Notes     (blank    printed). 
Order     blanks     and     report     forms,     mainly     in 
print.      Photographs,    printed    on    paper.      Plans 
and     architectural     designs     (printed).       Plants, 
Postage  stamps  (cancelled  or  uncancelled).   Pos- 
tal     cards,      bearing      printed      advertisements, 
mailed    in    bulk.      Post    cards,     bearing    on    the 
message     side     illustrations     or     other     printed 
matter,    mailed    in    bulk.      Press    clippings   with 
name    and    date    of    paper    stamped    or    written 
in.       Price     lists,     wholly     in     print.       Printed 
blank  notes.     Printed  calendars.   Printed  labels. 
Printed       plans      and      architectural       designs. 
Printed    tags    and    labels.      Printed    valentines. 
Proof-sheets    (printed)    with    or    without    manu- 
script.     Receipt    and    check    books    (mainly    in 
print).      Reproductions    or    imitations    of    hand 

typewriting,  by  the  neostyle.  hectograph, 
mimeograph,  olei-trc  pen,  or  similar  process! 
when  mailed  at  the  post  office  window  or  other 
depository  designated  by  the  postmaster,  in 


a  minimum  number  of  twenty  identical  copies. 
Roots.  School  copy  books  containing  printed 
instructions.  Scions.  Seeds.  Sheet  music. 
Tags  and  labels,  printed.  United  States  Treas- 
ury notes.  Valentines,  printed  on  paper.  Vis- 
iting cards  (printed).  Wood  cuts  and  engrav- 
ings (prints). 

24.  Permissible   additions    to   third-class    mat- 
ter.— 

(a)  Such    words    as    "Dear    Sir,"     "My    dear 
friend,"     "Yours    truly,"     "Sincerely    yours," 
"Merry      Christmas,"      "Happy      New      Year," 

"With  best  wishes"  and  "Do  not  open  until 
Christmas,"  or  words  to  that  effect,  written 
upon  third  class  matter  are  permissible  in- 
scriptions. 

(b)  Inscriptions    in     public     library    books. — 
Public    library    books,    otherwise    transmissible 
in  the  mails  at  the  third-class  rate  of  postage, 
shall  not  be  subjected  to  a  higher  postage  rate 
because     of     bearing     thereon     or     therein,     in 
writing  or  by  means  of  hand-stamp,   the  shelf- 
number,     date    of    donation    or    acquisition    (or 
both),    or  any   mark  of  designation   which   may 
be    reasonably    construed    as    an     "inscription" 
within  the  meaning  of  the  law  (sec.   478,    P.   L. 
and    R.)    in    the    limited    sense    of   a    permanent 
library  record,    placed  thereon  by  the   librarian 
and    in  that   connection    only. 

(c)  A    written    designation    of    contents — such 
as    "Book,"    "Printed    matter,"    "Photo"— shall 
be    construed    as    a    permissible     "inscription" 
upon   mail   matter   of  the   third  class. 

(d)  Incidental    use    of    third-class    matter    aa 
receptacles    for   coin. — The    rate    of    postage    on 
matter   essentially    third    class    (printed    matter 
upon    paper)    is    not    affected    by    the    fact    that 
incidentally    it    contains    a    perforation    which 
may    be   used    for   carrying  coin. 

(e)  Serial    numbers. — Serial    numbers    written 
or    impressed    upon,    and    so    inserted    in    what 
would   otherwise   be  third-class   matter,    do    not 
increase    that    rating. 

(f)  Permissible    enclosures. — "There    may    be 
enclosed      with      third-class      matter,      without 
changing    the    classification     thereof,     a    single 
visiting    or    business    card;     a    single    printed 
order-blank,     or    a    single    printed    combination 
order-blank  and   coin-card   with   envelope   bear- 
ing   return    address;    or    a    single    postal    card 
bearing    return    address." 

FOURTH- CLASS    MATTER. 

25.  Fourth-class  matter  is  all  mailable  matter 
not    included    in    the    three    preceding    classes 

which  m  so  prepared  for  mailing  as  to  be  easily 
withdrawn  from  the  wrapper  and  examined, 
except  that  sealed  packages  of  proprietary  arti- 
cles of  merchandise  (not  in  themselves  un- 
mailable),  such  as  pills,  fancy  soaps,  tobacco, 
etc.,  put  up  in  fixed  quantities  by  the  manu- 
facturer for  sale  by  himself  or  others,  or  for 
samples,  in  such  manner  as  to  properly  protect 
the  articles,  so  that  each  package  in  its  sim- 
plest mercantile  or  sample  form  may  be  ex- 
amined, are  mailable  as  fourth-class  matter. 
It  embraces  merchandise  and  samples  of  every 
description,  and  coin  or  specie. 

26.  Postage   must   be    paid    by    stamps   affixed, 
unless     2,000     or     more     identical     pieces     are 
mailed   at   one   time    when   the   postage   at    that 
rate   may   be   paid    in   stamps   or   money.      New 
postage    must     be    prepaid     for    forwarding    or 
returning.     The  afilxing  of  special  delivery  ten- 
cent  stamps   in  addition  to   the  regular  postage 
entitles  fourth-class  matter  to  special  delivery. 

Articles  of  this  class  liable  to  injure  or 
deface  the  mails,  such  as  glass,  sugar,  needles, 
nails,  pens,  etc.,  must  be  first  wrapped  in  a 
bag,  box,  or  open  envelope  and  then  secured 
in  another  outside  tube  or  box,  made  of  metal 
or  hard  wood,  without  sharp  corners  or  edges, 
and  having  a  sliding  clasp  or  screw  lid,  thus 


336 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


securing  the  articles  in  a  double  package.  The 
public  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  first 
object  of  the  department  is  to  transport  the 
mails  safely,  and  every  other  interest  is  made 
subordinate. 

ARTICLES     INCLUDED     IN     FOURTH-CLASS 
MATTER. 

27.  Albums,  photograph  and  autograph 
(blank).  Artificial  flowers.  Bees  (queen)  when 
properly  packed.  Bill  heads.  Blank  address 
tags  and  labels.  Blank  books.  Blank  books 
with  printed  headings.  Blank  cards  or  paper. 
Blank  diaries.  Blank  postal  cards  in  bulk 
packages.  Blank  post-cards.  Blotting  paper 
(blank).  Botanical  specimens,  not  susceptible 
of  being  used  for  propagation.  Calendar  pads, 
mainly  blank.  Calendars  or  other  matter 
printed  on  celluloid.  Card  coin-holders  (not 
printed).  Cards  (blank).  Cards,  printed  play- 
ing, of  all  kinds.  Celluloid,  printed  or  un- 
printed.  Christmas  and  Easter  cards  printed 
on  other  material  than  paper.  Cigar  bands. 
Coin.  Combination  calendar  and  memorandum 
pads  mainly  blank.  Crayon  pictures.  Cut  flow- 
ers. Cuts  (wood  or  metal).  Daguerreotypes. 
Dissected  maps  and  pictures.  Drawings,  framed 
or  unframed.  Dried  fruit.  Dried  plants.  Easter 
cards,  when  printed  on  other  material  than 
paper.  Electrotype  plates.  Engravings,  when 
framed.  Envelopes,  printed  or  unprinted,  ex- 
cept when  addressed  and  enclosed  singly  w.th 
third-class  matter.  Flowers,  cut  or  artificial. 
Framed  engravings,  pictures  and  other  printed 
matter.  Geological  specimens.  Letter  heads. 
Maps,  printed  on  cloth.  Merchandise  samples. 
Memorandum  books  and  calendar  pads,  mainly 
blank.  Merchandise  sealed:  Proprietary  arti- 
cles (not  in  themselves  unmailable),  such  as 
pills,  fancy  soaps,  tobacco,  etc.,  put  up  in 
fixed  quantities  by  the  manufacturer  for  sale 
by  himself  or  others,  or  for  samples,  in  such 
manner  as  to  properly  protect  the  articles,  and 
so  that  each  package  in  its  simplest  mercan- 
tile or  sample  form  may  be  readily  examined. 
Metals.  Minerals.  Napkins,  paper  or  cloth, 
printed  or  unprinted.  Oil  paintings,  framed 
or  unframed.  Order  blanks  and  report  forms 


mainly  blank  (spaces  covered  by  ruled  lines 
being  regarded  as  blank),  are  fourth-class  mat- 
ter. However,  one  copy  may  be  enclosed  with 
third-class  matter  without  subjecting  such  mat- 
ter to  postage  at  the  fourth-class  rate.  Paper 
bags  and  wrapping  paper,  printed  or  unprinted. 
Paper  napkins,  Patterns,  printed  or  unprinted. 
Pen  or  pencil  drawings,  if  they  bear  no 
written  words,  letters  or  figures,  giving  size, 
dimensions,  distance,  price,  etc.  Photograph 
albums.  Photographic  negatives.  Postal  cards 
(blank)  in  bulk  packages.  Post-cards  (blank). 
Printed  matter  on  other  material  than  paper. 
Printed  playing  cards  of  all  kinds.  Private 
mailing  or  post-cards  (blank).  Queen  bees, 
when  properly  packed.  Record  books,  mainly 
blank.  Rulers,  wooden  or  metal,  bearing  print- 
ed advertisements.  Samples  of  cloth.  Sam- 
ples of  flour  or  other  manufactured  grain  for 
food  purposes.  Sealed  merchandise:  Soap 
wrappers,  Stationery.  Tags  (blank).  Tape  meas- 
ures. Tintypes.  Tobacco  tags  and  wrappers. 
Valentines  printed  on  material  other  than 
paper.  Wall  paper.  Water  color  painting. 
Wooden  rulers,  bearing  printed  advertisements. 
Wrapping  paper,  printed  or  unprinted. 

28.     Permissible   writing   or   printing    upon   or 
with   fourth-class  matter: 

(a)  The    written    additions    permissible    upon 
third-class    matter    may    be    added    to    fourth- 
class   matter  without  subjecting  the  latter  to  a 
higher  than   the  fourth-class  rate  'of  postage. 

(b)  The    written    additions    permissible    upon 
fourth-class    matter    may    be    placed    upon    the 
matter    itself,    or    upon    the    wrapper    or    cover 
thereof,     or    tag     or     label     accompanying     the 
same. 

(c)  A    written    designation    of    the    contents, 
such    as     "candy,"     "cigars,"     "merchandise," 
etc.,   is  permissible  upon  the  wrapper  of  fourth- 
class  matter. 

(d)  Such  inscriptions  as   "Merry  Christmas," 
"Happy  New  Year,"    "With  best  wishes,"    and 
"Do   not   open   until   Christmas,"    or   words   to 
that    effect,    together    with    the    name    and    ad- 
dress  of   the   addressee   and  of  the  sender  may 
be  written  on  mail  matter  of  the  fourth   class. 
or    upon    a    card    enclosed    therewith,     without 
affecting    its   classification. 


RATES  OF  POSTAGE. 


FIRST-CLASS    MATTER. 

Rates  of  postage  on  first-class  matter. 
—  (a)  On  letters  and  other  matter, 
wholly  or  partly  in  writing,  except  the 
writing  specially  authorized  to  be  placed 
upon  matter  of  other  classes,  and  on 
matter  sealed  or  otherwise  closed  against 
inspection — 2  cents  an  ounce  or  fraction 
thereof. 

(b)  On  postal  cards — 1  cent  each,  the 
price   for   which    they    are   sold. 

(c)  On    private    mailing    cards    (post- 
cards)   conforming    to    the    requirements 
of  Postal  Laws  and  Regulations — 1   cent 
each. 

(d)  On    "drop    letters,"    2    cents    an 
ounce   or  fraction    thereof  when   mailed 
at  letter-carrier  post  offices,  or  at  offices 
which    are    not    letter-carrier    offices    if 
rural  free  delivery  has  been  established 
and  the  persons  addressed  can  be  served 
by    rural    carrier ;   and    1    cent   for   each 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof  when  mailed  at 
offices  where  letter-carrier   sevicc  is  not 


established,  or  at  offices  where  the  pat- 
rons cannot  be  served  by  rural  free-de- 
livery carriers. 

(e)  Letters  mailed  at  a  post  office  for 
delivery  to  patrons  thereof  by  star  route 
carrier    and    those    deposited    in     boxes 
along   a   star  route  or   rural   free  deliv- 
ery   route    are    subject    to    postage    at 
the  rate  of  two  cents  an  ounces  or  frac- 
tion   thereof. 

(f)  Letters  prepaid  1  cent  received  by 
a   postmaster,    under   cover    (through  the 
mails),     with     postage    prepaid    on    the 
bulk   package   at   the   letter   rate,    cannot 
be  distributed  for  local  delivery  or  trans- 
mission in  the  mails.     Each  letter  must 
be  prepaid  at  the  regular  first-class  rate. 

(g)  A  letter  which — after  a  proper  ef- 
fort has  been  made  to  deliver  it — is  re- 
turned   to    the    sender,    may    not    be    re- 
mailed    without    a    new    prepayment    of 
postage,    and    it    should    he    enclosed    in 
:\   new  envelope,   to  secure  prompt  trans- 
mission. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


337 


SECOND-CLASS    MATTER. 

When  mailed  by  the  public. — The  rate 
of  postage  on  newspapers  and  periodical 
publications  of  the  second  class,  when 
sent  by  others  than  the  publisher  there- 
of, or  a  news  agent,  is  1  cent  for  each 
4  ounces,  or  fractional  part  thereof,  on 
each  separately  addressed  copy  or  pack- 
age of  unaddressed  copies,  to  be  prepaid 
by  stamps  affixed. 

1  XOTE. — There  is  no  such  rate  of  post- 
age as  4  cents  a  pound. 

When  mailed  by  publishers  or  news 
agents. — Copies  of  publications  admitted 
to  the  second  class  of  mail  matter  when 
mailed  by  the  publishers  thereof  to  sub- 
scribers and  as  sample  copies  within  fhe 
limitations  of  section  4.16,  Postal  Law* 
and  Regulations,  are  subject  to  postage 
at  the  rate  of  1  cent  a  pound,  to  be 
prepaid  in  money  on  the  bulk  weight  of 
sill  copies,  except  as  provided  by  section 
452.  Postal  Laws  and  Regulations. 

THIRD-CLASS     MATTER. 

The  rate  of  postage  on  mail  matter  of 
the  third  class  is  1  cent  for  each  2 
ounces  or  fraction  thereof,  on  each  in- 
dividually addressed  piece  or  parcel, 
prepaid  bv  stamps  affixed,  except  as  pro- 
vided by'  section  483%,  Postal  Laws 
and  Regulations. 

JSOTE. — There  is  no  such  rate  of  post- 
age as  8  cents  a  pound. 

FOURTH-CLASS    MATTER. 

The  rate  of  postage  on  mail  matter 
of  the  fourth  class  is^  1  cent  an  ounce 
or  fraction  thereof,  on  each  individually 
addressed  piece  or  parcel,  prepaid  by 
stamps  affixed,  except  as  provided  by 
amended  section  483%,  Postal  Laws  and 
Regulations. 

XOTE. — There  is  no  such  rate  of  post- 
age as  16  cents  a  pound. 

MONEY  ORDER  SYSTEM. 

Fees  charged  for  money  orders  issued  0:1 
domestic  form.— 

TABLE    NO.    1. 

Payable  in  the  United  States  (which  includes 
Guam  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico  and  Tutuila,  Samoa) : 
or  payable  in  Bermuda,  British  Guiana. 
British  Honduras,  Canada,  Canal  Zone  (Isth- 
mus of  Panama),  Cuba.  Mexico,  Newfound 
land,  at  the  United  States  Postal  Agency  at 
Shanghai  (China),  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 
or  the  following  islands  in  the  West  In- 
dies' Antigua,  Bahamas,  Barbados,  Dominica. 
Grenada,  Jamaica,  Martinique,  Montserrat. 
Nevis,  St.  Kitts.  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent. 
Trinidad  and  Tobago,  and  Virgin  Islands. 

For  orders  from   $  0.01  to   $  2.50 3  cents 

For  orders  from   $  2.51  to   $  5.00 5  cents 

For  orders  from   $  5.01  to   $10.00 8  cents 

For  orders  from   $10.01  to   $20.00 10  cents 

For  orders  from   $20.01  to   $30.00 12  cents 

For  orders  from   $30.01  to   $40.00 15  cents 

For  orders  from   $40.01  to   $50.00 18  cents 

For  orders  from   $50.01  to  $60.00 20  cents 

For  orders  from   $60.01   to   $75.00 25  cents 

For  orders  from  $75.01  to  $100.00 30  cents 

21.  Postmasters  at  domestic  money-order  of- 
fices must  bear  in  mind  that  they  are  not 
author'zed  to  issue  money  orders  for  pay- 
ment In  any  foreign  country  other  than  those 


enumerated  above.  When  an  intending  remit- 
ter applies  at  a  domestic  office  for  a  money 
order  payable  in  any  other  foreign  country 
the  postmaster  should  direct  him  to  the  near- 
est international  money-order  office. 

22.  Fees  charged  for  money  orders  issued  on 
international  form. — 

TABLE    NO.    2. 

Payable  in  Apia,  Austria,  Belgium,  Bolivia, 
Cape  Colony,  Costa  Rica,  Denmark,  Egypt, 
Germany,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Honduras, 
Hongkong,  Hungary,  Italy,  Japan,  Liberia, 
Luxemburg,  Natal  and  Zululand.  New  South 
Wales,  New  Zealand,  Orange  River  Colony, 
Peru,  Portugal,  Queensland,  Russia,  Salvador, 
South  Australia,  Switzerland,  Tasmania,  the 
Transvaal,  Uruguay  and  Victoria. 

P'or  orders  from    $  0.01  to   $  2.50 10  cents 

1-or  orders  from   $  2.51  to   $  5.00 15  cents 

For  orders  from   $  5.01  to    $  7.50 20  cents 

For  orders   from   $  7.51  to   $10.00 ....25  cents 

For  orders  from   $10.01  to   $15.00 30  cents 

For  oiders  from   $15.01  to  $20.00 35  cents 

For  orders  from    $20.01  to   $30.00 40  cents 

For  orders  from   $30.01  to   $40.00 45  cents 

For  orders  from   $40.01  to   $50.00 50  cents 

For  orders  from   $50.01  to   $60.00 60  cents 

For  orders   from  $60.01   to   $70.00 70  cents 

For  orders  from   $70.01  to    $80.00 80  cents 

For  orders  from   $80.01  to   $90.00 90  cents 

For  orders  from  $90.00  to  $100.00 $1.00 

TABLE   NO.    3. 

Payable  in  any  foreign  country  not  enu- 
merated in  Tables  Nos.  1  and  2  above. 

For  orders  from  $  0.01  to  $  10.00 10  cents 

For  orders  from   $10.01  to  $  20.00 20  cents 

For  orders  from  $20.01  to  $  30.00.... 30  cents 

For  orders  from  $30. 01- to  $  40.00 40  cents 

For  orders  from  $40.01  to  $  50.00 50  cents 

For  orders  from  $50.01  to  $  60.00 60  cents 

For  orders  from  $60.01  to  $  70.00 70  cents 

For  orders  from  $70.01  to  $  80.00 80  cents 

For  orders  from  $80.01  to  $  90.00 90  cents 

For  orders  from  $90.01  to  $100.00 $1.00 

International  orders.— There  are  now  in  op- 
eration conventions  for  the  exchange  of  money 
orders  between  the  United  States  and  sixty- 
one  countries  named  below: 

*Antigua.  Japan. 

Apia,   Samoa.  Liberia. 

Austria.  Luxemburg. 

*Bahama  Islands.  *Martinique. 

*Barbados.  *Mexico. 

Belgium.  *Montserrat. 

*Bermuda.  tNatal   and   Zululand. 

Bolivia.  Netherlands. 

•British    Gu  ana.  *Nevis. 

•British    Honduras.         *Newfoundland. 

•Canada.  New   South    Wales. 

•Canal   Zone.  New  Zealand. 

fCape  Colony.  Norway. 

Chili.  fOrange   River   Colony. 

Costa    Rica.  Peru. 

•Cuba.  *Philippine  Islands. 

Denmark.  Portugal. 

•Dominica.  Queensland. 

Egypt.  Russia. 

France,    Algeria  and      *St.    Kitts. 
Tunis.  *Saint  Lucia. 

Germany.  *Saint  Vincent. 

Great   Britain  and  Salvador. 

Ireland.  South  Australia. 

Greece.  Sweden. 

•Grenada.  Switzerland. 

Honduras    (Republic).    Tasman'a. 

Hongkong    (China).          fThe    Transvaal. 

Hungary.  *Trinidad  and  Tobago. 

Italy   (including   San    Uruguay. 

Marino).  Victoria. 

"Jamaica.  *Virgin  Islands. 


338 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


*  Draw  orders  on  domestic  money-order  form. 

f  Cape  Colony,  Transvaal,  Orange  River  Col- 
ony and  Natal  (with  Zululand)  have  been  con- 
solidated into  the  South  African  Union,  and 
all  money-orders  for  payment  in  those  coun- 
tries are  now  certified  by  the  Exchange  office 
at  New  York  to  the  Exchange  office  at  Cape 
Town.  Money  orders  to  and  from  Natal  and 
Zululand  formerly  were  reissued  at  London. 
Payment  may  now  be  made  on  the  original 
orders,  provided  the  corresponding  advices 
have  been  duly  certified. 

INTERNATIONAL    REPLY-COUPONS. 

International  reply-coupons,  of  the  denomi- 
nation of  6  cents  each,  are  issued  for  the 
purpose  of  sending  to  correspondents  abroad. 
The  foreign  correspondent  may  exchange  each 
coupon  for  postage  stamps  of  the  country  in 
which  he  is  located,  equal  in  value  to  5  cents 
in  United  States  money,  using  the  stamps  for 
reply  postage.  The  countries  in  which  the 
reply-coupon  is  valid  are  as  follows: 

Argentine  Republic. 

Austria   and    the  Austrian   post    offices   in    the 

Levant.  Chili. 

Belgium.  Corea. 

Bosnia-Herzegovina.         Costa  Rica. 

Brazil.  Crete. 

Bulgaria.  Cuba. 

Denmark,    including  Greenland  and  the  Faroe 

Islands;    the    Danish    West    Indies. 

Egypt. 

France,  the  French  post  offices  in  China, 
Morocco,  and  Turkey;  the  French  colonies  of 
Algeria,  Dahomey,  Guadeloupe  and  dependen- 
cies, (Guiana  (French),  Indo-China,  Ivory 
Coast,  Martinique,  Mauretania,  New  Cale- 
donia, Oceanica,  St.  Pierre-Miquelon,  Senegal, 
Senegal-Niger;  French  establishments  in  India. 

Germany,  the  German  protectorates  and  Ger- 
man post  offices  in  Africa,  Asia,  Australasia, 
and  Turkey. 

Great  Britain,  British  post  offices  in  Morocco 
and  Turkey;  British  colonies  of  Australia, 
Bahamas,  Bechuanaland,  Canada,  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  Ceylon,  Cook  Islands,  Dominica,  East 
Africa,  Gibraltar,  Gold  Coast,  Honduras  (Brit- 
ish), Hong  Kong  and  Hong  Kong  offices  in 
China,  India,  Labuan,  Malta,  Mauritius  Islands, 
Natal,  Newfoundland,  New  Guinea,  New  Zea- 
land, Papua,  Seychelles,  Sierra  Leone,  Somali - 
land,  Southern  Nigeria,  South  Rhodesia,  Straits 
Settlements,  Tasmania,  Transvaal,  Trinidad, 
Uganda,  Zululand;  British  Protectorates  of  the 
Solomon,  Gilbert  and  Ellice  Islands. 

Greece.  Honduras   (Republic   of). 

Haiti.  Hungary. 

Italy,    and    Italian    colonies    of    Benadir    and 

Krythrea.    • 

Japan  and  Japanese  post  offices  in  China  and 

Manchuria.  Luxemburg. 

Liberia.  Mexico. 

Netherlands,  Netherlands  Guiana,  the  Nether- 
lands Indies. 

Norway. 

Portugal,    including  the  Azores   and    Madeira. 

Roumania.  Sweden. 

Salvador.  Switzerland. 

Siam.  Tunis. 

Spain.  Turkey. 

Persons  who  buy  the  reply  coupons  should 
inform  their  correspondents  abroad  that  the 
reply  coupon  is  not  itself  good  for  postage, 
but  must  be  exchanged  at  the  post  office  for  a 
postage  stamp.  The  postmark  of  the  selling 
post  office  must  be  stamped  legibly  in  the 
circle  on  the  left-hand  side  of  all  reply  cou- 
pons sold  to  the  public. 


DELIVERY    AND    FORWARDING    OF    REGIS- 
TERED   MAIL 

Either  the  sender  or  the  addressee  of  do- 
mestic registered  mail  may  restrict  its  deliv- 
ery. Registered  mail  which  is  not  restricted 
in  delivery  may  be  delivered  to  any  responsi- 
ble person  who  customarily  receives  the  ordi- 
nary mail  of  the  addressee. 

Paragraph  1  of  Section  869  of  the  Postal 
Laws  and  Regulations  has  been  amended  to 
read  as  follows: 

"Sec.  869.  All  registered  matter,  except  that 
which  has  once  been  properly  delivered,  may 
be  forwarded  without  additional  charge  for 
registry  fee,  upon  the  written  request  of  any 
person  to  whom  it  is  deliverable.  In  cases  of 
emergency,  when  the  postmaster  is  satisfied 
that  no  fraud  is  intended,  a  telegraphic  order 
from  the  addressee  may  be  honored." 

Written  orders  to  forward  mail,  signed  by 
addressees  or  their  agents  duly  authorized  to 
control  such  matter,  must  be  construed  to 
apply  to  both  ordinary  and  registered  mail, 
unless  such  orders  specifically  state  that  regis- 
tered mail  shall  not  be  so  forwarded,  or  sep- 
arate and  special  written  orders  are  furnished 
directing  other  disposition  of  registered  mail. 

REGISTRY    RETURN    RECEIPT    TO    BE    FUR- 
NISHED   ONLY    WHEN    REQUESTED 
BY   THE   SENDER. 

Section  3928  of  the  Revised  Statutes  (855,  P. 
L.  &  R.)  has  been  amended  to  read  as  follows: 

"Whenever  the  sender  shall  so  request,  a 
receipt  shall  be  taken  on  the  delivery  of  any 
registered  mail  matter,  showing  to  whom  and 
when  the  same  was  delivered,  which  receipt 
shall  be  returned  to  the  sender  and  be  re- 
ceived in  the  courts  as  prima  facie  evidence 
of  such  delivery." 

In  accordance  with  this  amendment  postmas- 
ters do  not  prepare  receipt  cards  for  return  to 
the  senders  of  domestic  registered  letters  or 
parcels  that  do  not  bear  the  indorsement  "Re- 
ceipt desired"  or  words  of  similar  import. 
When  an  article  bearing  such  indorsement  is 
received  for  registration,  the  registration  re- 
ceipt issued  to  the  sender  and  the  registration 
record  are  similarly  indorsed. 

REGISTRATION    FEES. 

The  fee  for  the  registration  of  all  classes  of 
mail  matter,  foreign  and  domestic,  is  fixed  at 
10  cents  for  each  piece,  in  addition  to  postage, 
and  both  postage  and  fee  must  be  prepaid  at 
the  time  of  registration. 

The  Departmenjt,  has  prepared  a  distinctive 
registry  stamp  of  10-cent  denomination,  which 
will  be  recognized  by  postmasters  and  employees 
of  the  postal  service  for  prepayment  of  the 
fee  on  registered  matter,  domestic  or  foreign; 
but  ordinary  postage  stamps  may  still  be  used 
to  prepay  the  registry  fee  when  registry  stamps 
are  not  available.  The  distinctive  registry 
stamp  of  10-cent  denomination  is  to  be  used 
only  in  the  prepayment  of  the  registry  fee  on 
registered  mail,  domestic  or  foreign,  and  can 
be  used  for  no  other  purpose.  As  the  new 
registry  stamp  is  not  available  for  the  payment 
of  postage,  the  following  instructions  are 
issued  for  the  treatment  of  mail  upon  which 
the  sender  has  improperly  affixed  such  stamps 
in  an  attempt  to  prepay  the  postage.  When 
the  distinctive  registry  stamp  is  not  used  the 
amount  of  ordinary  postage  stamps  on  any 
article  should  first  be  applied  to  the  payment 
of  postage  and  the  balance,  if  any,  to  the 
payment  of  the  registry  fee.  Both  postage  and 
registry  fee  should  be  fully  prepaid  before 
matter  is  presented  for  registration.  Post- 
masters will  decline  to  accept  mail  for  regis- 
tration bearing  only  distinctive  registry  stamps 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


339 


or  bearing  such  stamps  and  an  insufficient 
amount  in  ordinary  postage  stamps  to  fully 
prepay  postage. 

INDEMNITY    FOR    REGISTERED    MAIL. 
Indemnity    will    be    paid    on    account    of    the 
loss  of  registered  mail  in  the  postal  service: 

(a)  For  the  value  of  domestic  registered  mail 
of  the  first  class  (sealed)  up  to   $50. 

(b)  For  the  value  of  domestic  registered  mail 
of    the   third    and    fourth    classes    (unsealed)    up 
to   $25,    mailed   on  or  after  July   1,    1911. 

(c)  In   any  amount  claimed,    within   the   limit 
of  50   francs   (approximately    $9.65),    on  account 
of    the    loss,    in    the    international    mails,    of    a 
registered    article    of    any    class,    regardless    of 
its  value,    exchanged  between  the  United  States 
and  any  country  embraced  within  the  Universal 
Postal     Union,     except    on     account    of    losses 
arising     under     circumstances     beyond     control 
("force    majeure")    and    international    "Parcels 
Post"   registered  mail. 

Postal  employees  are  forbidden  to  address  or 
seal  envelopes  to  be  registered. 

First-class  domestic  matter  must  be  sealed 
before  being  registered. 

Registered  mail  for  foreign  countries  must 
not  be  addressed  with  a  lead  pencil. 

Articles  intended  for  registration  should  be 
securely  covered  by  envelopes  or  wrappers. 

POSTAGE  RATES  ON  ARTICLES  FOR  CAN- 
ADA, CUBA,  MEXICO,  THE  REPUBLIC  OF 
PANAMA,  THE  UNITED  STATES  POSTAL 
AGENCY  AT  SHANGHAI  AND  THE  UNITED 
STATES  NAVAL  HOSPITAL  AT  YOKO- 
HAMA, JAPAN. 

Articles  addressed  for  delivery  in  Canada, 
Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of  Panama  are 
subject  to  the  same  postage  rates  and  condi- 
tions which  would  apply  to  them  if  they  were 
addressed  for  delivery  in  the  United  States: 
Except  that: 

(a)  Letters    and    postal    cards    must    be    dis- 
patched  to   Canada   and   Mexico   if  prepaid    one 
full   rate  of   postage  and   to  Cuba   and    Panama 
whether    prepaid    or    not.       Other    articles    for 
Cuba  and   Panama  must  be  prepaid   at    least  in 
part  and  for  Canada  and  Mexico   in  full. 

(b)  "Prints,"      "samples"     and     "commercial 
papers"    may    be    sent    subject    to    the    postage 
rates,    weight    limit    and    other    conditions    ap- 
plicable   to    similar    articles    in    Postal    Union 
mails. 

(c)  Plants,    seeds,    etc.,    mailed   to   Canada   are 
subject    to    the    postage    rate    of    one    cent    aq 

(d)  Articles  other  than  letters  in   their   usual 
and  ordinary  form  are  excluded  from  the  mails, 
unless  they  are  so  wrapped   that  their  contents 
can    be    easily    examined    by    postmasters    and 
customs    officers.      Any    article    enclosed    in    an 
envelope,    as  the  word    "envelope"    is   generally 
used,    without  regard  to   its   size,    is   considered 
to  be    "in   the  usual   and   ordinary  form"    of  a 
letter.      But    unsealed    packages    may    contain, 
in   sealed  receptacles,    articles  which   cannot   be 
safely  transmitted  in  unsealed  receptacles,   pro- 
vided   the    contents    of    the    closed    receptacles 
are  plainly   visible    or   are    precisely   stated    on 
the    covers    of   the    closed    receptacles    and    that 
the  package  is  so  wrapped  that  the  outer  cover 
can  be  easily  opened. 

Unmailable. — The  following  articles  are  un- 
mailable  under  any  condition,  viz. : 

All  sealed  packages  which,  from  their 
form  and  general  appearance,  evidently  are  not 
letters;  publications  which  violate  the  copy- 
right laws  of  the  country  of  destination; 
poisons,  explosive  or  inflammable  substances; 
live  or  dead  (not  dried)  animals,  insects  (ex- 
cept bees)  and  reptiles;  fruits  and  vegetables 


which  quickly  decompose,  and  substances 
which  exhale  a  bad  odor;  lottery  tickets  or 
circulars;  all  obscene  or  immoral  articles, 
articles  which  may  destroy  or  damage  the 
mails,  or  injure  the  persons  handling  them; 
and  to  Cuba  and  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
liquids  and  fatty  substances,  except  samples 
thereof. 

The  domestic  postage  rates  and  conditions  of 
Canada,  Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama  apply  to  articles  mailed  in  those  coun- 
tries addressed  for  delivery  in  the  United 
States.  Consequently  articles  (except  sealed 
packages  which  are  not  letters)  mailed  in  any 
one  of  those  countries  which  are  entitled  to 
pass  in  the  domestic  mails  of  that  country 
free  of  postage,  are  likewise  entitled  to  trans- 
mission free  of  postage  to  the  United  States. 

Prepayment  of  postage  upon  any  article 
mailed  in  the  United  States,  except  the  reply 
half  of  a  double  postal  card,  can  be  effected 
only  by  means  of  United  States  postage  stamps. 

Postage  due:  Postage  due  upon  articles  ex- 
changed with  these  countries  insufficiently  pre- 
paid, is  collectible  upon  delivery  at  the  single 
rate. 

SECOND-CLASS  MATTER  FOR  CANADA. 

The  postage  rate  applicable  in  the  United 
States  to  "second-class  matter"  addressed  for 
delivery  in  Canada  is  1  cent  for  each  4  ounces 
or  fraction  of  4  ounces,  calculated  on  the 
weight  of  each  package  and  prepaid  by  means 
of  postage  stamps  affixed;  except  that  the 
postage  rate  to  publishers  and  news  agents 
applicable  to  legitimate  daily  newspapers  issued 
as  frequently  as  six  times  a  week  addressed 
to  bona  fide  subscribers  in  Canada,  is  1  cent  a 
pound  or  fraction  of  a  pound,  to  be  paid  at  the 
office  of  mailing  as  second-class  matter. 

RATES  OF  POSTAGE  ON  ARTICLES  FOR 
FOREIGN  COUNTRIES  OTHER  THAN  CAN- 
ADA, CUBA,  MEXICO,  THE  REPUBLIC  OF 
PANAMA,  THE  UNITED  STATES  POSTAL 
AGENCY  AT  SHANGHAI  AND  THE  UNITED 
STATES  NAVAL  HOSPITAL  AT  YOKO- 
HAMA. JAPAN. 

Articles  for  or  from  foreign  countries  (except 
Canada,*  Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama  and  the  United  States  Postal  Agency 
at  Shanghai,  as  indicated  above,  are  not  des- 
ignated "First-class  matter,"  "Second-class 
matter,"  etc.;  but  are  classified  as  "Letters," 
"Post  cards,"  "Printed  matter,"  "Commer- 
cial papers"  and  "Samples  of  merchandise," 
and  are  subject  to  the  postage  rates  indi- 
cated below: 

For  letters,  5  cents  for  the  first  ounce,  or 
fraction  of  an  ounce,  and  3  cents  for  each 
additional  ounce,  or  fraction  of  an  ounce. 
Stamps  or  forms  of  prepayment,  whether  cur- 
rent or  obsolete,  canceled  or  uncanceled,  as 
well  as  printed  articles  constituting  the  repre- 
sentative sign  of  monetary  value,  and  articles 
in  typewriting  or  imitation  of  typewriting,  are 
subject  to  postage  at  the  letter  fate.  Monetary 
value  is  held  by  the  International  Bureau  of 
the  Universal  Postal  Union  to  attach  to  bonds, 
bank  notes,  commercial  bills  of  exchange,  etc., 
which  have  been  fully  executed  by  the  makers: 

For  postal  cards,  2  cents  each,  for  single, 
and  4  cents  each  for  double  cards. 

For  printed  matter  of  all  kinds,  1  cent  for 
each  2  ounces  or  fraction  of  2  ounces. 

For  commercial  papers,  5  cents  for  the  first 
10  ounces  or  less,  and  1  cent  for  each  addi- 
tional 2  ounces  or  fraction  of  2  ounces. 


*Newfnundland    is    not    Included    in    the    Do- 
minion  of  Canada. 


S46 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


For  samples,  2  cents  for  the  first  4  ounces 
or  less,  and  1  cent  for  each  additional  2 
ounces  or  fraction  of  2  ounces. 

Registration  fee,  In  addition  to  postage,  10 
cents. 

Letters  for  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Wales 
and  Newfoundland,  2  cents  per  ounce,  and 
letters  for  Germany  dispatched  only  by  steam- 
ers which  land  the  mails  at  German  ports,  2 
cents  per  ounce.  Letters  for  Germany  paid 
at  the  Postal  Union  rate  will  be  dispatched 
by  the  fastest  steamers  and  forwarded  via  Great 
Britain  or  France. 

Letters  and  post  cards  must  be  dispatched 
even  if  no  postage  whatever  is  prepaid.  Other 
articles  must  be  prepaid  at  least  in  part.  In 
all  cases  double  the  amount  of  the  deficient 


postage    is    collectible    of    the    addressee    upon 
delivery. 

GENERAL  INFORMATION,    REGULATIONS 
AND   SUGGESTIONS. 

There  are  minute  directions  and  regulations 
regarding  foreign  mails,  as  follows:  Prepay- 
ment, short  payment,  matter  mailed  at  sea, 
withdrawing  of  mail,  registration,  reforward- 
ing,  merchandise,  commercial  papers,  composite 
packages,  prohibited  articles  and  special  pro- 
hibitions, which  would  occupy  about  15  pages 
of  this  book.  The  reader  is  referred  to  the 
United  States  Official  Postal  Guide,  which  can 
be  consulted  at  any  post  office  or  public 
library.  These  regulations  are  so  minute  that 
they  are  of  little  value  when  condensed  and 
phould  be  consulted  in  extenso. 


DOMESTIC  PARCELS  POST. 


The  provisions  of  the  act  approved  August 
24,  1912,  authorizing  the  establishment  of  the 
Parcels  Post  System  embodying  a  zone  sys- 
tem of  postal  rates  according  to  certain  pre- 
scribed distances  from  a  given  terr.torial  cen- 
ter to  take  effect  Jan.  1,  1913,  provides  that 
fourth-class  mail  matter  is  to  embrace  all 
other  matter,  including  farm  and  factory  prod- 
ucts, not  now  embraced  by  law  in  either  the 
first,  second,  or  third-class,  not  exceeding 
eleven  pounds  in  weight,  nor  greater  in  size 
than  72  inches  in  length  and  g'rth  combined, 
nor  in  form  or  kind  likely  to  injure  the  per- 
son of  any  postal  employee  or  damage  the 
mail  equipment  or  other  mail  matter  and  not 
of  a  character  perishable  within  a  period  rea- 
sonably required  for  transportation  and  de- 
livery. 

For   parcels   post    purposes    the   United    States 


and  its  several  Territories  and  possessions,  ex- 
cepting the  Philippine  Islands,  are  divided  into 
units  of  area  thirty  minutes  square,  identical 
with  a  quarter  of  the  area  formed  by  the  in- 
tersecting parallels  of  latitude  and  meridians 
of  longitude,  represented  on  appropriate  pos- 
tal maps  or  plans,  and  these  units  of  area  are 
the  basis  of  eight  postal  zones,  as  follows: 

The  first  zone  includes  all  territory  repre- 
senting an  area  having  a  mean  radial  distance 
of  approximately  50  miles  from  the  center  of 
any  given  unit  of  area. 

The  second  zone  includes  all  units  of  area 
outside  the  first  and  lying  within  a  radius  of 
approximately  150  miles  from  the  center  of 
a  given  unit. 

The    third    zone    includes    all    units    of    area 
outside   the   second    and    lying    within   a    radius 
of  300  miles  from  the  center  of  a   given  unit. 
(Continued   on  page   342.) 


1000  Miles, 
11  Lbs.,  79c. 


1800  Miles,  $1.11 
'  and  over  $1.32 


1400  Miles, 

11  Lbs.  ,$1.00 


Copyright  1912,   by   Munn   &   Co..    Inc. 

RATE  ZONES  FOR  DOMESTIC  PARCELS  POST. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


341 


APPROXIMATE  TIME  OF  MAILS,  AND  DISTANCES  BETWEEN  NEW  YORK  AND 
CERTAIN  PLACES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Name  of  place. 

I 

24 
30 
38 

31 
17 
33 
12 
9 
35 
8 
8 
8 
20 

ii 

28 
14 
9 
41 
43 
6-8 
9 
34 
22 
10 

9 
8 
9 
15 
22 
42 
8 
7-8 
10 

28 
7-8 
9 
24 
34 
30 
38 
10 
12 
24 
31 
15 
31 
24 
6 
33 
25 
12 
9 
6-8 
9 
5 
11 
37 
8 
6-7 
28 
11 
8-10 
21 
16 
8 
14 
30 
11 
12 
9 
33 
14 
45 
24 
9 

8-9 

Statute 
miles. 

Name  of  place. 

« 
>> 

rt 

Q 

Statute 
miles. 

via 
Accra  (Africa)   London  .  . 

8.075 
8,130 
15,315 

12.845 

7,875 
11.670 
6.150 
5,030 
9.7S5 
3,985 
1..790 
4.000 
4,835 

'5,655 

10,120 
5.870 
4.420 
13,125 
12,900 
2,145 
4,790 
12,800 
6,705 
4,510 

2,360 
4,385 
4.490 
6.475 
9,765 
8.590 
4.385 
4.235 
5.205 

12,190 
3.975 
4,910 
8.045 
9,500 
9,950 
10,160 
5.375 
6,280 
11,120 
5.455 
4,145 
8.805 
8,810 
1,466 
7,570 
11.245 
5,545 
2,445 
3,780 
4,650 

'21715 
5,135 
4,115 
2,281 
9,605 
5,810 
4,575 
5,685 
5.835 
2,030 
6.345 
11,520 
2,605 
1,920 
4,555 
9,120 
4,740 
8,745 
8,855 
4,800 

4,250 

via 
Gaboon  (Africa)  London.  . 
Geneva  (Switzerland)  London  . 

47 
8-U 
9 
11 
8 
9 
23 
13 
33 
13 
9 
7 
11 

7 
14 
6 
9 
31 
2 
9 
9 
2 
3 
8 
27 
12 
15 
44 
9 
18 
25 
7 
21 
5 
23 
25 
8-10 
10 
38 
7 

10 
28 
7 
6 
9 
9 
17 
12 
24 
9 

10 
11 
12 
11 

'1 

9 
35 

7 
10 

30 
5 
9 
20 
28 
23 
11 
36 

33 
9 
35 
9 
3 
30 
9 
9 
10 

9,055 
4,410 
4,615 
5,150 
3,370 
4,755 
6,600 
5.355 
7,395 
5.695 
2,325 
2.815 
1.865 

2,645 
3.295 
3.025 
3.950 
7,670 
645 
4,820 
4,340 
780 
1.366 
3,940 
10.590 
5.645 
5.350 
11.240 
4,525 
4.965 
7,050 
1,910 
7,090 
1,820 
10,330 
8.310 
2,258 
5,335 
8,185 
3,540 

2.495 
9,855 
3.740 
3.760 
4,480 
4.340 
5,555 
5.345 
10.525 
4,925 

4.375 
5,320 
5,280 
2,280 
3,805 
4.560 
1.980 
12,350 
1,830 
4,795 

12.265 
3,750 
4.615 
4.655 
7,335 
7.165 
5,535 
12,020 

10,470 
4,610 
9,230 
5,195 
1,105 
12,062 
4,700 
4,395 
5,455 

Addah  (Africa)  London.. 

Adelaide  (South  Australia)..  .London.  . 
Adelaide  (South  Australia) 

Genoa  (Italy)  London  .  . 

Gibraltar  '  London.  . 
Glasgow  (Scotland)  London.  . 
Gothenburg  (Sweden)  LonJon.. 
Goree  (Africa)  London  .  . 
Granada  (Spain)          .    .    .   London.  . 

Vancouver.  . 

Aden  (Arabia)  .  .  .'  London.. 

Akyab  (British  Burmah)  London.  . 

Algiers  (Africa)  London.  . 

Grand  Bassam  (Africa)  London.. 
Grand  Canary  Island  London.  . 
Grenada  (V\  indward  Islands)          ... 

Ambriz  (Africa)  London.  . 
Amsterdam  (Netherlands)  .  .London.  . 
Antigua  (Leeward  Islands)  
Antwerp  (Belgium)  London.  . 
Arica  (Peru)  Panama  .  . 
A«pinwall,  see  "Colon"  •  

Greytown  (Nicaragua).  New.  Orleans.  . 
Guadeloupe  (West  Indies)  ' 

Guatemala  City  (Guatemala)  
New  Orleans.  . 
Guayaquil  (Ecuador)  Panama.  . 

Athens  (Greece)  London.  . 
Auckland  (New  Zealand) 

Guaymas  (Mexico)  R,  R.  .  . 
Hague  (The  Netherlands).  .London.  . 
Half  Jack  (Africa)  London.  . 
Halifax  (Nova  Scotia)  
Hamburg  (Germany)        .       Direct 

San  Francisco  .  . 
Pahia  (Brazil)  

Bangkok  (Siam)  London  .  . 
Bangkok  (Siam)  San  Francisco.  . 
Barbados  (West  Indies) 

Hamburg  (Germany)  London.  . 

Hamilton  (Bermuda)  

Havana  (Cuba) 

Havre  (France)  
Hong-Kong  (China)  
Honolulu  (Hawaii)..  .San  Francisco.  . 
Iceland    London.  . 

Bathurst  (Africa)  London  .  . 
Bayonne  (France)  London.  . 
Belize  (British  Honduras)  
New  Orleans.  . 
Berlin  (Germany)   London. 

Inhambane  (Africa)  London.  . 
Interlaken  (Switzerland).  .  .  London.  . 
Iquique  (Chile)           ...       Panama.. 

Beirut  (Syria)  .  London 

Isles  do  Los  (Africa)  London  .  . 
Jacmel  (Haiti) 

Bombay  (British  India)  London.  . 
Bonny  (Africa)  London  .  . 

Jeddah  (Arabia)  London.  . 
Kingston  (Jamaica)  
Kurrachee  (British  India).  .London.  . 
Lagos  (Africa)     .               .  London. 

Bordeaux  (France).  .  .  London 

Bremen  (Germany)  London. 

Brindisi  (Italy)  London.  . 
Brisbane  (Queensland,  Australia)  
Vancouver. 
Brussels  (Belgium)  London. 

La  Guayra  (Venezuela)  

Lisbon  (Portugal)  •.  .  .  .  London.  . 
Little  Popo  (Africa)  London.  . 
Liverpool  (England)        

Budapest  (Hungary)  London. 
Buenos  Ayres  (Argentine  Republic).  .  . 
Bunder  Abbas  (Persian  Gulf).  London. 
Bushire  (Persian  Gulf)  .         London 

Ne«r  Orleans  .  . 
Loanda  (Africa)      London. 

Busreh  (Persian  Gulf)  London. 

London  (England)  Plymouth  .  . 
London  (England)  Fishguard.  . 
Lucerne  (Switzerland)  London.  . 
Lyons  (France)  London.  . 
Maceio  (Brazil)                 .                 .    . 

Cadiz  (Spain)  London 

'Cairo  (Egypt)  London.  . 
Calcutta  (British  India)  London-.  . 
Caldera  (Chile)  Panama 

Callao  (Peru)  .  .  Panama 

Madeira  Island  London  .  . 
Madras  (British  India)  London.  . 
Madrid  (Spain)  London.. 
Magdalena  Bay  (M*acico) 

Cameroons  (Africa)  ..."  London  .  . 
Cape  Coast  Castle  (Africa)..  .London.  . 
Cape  Haitien  (Haiti) 

Cape  Palmas  (Africa)  London.  . 
Cape  Town  (South  Africa)..  .London.  . 
Carril  (Spain)  London.  . 
Carthagena  (Colombia)  Panama.  . 
Cherbourg  (France)  
Christiania  (Norway)  London.  . 
Cienfuegos  Havana.  . 
Ciudad  Bolivar  (Venezuela)  
Cobija  (Bolivia)  Panama.  . 
Co'ogne  (Germany)  London 

San  Francisco  .  . 
Malaga  (Spain)  London.  . 
Malta  Island                   ...  London. 

Marseilles  (France)  London.  . 
Martinique  (West  Indies)  -. 

Mauritius  Island  London.  . 
Mayaguez  (Porto  Rico)  ... 

Mazatlan  (Mexico).  .  .San  Francisco.  . 
Melbourne  (Victoria,  Australia)  
Vancouver.  . 
Mexico  City  (Mexico)  R.  R.  .  . 
Milan  (Italy)  London.  . 
Mollendo  (Peru)  Panama.  . 
Monrovia  (Liberia,  Africa)..  London.  . 
Montevideo  (Uruguay) 

Colon  (Panama)  .  •  
Congo  (Africa)  London. 

Constantinople  (Turkey)  London.  . 
Copenhagen  (Denmark)  London.  . 
Coquimbo  (Chile)  Panama.  . 
Crete  (Turkey)  London.  . 
Curacao  (West  Indies)  

Cyprus  (British)  London.. 
Delagoa  Bay  (Africa)  London.  . 
Demerara  (British  Guiana)  

Moscow  (Russia)  London  .  . 
Moulmein  (British  Burmah).  London. 
Mozambique  (Africa) 

London  and  Brindisi.  . 
Munich  (Bavaria)  London.  . 
Muscat  (Muscat)   London 

Dresden  (Germany)  London  .  . 
Falkland  Islands  

Faroe  Islands  London.  . 
Fernando  Po  (Africa)  London.  . 

Naples  (Italy)  London.  . 

Nassau  (Bahamas)  

Natal  (Africa)  London.  . 
Nice  (France)  London  .  . 
.  Nuremberg  (Bavaria)  London.  . 
Odessa  (Russia)  London.  . 

Florence  (Italy)  London  .  . 
Frankfort-OH'Main  (Germany)  

342 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


APPROXIMATE    TIME    AND   DISTANCB — Continued. 


Name  of  place. 

I 

is 

P 

Name  of  place. 

£ 

Q 

s 

if 

via 
Old  Calabar  (Africa)     London  .  . 

38 
9 

14 
6 
17 
12 
8 
15 

38 
16 
34 
29 

7 

6 
10 
7 
2 
6 
38 
27 
26 
11 
17 
9 
8 
36 
38 
25 
5 
8 
9 

9-ro 

6 

18 
11 
34 
8 
9 
6 
13 

8,675 
5.405 

4,160 
2.355 
4,212 
3,460 
4,020 
3.545 

11.733 
5,425 
14,415 
10,405 
1,600 

2,865 
2,160 
1,570 
555 
3,250 
10,840 
8,150 
11,900 
5,190 
6,204 
5,030 
3,935 
12,920 
12,240 
9,280 
1,245 
1,800 
2,025 
5,370 
1,650 

6,625 
2,245 
8,050 
1.700 
1,920 
1,730 
2.310 

tti 

Santander  (Spain)  ....  London 

10 
23 
19 
9 
27 

37 
37 
25 
20 

30 

38 
7 
10 
9 
10 
14 

29 

14 
18 
10 
10 
8 
9 
5 
22 
9 
6 
8 
9 
12 

27 
39 
34 
1 
20 
30 
9 

4,875 
6.010 
6,980 
2,380 
6,505 

9,485 
14,745 
9,920 
7.125 

12,175 

12,240 
3  ,  680 
4,975 
4,335 
4,460 
6.370 

11,570 
2,250 
5,645 
,630 
,165 
,910 
,370 
,520 
,320 
5,915 
4,780 
4,010 
2,500 
4,740 
5,500 

10,490 
8,225 
8,055 
518 
7,345 
9,820 
4.175 

Oporto  (Portugal)  London.  . 

Santiago  (Chile)  Panama  .  . 
Santos  (Brazil) 

Pago  Pago,  (Samaon  Islands)  
San  Francisco.  . 
Panama  (Panama)  Colon  .  . 
Papeete  (Tahiti)  San  Francisco.  . 
Para  (Brazil) 

Sa  vanilla  (Colombia)  ...  . 

Senega]  (Africa)  London  .  . 
Seychelles  Islands  (Indian  Ocean)  
London.  . 
Shanghai  (China)  London  .  . 
Shanghai  (China)  Vancouver.  . 
Sierra  Leone  (Africa)  London  .  . 
Singapore  (Straits  Settlements)  
London  .  . 
Singapore  (Straits  Settlements)  
San  Francisco.  . 
Southampton  (England)  
Stockholm  (Sweden)  London  .  . 
Strassburg  (Germany)           London 

Paris  (France) 

Payta  (Peru)  Panama.  . 
Penang  (Straits  Settlements)  

London.  . 
Pernambuco  (Brazil) 

Perth  (West  Australia)  .  ... 

Point  de  Galle  (Ceylon)  London.  . 
Port  au  Prince  (Haiti).  .-  

Port  Limon  (Costa  Rica) 

New  Orleans.  . 
Puerto  Cabello  (Venezuela)  
Puerto  Plata  (San  Domingo)  
Quebec  (Canada)  

Stuttgart  (Germany)  .  .  .  I,ondon 

Suez  (Egypt)  .  .  London 

Sydney  (New  South  Wales) 

Queenstown  (Ireland)  
Quilimane  (Africa)  London.  . 
Quitta  (Africa)  London.  . 
Rangoon  (British  India)  London.  . 
Riga  (Russia)  London.  . 
Rio  de  Janeiro  (Brazil)  
Rome  (Italy)  London  .  . 

Vancouver.  . 
Tampico  (Mexico)  New  Orleans.  . 
Teneriffe  (Canary  Islands)..  London.  . 
Tiflis  (Caucasus)  London 

Tours  (France)  London  . 

Trieste  (Austria)  London.  . 
Trinidad  (West  Indies) 

Rotterdam  (Netherlands)  London.  . 
Saigon  (Cochin  China)  London.  . 
Saigon  (Cochin  China)  .  San  Francisco  .  . 
St.  Helena  Island  London.  . 

Turin  (Italy)  London. 

Turk's  Island  (Bahamas)  
Valparaiso  (Chile)  Panama.  . 
Venice  (Italy)  London 

St.  John's  (Newfoundland)  

Vera  Cruz  (iMexicb)  R.  R.  .  . 
Vera  Cruz  (Mexico)  Steamer.  .  . 
Vienna  (Austria)  London 

St.  Kitts  (Leeward  Islands)  

St.  Lucia  (Windward  Islands)  

St.  Petersburg  (Russia)  London.  . 
St.  Thomas  (West  Indies) 

Vigo  (Spain)  London.  . 
Wellington  (New  Zealand)  
San  Francisco.  . 
Whydah  (Africa)  London.. 
Winnebah  (Africa)  London.  . 

St.  Vincent  (Cape  de  Verde  Islands)  
London.  . 
St.  Vincent  (Windward  Islands)  
Salt  Pond  (Africa)  London.  . 

Yarmouth  (Nova  Scotia) 

Samana  (San  Domingo)  

Yokohama  (Japan)  

San  Domingo  City  (San  Domingo)  .... 
San  Juan  (Porto  Rico)  
Santa  Marta  (Colombia)  ....  Panama  .  . 

Zurich  (Switzerland)  London.  . 

THE    "PARCELS    POST." 
Continued    from    page    340.) 

The  fourth  zone  includes  all  units  of  area 
outside  the  third  and  lying  within  a  radius  of 
600  miles. 

The  fifth  zone  includes  all  units  outside  the 
fourth  and  lying  within  a  radius  of  1,000 
miles. 

The  sixth  zone  includes  all  units  outside  the 
fifth  and  lying  within  a  radius  of  1,400  miles. 

The  seventh  zone  includes  all  units  outside 
the  sixth  and  lying  within  a  radius  of  1,800 
mil*s. 

The  eighth  zone  includes  all  units  of  area 
outside  the  seventh  zone. 

There  is  a  flat  rate  of  one  cent  per  ounce 
up  to  four  ounces  regardless  of  distance.  Above 
four  ounces,  rates  are  by  the  pound  or  fraction 
thereof,  and  varying  with  the  distance  as 
given  in  the  adjoining  table. 

It  will  be  observed  that  a  local  and  rural 
free  delivery  parcels  post  has  been  provided 
for  to  operate  between  various  points  on  a 
rural  route  and  a  town  Post  Office,  at  a  much 
lower  rate,  the  highest  charge  being  15  cents 
for  11  pounds. 

The  Postmaster  General  provides  such  special 
equipment,  maps,  stamps,  etc.,  as  are  neces- 
sary for  the  administration  of  the  parcels  post, 
including  the  hiring  of  teams  and  drivers  and 
a  special  appropriation  of  $750.000  was  made 
in  the  Post  Office  Appropriation  Act  for  this 


«i 

First 
Pound. 

Each 
Adclit. 
Pound. 

Eleven 
Pounds. 

Rural    route     and 

city 
05 

01 

15 

r>0-mile  zone  
150-mile   zone    ... 
300-mile   zone    ... 
600-mile   zone    .  .  . 
1,000-mile  zone   . 
1,400-mile  zone   .. 
1,800-mile  zone  . 
Over  1,800  miles.  . 

05 
06 
07 
08 
09 
10 
11 
12 

.03 
.04 
.05 
.06 
.07 
.09 
.10 
.12 

.35 
.46 
.57 
.68 
.79 
1.00 
1.11 
1.32 

purpose.  The  Postmaster  General  is  required 
to  make  provision  for  the  indemnification  of 
shippers,  for  shipment  injured  or  lost,  by  in- 
surance or  otherwise  and  he  may,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
after  investigation,  modify  rates,  weights,  and 
zone  distances,  when  experience  has  demon- 
strated the  need  thereof. 

For  the  purpose  of  a  further  inquiry  into  the 
subject  of  the  parcels  post  a  joint  committee 
,of  six  persons  (Members  of  Congress)  three 
of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  Senate,  and  three  by  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  was  constituted  and 
an  appropration  ot  $25,000  was  made  for  this 
purpose. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


343 


INTERNATIONAL  PARCEL  POST. 

COUNTRIES  TO  WHICH  PARCELS  MAY  BE  SENT ;  MAXIMUM  DIMENSIONS,  WEIGHT,  VALUE 
AND  RATES  OF  POSTAGE  APPLICABLE  TO  PARCELS ;  AND  EXCHANGE  POST  OFFICES 
WHICH  DISPATCH  AND  RECEIVE  PARCEL  POST  MAILS. 

Parcel-post  parcels  may  also  be  mailed  In  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  The  Philippines,  Guam,  Tutulla 
and  the  Canal  Zone,  to  the  following  countries  and  colonies  with  which  the  United  States  nave 
parcel-post  conventions,  subject  to  the  rules  and  regulations  as  are  herein  prescribed. 


Names  of  countries. 

Allowable  dimensions 
and  weight  of  parcels. 

i. 

£ 
& 

I 

Limit  of  v:ilue. 

Exchange  post  offices. 

Greatest  length. 

1 
Jl 

Greatest  girth. 

4 
a 

o 

United  States. 

Foreign. 

Ft. 
3* 

3J 

3} 
2> 

Ft. 
6 

6 
6 

e 

n. 

Lbt. 
11 

11 

11 
11 
11 
11 
11 

11 

11 

11 
11 

11 
11 

11 
11 

11 

11 
11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

11 

12  cents  a  pound  or  fraction  of  a  pound  to  all  countries. 

- 

$80 

180 

None. 
None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 

None. 

None. 
None. 

None. 
None. 
None. 
$30 

$50 

None. 
$80 

None. 

None. 

None. 

Vone. 
None. 

None. 

f  San  Francisco.... 

Sydney.  Melbourne.  Brb- 
bane.    Adelaide.    Perth, 
j  Hobart,  Launcetoo. 

}Trt". 

Nassau. 
Bridgetown. 
Antwerp. 
Hamilton. 
La  Pax. 

Bahia.    Para,    Pernam- 
buco,  Rio  de  Janairo 
and  820  Paulo, 
jxchange  mails  between  the 

Valparaiso, 
'xchange  mails  between  the 

Wilhemstad. 

Copenhagen. 

Guayaquil. 

Paramaribo. 
Cherbourg  and  Havre. 

!  Hamburg, 
f  Bremen. 

London. 
Liverpool. 
Dublin. 

Guatemala  City. 
Retalhuleu  and   Puerto 
Barrios 
Port  au  Prince 
Belize. 
Tegucigalpa. 
Puerto  Corte*, 
f  Amapala, 

jTrujiJte, 

Austria,     including     the    Austrian 
offices  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  at 
Alexandretta,      Beyrout,      Caifa 
Candia  Canes,    Cavalla,    Chios, 
Dardanelles,    Dedeagh,   Dura  no, 
Ineboli     Jaffa,      Janina,      Jeru- 
salem,      Kerassonda,       Mersina, 
Mytilene,  Prevesa,  Retimo.  Rhodis, 
Salonica,  Samsoun,  San  Giovanni 
di     Medua,     Santi       Quatanta, 
Scutari  d'AJbanie,  Smyrna.   Trc- 
bizond,  Tripoli    (Syria),  Valona, 
Vathi  (Samos). 
Bahamas  

\  Honolulu  
/New  York. 

(.Chicago  

do.... 
do  
do  

*  Barbados 

Belgium  • 

31 

• 

6 
6 

Bermuda 

"New  York  and  Sail'  Fran- 
cisco. 
New  York  

Bolivia 

3J 
31 

? 
3* 
3* 
34 
3i 
3} 

a 

31 

3) 
3i 

3 

3} 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 
6 

6 
6 

6 

6 
6 

6 

6 

6 

6 
6 

6 

'4 

Brazil 

British  Guiana  

All  offices  authorized  to 
two  countries. 
New  York,  San  Francisco 
All  offices  authorized  to 
two  countries. 
Do. 

NewYork    

Do. 
1  New  York.      . 

Chile 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

*  Curacao  (including  Aruba,  Bonaire.  1 
Saba,  St.  Eustatins  and  the  Dutch  } 
part  of  St.  Martins). 
Danish  West  Indies  (St  Croix,  St 
John  and  St.  Thomas)  .                   j 

Denmark  (including  Faroe  Islands  \ 
and  Iceland).                                 / 

Ecuador 

Boston  ,  
Chicago  
NewYork  
j  New  Orleans  
[  San  Francisco  
NewYork  
NewYork  
(New  York      . 

*Dutch  Guiana  
•France  (Excluding  Algeria  and  Corsica) 
Germany      (including      Cameroon,  1 
Togo,  German  East  Africa,  Ger- 
man    South-west     Africa,      Pro-  \ 
tectorate  of  Kiowchow  and  certain 
German  post  offices  in  China).        j 

•Great  Britain,  Including  Ireland  
Guatemala  

Chicago    
Boston  

.  St.  Louis  
Philadelphia  
1  Baltimore  
f  New  York  
Chicago.    
Boston  
Philadelphia  

St.Louii  
Baltimore.  
San  Francisco  
NewYork  
New  Orleans  
San  Francisco  
NewYork  
New  Orleans.  
f  New  York  .  .   ,  
<  New  Orleans.  .   . 

1  SM  Francj$co  

Haiti.... 
Honduras  (British)  

Honduras  (Republic  of)  

•  Parcels  cannot  be  registered, 


344 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COUNTRIES  TO  WHICH  PARCELS  MAY  BE  SENT;  MAXIMUM  DIMENSIONS  WEIGHT  VALUE 
AND  RATES  OF  POSTAGE  APPLICABLE  TO  PARCELS ;  AND  EXCHANGE  POST  OFFICES 
WHICH  DISPATCH  AND  RECEIVE  PARCEL  POST  MAILS— Continued 


Names  of  countries. 

and  weight  of  parcels. 

1 
1 

J 

•> 

•5 

1 

a 

Exchange  post  offices. 

Greatest  fengtb. 

ft 

& 

3  'OS 

Jl 

Greatest  girth. 

1 

J 

United  States. 

Foreign. 

Bong-Kong.    See  section  107  below  .  .  . 
Hungary  

Ft. 
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$80 

$80 

$80 

None. 
$80 

None. 

None. 
$80 
None. 

None. 
None. 
$80 
None. 

None. 
None 

$80 

ftme. 
s'one. 
None. 

tone. 

San  Francisco.... 

Hong-Kong. 
j  Fiume. 

}  N'aplee. 

Port  Antonio. 

Yokohama. 
Kobe. 
Nagasaki. 

f  St.  John. 
1  Antigua, 
tchange  mails  between  the 

Rotterdam. 
St.  John's. 

Auckland. 

Bluefields. 
San  Juan  del  Norte. 
Corinto. 

Chris  tiania. 
j 

Culon.  Bocae  del  Tore. 

[Lima. 
I 

|  San  Salvador. 

Malmo. 

Port  of  Spain. 
Montevideo. 
change  mails  between  tie 

Seattle 

Tacoma  
Honolulu 

New  York  

Italy,  (including  Rep.  of  San  Marino, 
Italian  Colonies   of  Rmdir   and 
Erythrea,  and  the  Italian  offices  in 
the  Ottoman  Empire  at  Bengasi 
(North  Africa),  Durazzo  (Albania), 
Galata  (Constantinople),  Jerusalem 
(Palestine),  C»nea    (Crete),   Pera 
(Constantinople),   Snlonica   (Rou- 
melir,),     Scutari     (Asia     Minor), 
Smyrna  (Asia    Minor),  Stamboul 
(Constantinople),    Tripoli-in-Bar- 
bary,  Valona  (Albania). 
Jamaica,   including  the  Turks  and  1 
Caicoa  Islands.                            / 

Japan,  Including  Formosa,  Karafuto  } 
(Japanese  Saghalien)  and  Korea.  \ 
See  section  107  below.                     j 
Leeward  Islands  (Antigua  with  Bar-  1 
buda  and  Redonda,  St.  Kitts,  Nevis  [ 
with  Anguilla,  Dominica,  Montser- 
rat  and  the  Virgin  Islands). 
Mexico  

f  Philadelphia  

1  New  York 

[  Boston  ...  . 

Boston  

Philadelphia  

Seattle  
Tacoma  

Honolulu  
New  York  

All  offices  authorized  to  e 
two  countries. 
New  York... 
(New  York 

•Netherlands.   .     .. 

Newfoundland 

Boston  .  .  . 
Philadelphia  ; 
San  Francisco  ) 
}  Honolulu  i 

New  Zealand,  including  Fanning  Island 
Nicaragua  

New  York  
j  New  Orleans  
I  San  Francisco  
f  New  York  
1  Boston  
[Chicago  
f  New  York  
New  Orleans  
San  Francisco  
New  York  
New  Orleans  
San  Francisco  
New  York  
i  San  Francisco  i 
f  New  York  j 

Norway  

Panama  

Pero  

Salvador  

Sweden  . 

Trinidad,  Including  Tobago  

Chicago  ' 
New.  York  
New  York  
All  offices  authorized  to  e 
two  countries. 

do. 

•Uruguay.  .  .  . 

venezueiL...  ..:.::..:..::::.:::::: 

Windward  Islands  (Grenada.  St.  Yin-  1 
cent,  the  Grenadines  and  St.  Lucia).  / 

POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT. 


The  Postmaster  General  Is  the  executive  head 
of  the  Federal  postal  service.  He  appoints  all 
officers  and  employees  of  the  Post  Office  De- 
partment except  the  four  Assistant  Postmas- 
ters General  and  the  Purchasing  Agent,  who  are 
Presidential  appointees.  With  the  exception  of 
postmasters  of  the  first,  second,  and  third 


classes,  who  are  likewise  Presidential  appoint- 
ees, he  appoints  all  postmasters  and  all  other 
officers  and  employees  of  the  service  at  large. 
Subject  to  the  approval  of  the  President,  he 
makes  postal  treaties  with  foreign  governments. 
He  awards  and  executes  contracts  and  directs 
the  management  of  the  foreign  mail  service. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


345 


INTERNATIONAL  PARCELS  POST. 


Additional  parcels  post  conventions  have  been 
concluded  during  the  year  with  Brazil,  effec- 
tive May  29,  1911,  and  with  Haytl,  effective 
May  1,  1911.  Negotiations  for  the  convention 
with  Brazil  had  been  pending  since  1887.  Both 
conventions  are  similar  as  to  rates  of  postage 
and  weight  limits,  etc.,  to  all  the  conventions 
with  South  American  countries.  The  negotia- 
tions with  the  Union  of  South  Africa  were 
unsuccessful,  as,  for  the  time  being,  have  been 
those  with  Argentina  and  Santo  Domingo.  Ar- 
rangements have  been  made  with  Italy  and 
Austria  in  connection  with  the  parcels  post 
conventions  with  those  countries  whereby  par- 
cels can  also  be  sent,  without  additional  cost, 
to  the  Italian  and  Austrian  post  offices  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  which  includes  Constantinople, 
Jerusalem,  Tripoli,  Salonica,  and  other  Levan- 
tine commercial  centers,  and  to  the  Italian 
possessions  of  Erythrea  and  Benadir  in  the 
Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  An  arrange- 
ment with  France  raising  the  weight  limit 
from  2  kilograms  (4  pounds  6  ounces)  to  5 
kilograms  (11  pounds),  and  the  value  limit 
from  $50  to  $80,  effective  July  1.  1911,  now 
makes  the  service  essentially  uniform  as  to, 
limit  of  value  and  entirely  uniform  as  to 
limit  of  weight.  The  increase  in  the  number 
and  weight  of  parcels  sent  to  foreign  countries 
is  a  clear  indication  of  the  advantages  which 
it  offers  to  American  exporters  who  have  no 
other  cheap  and  convenient  means  of  convey- 
ing commodities  of  small  bulk  to  foreign  ports. 


r       We  now  have  parcels  post  conventions  with 
I    43    foreign    countries.      The    following    are    the 
:    general  characteristics  of  the  service  to-day: 
Postage  rate,   12  cents  per  pound. 
Limit  of  weight,    11  pounds. 
Limit    of    value,     none     (except    to    Europe, 
Japan,    Australia  and  Hongkong,   which   is   $80, 
I    and  Ecuador,   $50). 

Limits    of    size,     3    feet    6    inches,     greatest 

|    length;    6   feet,    greatest    combined    length   and 

girth    (except   to   Mexico   and   Colombia,    which 

;    is   2   feet    greatest    length   and    4    feet   greatest 

girth). 

The  weight  of  the  parcels  post  mails  dis- 
patched from  the  United  States  during  the 
year  was  1,824,623  pounds,  an  increase  over 
the  previous  year  of  333,905  pounds,  or  22.4 
per  cent.  The  number  of  parcels  dispatched 
was  615,260,  of  an  average  weight  of  2.96 
pounds,  an  increase  in  number  of  93,774,  or 
18  per  cent.  The  weight  of  the  parcels  post 
mails  received  was  1,680,724  pounds,  an  in- 
crease of  234,367  pounds,  or  16.2  per  cent.  The 
number  of  parcels  received  was  359,219.  of  an 
average  weight  of  4.68  pounds,  an  increase  In 
number  of  53,574,  or  17.5  per  cent. 

The  fact  that  the  percentages  of  increase  In 
the  number,  total  weights  and  average  weights 
are  greater  as  regards  the  parcels  sent  from 
this  country  than  as  regards  those  received 
from  abroad  is  gratifying.  The  growth  of  the 
service  is  more  largely  due  to  the  increased 
use  of  it  by  American  exporters  than  to  im- 
portations of  foreign  commodities. 


INFORMATION  FOR  SHIPPERS. 


Admissible  Articles. — Any  article  absolutely 
prohibited  admission  to  the  regular  mails  for 
any  country  is  also  inadmissible  to  Parcel  Post 
mails  for  that  country;  but  no  article  is  ex- 
cluded from  Parcel  Post  mails  solely  because 
it  is  dutiable  in  the  country  of  destination. 

How  to  Mail  Parcels. — A  parcel  must  not 
be  posted  in  a  letter-box,  but  must  be  handed 
to  the  postmaster  or  other  official  in  charge 
of  the  post  office. 

Address,  etc. — Every  parcel  must  bear  a  com- 
plete and  legible  address,  not  written  in  pen- 
cil, and  marked  conspicuously  "Parcel  Post." 

Packing. — Every  parcel  must  be  securely  and 
substantially  packed;  but  in  such  a  way  that 
it  can  be  opened  without  damaging  its  cover, 
in  order  that  its  contents  may  be  easily  exam- 
ined by  postmasters  and  customs  officials. 

Postage. — Postage  on  every  parcel  must  be 
fully  prepaid  at  the  rate  applicable  thereto  as 
indicated  in  the  tables  on  pages  343-344. 

Letters  Must  Not  Accompany  Parcels. — A 
communication  of  the  nature  of  personal  cor- 
respondence must  not  accompany  or  be  writ- 
ten on  any  parcel  but  an  open  bill  or  invoice 
may  be  included.  If  such  written  matter  be 
found  it  will  be  placed  in  the  mails  if  sep- 
arable, and  if  inseparable  the  entire  parcel 
must  be  rejected. 

Separately  Addressed  Packages. — Parcels  must 
not  contain  packages  addressed  to  persons 
other  than  the  person  named  on  the  outside 
address  of  the  parcel  itself.  If  such  enclosed 
packages  be  detected  they  must  be  sent  for- 


ward singly  charged  with  new  and  distinct 
parcel  post  rates. 

No  Responsibility  for  Loss. — The  Department 
is  not  responsible  for  the  loss  of  or  damage 
to  any  parcel. 

Registration. — The  sender  of  a  parcel  ad- 
dressed to  any  of  the  places  indicated  in  the 
foregoing  table,  except  Barbados,  Dutch 
Guiana.  France,  Great  Britain,  The  Nether- 
lands and  Uruguay  may  have  the  parcel  regis- 
tered by  paying  a  registration  fee  of  10  cents, 
and  will  receive  the  "return  receipt"  without 
|  additional  charge  therefor,  provided  he  de- 
mands a  return  receipt  when  he  mails  the 
parcel. 

Undeliverable  Parcels  Returned  to  United 
States. — An  undeliverable  parcel  returned  to 
rhe  United  States,  upon  which  the  return 
postage  has  not  been  prepaid,  is  subject  on 
delivery  to  the  sender  to  a  postage  charge 
equal  to  the  amount  of  postage  originally  pre- 
paid on  the  parcel;  which  amount  should  be 
marked  on  the  parcel  by  the  United  States 
exchange  post  office  which  receives  it  back 
from  abroad,  and  collected  by  the  post  office 
which  delivers  it  to  the  sender. 

Customs  Declarations. — A  "customs  declara- 
tion" properly  filled  out  must  be  securely  at- 
tached to  every  parcel.  The  contents  must 
be  accurately  described.  General  terms  such 
as  "merchandise"  and  "samples"  will  not 
answer. 

Customs  Duties. — Customs  duties  cannot  be 
prepaid:  they  will  be  collected  of  addressees 
when  the  parcels  are  delivered. 


THE  POSTAL  SAVINGS  SYSTEM. 


The  Director  of  the  Postal  Savings  System, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Postmaster  General, 
has  general  supervision  over  postal  savings 
depositories,  the  conduct  of  the  postal  savings 
business  at  post  offices,  the  correspondence 


and  records  of  the  department  pertaining  to 
the  postal  savings  system,  and  the  admin- 
istrative examination  of  the  postal  savings 
accounts  of  postmasters  and  other  agents  ac- 
countable to  the  Postmaster  General. 


346 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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Copyright   1912,    Munn    &    Co.,    Inc. 

THE  WOOLWORTH  BUILDING. 

Highest  OHice  Building  in  the  World.      51  stories;   750  feet  above  sidewalk  level. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PATENTS,  TRADE-MARKS,  AND 
COPYRIGHTS.* 

Revised  by  Loyd  H.  Button,  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office. 


GENERAL  INFORMATION  REQARDING  PATENTS. 


WHAT  is  A  PATENT? — The  term 
patent  or  letters  patent  is  derived  frpin 
litterae  patentes,  signifying  that  which 
is  open  or  disclosed,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  lettre  de  cachet,  that  which 
is  sealed  or  secret.  This  term  is  the 
keynote  of  the  whole  principle  upon 
which  the  patent  system  is  built  up, 
namely,  disclosure.  The  disclosure 
must  be  honest,  absolute  and  unre- 
served. The  penalty  for  mental  crook- 
edness or  for  ignorance  in  giving  out 
fully  and  freely  the  nature  of  the  in- 
vention is  severe  and  direct,  and  is 
nothing  less  than  forfeiture  of  the  pat- 
ent itself.  The  reason  for  this  is  per- 
fectly logical  and  arises  from  the  very 
meaning,  spirit  and  nature  ,of  the  re- 
lationship existing  between  the  pat- 
entee and  the  government.  The  term 
of  a  patent  is  17  years.  During  this 
term  of  17  years  the  patentee  obtains 
a  monopoly  under  which  he  secures  ex- 
clusive right  of  manufacture,  use  and 
sale.  The  patent  itself,  however,  is  in 
the  nature  of  a  contract  between  the 
patentee  and  the  government,  presum- 
ably for  their  mutual  benefit.  The 
government  grants  to  the  inventor  the 
exclusive  right  of  manufacture  and 
sale  for  17  years  on  condition  that  the 
inventor  shall  disclose  fully  the  nature 
of  his  invention  or  discovery,  and  shall 
allow  the  public  the  unrestricted  use 
of  the  invention  after  this  term  has 
expired.  If  he  fail  in  making  full  dis- 
closure, he  has  not  lived  up  to  the 
terms  of  the  implied  contract  and  the 
patent  thereby  becomes  null  and  void. 
It  sometimes  happens  that  an  inventor 
discloses  freely  part  of  the  invention, 
but  cunningly  conceals  some  essential 
step  in  the  process,  but  if  the  case  is 
tested  within  the  courts  and  the  real 
facts  are  brought  to  light,  the  patent 
will  be  declared  invalid.  At  the  end 
of  the  term  of  17  years  the  patent  be- 


comes public  property,  and  the  article 
may  be  freely  manufactured  by  any 
one.  It  can  never  thereafter,  as  in  so 
many  cases  in  the  Middle  Ages,  be- 
come a  lost  art. 

WHO  MAY  OBTAIN  A  PATENT? — In 
order  to  secure  a  valid  patent,  the  ap- 
plicant must  declare  upon  oath  that  he 
believes  himself  to  be  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the  art, 
machine,  manufacture,  composition  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a 
patent;  that  he  does  not  know  and 
does  not  believe  that  the  same  was 
ever  before  known  or  used ;  that  the 
invention  has  not  been  in  public  use  or 
on  sale  in  the  United  States  for  more 
than  two  years  before  the  application 
was  filed,  and  not  described  in  any 
printed  publication  or  patent  in  this 
or  any  foreign  country  for  more  than 
two  years  prior  to  the  filing  of  his 
application ;  and  that  the  invention 
has  not  been  patented  to  himself  or 
to  others  with  his  knowledge  or  con- 
sent in  this  or  any  foreign  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his 
application,  or  on  an  application  for 
a  patent  filed  in  any  foreign  country 
by  himself  or  his  legal  representatives 
or  assigns  more  than  twelve  months 
prior  to  his  application.  Any  one 
who  can  subscribe  to  the  above  condi- 
tions may  apply  for  a  patent,  irre- 
spective of  race,  color,  age  or  nation- 
ality. Minors  and  women  and  even 
convicts  may  apply  for  patents  under 
our  law.  The  rights  even  of  a  dead 
man  in  an  invention  are  not  lost,  for 
an  application  may  be  filed  in  his 
name  by  his  executor  or  administrator, 
and  the  rights  of  his  heirs  thereby 
safeguarded.  The  patent  in  this  case 
would  issue  to  the  executor  or  ad- 
ministrator and  would  become  subject 
to  the  administration  of  the  estate  like 
any  other  property  left  by  the  de- 


compiled originally  for  Munn  &  Co.,  Patent  Attorneys. 
351 


352 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ceased.  Even  the  rights  of  an  insane 
person  may  not  be  lost,  as  the  appli- 
cation may  be  filed  by  his  legal  guar- 
dian. If  foreign  patents  for  the  same 
invention  have  been  previously  issued, 
having  been  filed  more  than  twelve 
months  before  the  filing  of  the  United 
States  application,  the  patent  will  be 
refused.  The  applicant  must  state  his 
nationality.  It  often  happens  that  two 
or  more  individuals  have  jointly 
worked  upon  the  invention,  and  in  this 
case  the  several  inventors  should  joint- 
ly apply  for  the  patent.  Should  they 
not  so  apply,  the  patent  when  issued 
will  be  invalid.  If  they  are  merely 
partners,  however,  and  not  co-invent- 
ors, they  should  not  apply  jointly  for 
a  patent,  as  the  inventor  alone  is  en- 
titled to  file  the  application.  He  may, 
however,  assign  a  share  in  the  patent 
to  his  partner,  coupled  with  the  re- 
quest that  the  patent  should  issue  to 
them  jointly.  It  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  these  distinctions  should 
be  clearly  understood ;  otherwise,  the 
patent  may  be  rendered  invalid. 

WHAT  MAY  BE  PATENTED? — Any 
new  and  useful  art,  machine,  manufac- 
ture or  composition  of  matter,  or  any 
new  and  useful  improvements  thereon. 
The  thing  invented  must  be  neu-  and 
useful.  These  are  conditions  precedent 
to  the  granting  of  a  patent.  Of  these 
two  conditions  by  far  the  more  impor- 
tant is  the  former,  and  it  is  concerning 
the  interpretation  of  this  word  "new" 
and  its  bearing  upon  the  invention 
that  the  principal  work  and  labor  in- 
volved in  passing  an  application  safely 
through  the  Patent  Office  is  involved. 
When  the  invention  has  been  worked 
out  by  the  inventor  and  he  is  pre- 
pared to  file  his  application,  he  or  his 
attorney  prepares  the  necessary  papers 
as  provided  for  by  law,  namely :  An 
Oath,  a  Petition,  a  Specification  con- 
sisting of  a  description  of  the  inven- 
tion and  concludng  with  claims  which 
specifically  set  forth  what  the  inventor 
claims  to  be  the  novel  features  of  the 
invention,  and  drawings  which  are  pre-, 
pared  and  filed  with  the  case,  and  in 
due  course  the  application  is  ready 
for  examination  in  the  Patent  Office. 
The  question  of  whether  the  invention 
is  new  is  then  considered.  The  exam- 
ination consists  in  searching  through 
the  files  of  the  Patent  Office  among 
the  patents  that  have  been  already 
issued,  and  through  such  literature  as 
may  bear  upon  the  subject.  The  ques- 
tion of  whether  an  invention  is  new  is 


one  of  fact,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  upon  the  showing  thai 
the  inventor  is  able  to  make  during 
the  prosecution  of  the  case,  depends 
largely  the  future  success  of  the  pat- 
ent. The  evidence  adduced  in  proving 
that  the  invention  is  not  new  must  be 
tangible  and  accessible.  A  patent 
would  not  be  refused  or  overturned  on 
a  mere  mental  concept.  There  must 
be  some  evidence  of  a  substantial  char- 
acter that  serves  to  show  that  the 
earlier  idea  was  reduced  to  practice 
or  at  least  that  there  was  such  a  de- 
scription or  drawing  made  as  would 
be  sufficient  for  one  skilled  in  the  art 
to  reduce  the  invention  to  practice. 
If  it  has  not  been  actually  reduced  to 
practice,  it  must  be  a  concrete,  not  an 
abstract,  idea. 

It  is  essential  that  the  application 
for  a  patent  should  be  filed  before  the 
invention  has  been  in  public  use  or  on 
sale  for  a  period  of  two  years.  If  the 
inventor  has  publicly  used  or  sold  his 
invention  for  a  period  of  two  years  it 
becomes  public  property  and  he  cannot 
regain  the  right  to  obtain  a  patent. 
He  may,  however,  make  models  and 
experiment  with  his  invention  for  a 
much  longer  period,  provided  he  does 
not  disclose  his  invention  to  the. public 
or  put  it  into  actual  use  or  on  sale 
for  a  period  of  two  years.  The  word 
"useful"  is  not  one  which  usually 
gives  either  the  Patent  Office  or  the 
inventor  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  as 
any  degree  of  utility,  however  insignifi- 
cant, will  serve  to  entitle  the  inventor 
to  a  patent.  It  has  often  happened 
that  an  invention  which  appears,  at 
the  time  the  patent  is  applied  for,  to 
have  no  special  utility,  in  later  years, 
owing  to  new  discoveries  or  improve- 
ments in  the  arts,  is  found  to  possess 
the  greatest  merit  and  value.  Unless 
an  invention  is  positively  meretricious, 
therefore,  it  is  difficult  to  assume  that 
it  either  has  no  utility  or  never  will 
have  any.  Patents  are  granted  for 
"any  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture  or  composition  of  matter, 
or  any  improvement  thereon."  It  is 
seen  from  the  terms  of  the  statute 
that  almost  any  creature  of  the  inven- 
tive faculty  of  man  becomes  a  proper 
subject  for  a  patent.  The  exceptions 
are  very  few.  Patents  will  not  be 
granted,  for  example,  for  any  inven- 
tion that  offends  the  law  of  nature. 
Under  this  category  may  be  mentioned 
perpetual  motion  machines.  Inven- 
tions of  an  immoral  nature  will  not  be 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


considered.  Medicines  and  specifics 
are  not  now  proper  subjects  for  letters 
patent,  unless  some  important  new  dis- 
covery  is  involved. 

ABANDONED  APPLICATIONS. — While 
abandonment  may  arise  in  different 
ways,  its  most  frequent  occurrence  re- 
sults from  a  failure  to  properly  pros- 
ecute the  application.  An  applicant 
is  given  one  year  by  the  statute  in 
which  to  respond  to  an  action  on  his 
application  by  the  I'atent  Office.  This 
period  of  one  year  rims  from  the  day 
on  which  the  letter  from  the  Office  is 
dated.  If  the  last  day  of  the  year 
falls  on  Sunday  the  applicant's  response 
must  be  in  the  I'atent  Office  on  the 
preceding  day,  i.  e..  Saturday.  Where 
an  applicant  waits  until  the  close  of 
the  year  before  acting  on  his  case  he 
does  so  at  considerable  risk,  and  if  his 
response  fails  to  arrive  at  the  Office 
by  the  last  day  of  the  year  little 
leniency  will  be  shown  him  in  re- 
viving the  case  except  upon  a  showing 
of  good  and  sufficient  cause.  Not  only 
must  the  applicant's  response  come 
within  the  year,  but  it  must  be  fully 
responsive  to  the  last  action  by  the  Of- 
fice. In  other  words,  his  action  on  the 
application  must  be  all  that  the  state 
of  the  case  requires  as  shown  by  the 
last  Office  letter.  An  abandoned  appli- 
cation may  be  revived  upon  petition  to 
the  Commissioner  if  the  applicant  can 
show  that  the  delay  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  case  was  unavoidable. 

APPEALS. — If  an  application  for  a 
patent  has  been  twice  rejected,  the  ap- 
plicant may  appear  from  the  Primary 
Examiner  to  the  Board  of  Examiners- 
in-Chief.  He  may  further  carry  the 
appeal  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
and  in  case  he  is  not  satisfied  with  the 
latter's  decision  he  may  carry  the  ap- 
peal finally  to  the  Court  of  Appeals  of 
the  District  of  Columbia. 

INTERFERENCE. — If  two  or  more  in- 
dividuals have  made  inventions  which 
can  be  expressed  by  the  same  claim  or 
claims,  which  must  be  patentable,  in- 
terference proceedings  may  be  insti- 
tuted to  determine  which  applicant  is 
the  original  or  first  inventor.  Inter- 
ference proceedings  are  instituted  be- 
tween applicants  whose  applications 
are  pending  or  between  a  pending  ap- 
plication and  a  patent  already  issued, 
provided  the  latter  patent  has  not  been 
issued  for  more  than  two  years  prior 
to  the  filing  of  the  conflicting  applica- 
tion. The  proceedings  are  conducted 
before  the  Examiner  of  Interferences. 


!  Appeal  may  be  taken  from  the  Exam- 
iner of  Interferences  to  the  Board  of 
Examiners-in-Chief,  and  from  the 
Board  of  Examiners-in-Chief  to  the 
Commissioner,  and  thence  to  the  Court 
of  Appeals  of  the  District  of  Colum- 

!  bia.  Not  all  the  claims  for  a  patent 
are  necessarily  involved,  but  only  such 
as  cover  the  particular  feature  of  the 
invention  which  is  declared  to  be  in 
interference.  The  unsuccessful  appli- 
cant by  eliminating  the  claim  or 
claims  in  controversy  and  all  other 
claims  readable  upon  the  disclosure  of 
the  successful  applicant,  may  procure 
allowance  of  other  claims  in  his  appli- 
cation. The  disclosure  of  the  success- 
ful party  virtually  becomes  a  part  of 
the  prior  art  and  in  the  further  pros- 
ecution of  the  case  it  will  be  so  treat- 
ed. In  determining  the  question  of 
priority  of  invention  witnesses  are  ex- 
amined and  the  proceedings  #re  con- 
ducted much  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  a  suit  at  law.  The  first  step  in  the 
proceeding  consists  in  filing  with  the 
Commissioner  a  preliminary  state- 
ment made  under  oath,  giving  the  date 
at  which  the  invention  was  first  con- 
ceived and  reduced  to  some  tangible 
form,  such  as  the  making  of  drawings, 
the  construction  of  a  model,  or  the 
disclosing  of  the  invention  to  another. 
The  object  of  the  subsequent  examina- 
tion and  cross-examination  is  to  sub- 
stantiate the  date  of  invention  as 
claimed  by  the  applicants  respectively, 
and  to  establish  the  priority  of  inven- 
tion. 

REISSUES. — A  reissue  is  granted  to 
the  original  patentee,  his  legal  repre- 
sentative or  the  assignees  of  the  entire 
interest,  when  the  original  patent  is 
inoperative  or  invalid  by  reason  of  a 
defective  or  insufficient  specification, 
or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claiming 
as  his  invention  or  discovery  more 
than  he  had  a  right  to  claim  as  new, 
provided  the  error  has  arisen  through 
inadvertence,  accident  or  mistake,  and 
without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive 
intention.  The  reissue  application 
must  be  made  and  the  specification 
sworn  to  by  the  inventor  or  inventors 
if  he  or  they  be  living.  What  is  in- 
advertence, accident  or  mistake  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  litigation  and 
as  a  general  rule  the  courts  require 
a  clear  showing  of  such.  No  new 
matter  can  be  introduced  into  the  re- 
issue application,  but  its  subject  mat- 
ter must  h«  capable  of  being  found 
within  the  four  corners  of  the  original 


354 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


application.  As  two  years'  publication 
of  the  subject  matter  of  an  invention 
is  a  bar  to  the  issue  of  a  patent,  the 
courts  as  a  general  rule  will  not  sus- 
tain a  reissue  patent  the  claims  of 
which  are  broader  than  those  of  the 
original  patent  where  the  reissue  ap- 
plication is  filed  more  than  two  years 
after  the  grant  of  the  original  patent. 
The  original  patent  must  be  surren- 
dered when  a  reissue  application  is 
made.  The  reissue  patent  is  good 
only  for  the  unexpired  term  of  the 
original  patent. 

PATENTED  ARTICLES  MUST  BE 
MARKED. — Articles  manufactured  and 
sold  under  a  patent  must  be  so  marked 
that  the  public  shall  have  notice  that 
the  article  is  a  patented  one.  This 
notice  consists  of  the  word  "Patented," 
together  with  the  date  when  the  patent 
was  issued.  Damages  cannot  be  re- 
covered in  an  infringement  suit  unless 
the  patented  articles  are  so  marked  or 
it  be  shown  that  the  defendant  was 
duly  notified  of  his  infringement,  but 
continued  after  such  notice  to  in- 
fringe. 

INFRINGEMENT. — In  case  of  an  ac- 
tion for  the  infringement  of  a  patent, 
the  importance  of  the  question  of  nov- 
elty appears  from  the  special  pleadings 
which  the  defendant  may  enter,  which 
are  as  follows : 

1.  That  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving 
the  public  the  description  and  specifi- 
cation filed  by  the  patentee  in  the  Pat- 
ent  Office   was    made    to   contain   less 
than   the  whole   truth   relative   to   hjs 
invention  or  discovery,  or-more  than  is 
necessary    to   produce   the    desired   ef- 
fect; or, 

2.  That    he    had    surreptitiously    or 
unjustly  obtained  the  patent  for  that 
which  was  in  fact  invented  by  another, 
who  was  using  reasonable  diligence  in 
adapting  and  perfecting  the  same ;  or, 

3.  That  it  had  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed   in    some    printed    publication 
prior  to  his  supposed  invention  or  dis- 
covery thereof ;  or, 

4.  That  he  was  not  the  original  and 
first    inventor    or    discoverer    of    any 
material   and    substantial   part   of   the 
thing  patented  ;  or, 

5.  That  it  has  been  in  public  use  or 
on  sale  in  this  country  for  more  than 
two    years   before   his   application    for 
a   patent,   or   had    been  abandoned    to 
the  public. 

Damages  for  infringement  of  a  pat- 
ent may  be  recovered  at  liw  by  action 
on  the  case,  or  in  equity  by  bill,  in 


the  name  of  the  patentee  or  his  as- 
signee. The  courts  having  jurisdic- 
tion over  such  cases  have  the  power 
(1)  to  grant  injunctions  against  the 
violation  of  any  right  secured  by  the 
patent;  (2)  to  allow  the  recovery  of 
damages  sustained  by  the  complainant 
through  sii£h  infringement,  or  the 
profits  obtained  by  the  infringer  aris- 
ing from  such  infringement.  The  de- 
fendant may  be  compelled  to  furnish 
an  accounting  showing  the  amount  of 
the  articles  manufactured  and  sold  and 
the  profits  derived  from  such  sale. 

DESIGN  PATENTS. — Design  patents 
are  issued  for  any  new  or  original  de- 
sign, whether  it  be  a  work  of  art, 
statue,  bas-relief,  design  for  prints  or 
fabrics,  or  for  any  new  design  or 
shape  or  ornament  in  any  article  of 
manufacture.  The  scope  of  the  de- 
sign patent  was  formerly  very  broad, 
but  recent  decisions  and  enactments 
have  greatly  restricted  its  availability 
and  a  design  patent  cannot  now  be  ob- 
tained unless  it  possesses  some  inher- 
ent artistic  quality.  Mere  utility  is 
not  sufficient  to  entitle  a  new  design 
to  letters  patent.  The  terms  of  design 
patents  are  3*/2,  7  or  14  years. 

ASSIGNMENTS. — A  patent  or  any  in- 
terest therein  may  be  sold  or  assigned 
like  any  other  piece  of  property.  An 
inventor  may  sell  or  assign  his  in- 
terest or  a  part  interest  in  his  inven- 
tion, either  before  the  application  is 
filed  or  while  the  application  is  still 
pending.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  patent  may  be  issued  to  the  as- 
signee or  to  the  inventor  and  assignee 
jointly.  The  patent,  if  already  issued, 
may  be  assigned  by  the  owner  whether 
be  be  the  inventor  or  assignee.  The 
conveyance  is  effected  by  an  instru- 
ment in  writing  stating  the  conditions 
under  which  the  patent  is  assigned, 
and  the  assignment  should  be  recorded 
in  the  Patent  Office  to  protect  the  as- 
signee, as  the  assignment  is  void  as 
against  any  subsequent  purchase  or 
mortgagee  for  a  valuable  consideration 
unless  it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent 
Office  within  three  months  from  the 
date  thereof. 

(Note:  The  provisions  of  the  Pat- 
ent Statutes  relating  to  the  filing  of 
caveats  were  repealed  by  Act  of  July 
1,  1910.) 

The    stamp    "Patent    Applied    For"    or 
Patent    Pending "    simply    means    that   an 
application  for  patent  has  been  filed  in  the 
Patent  Office.     Action  against  infringers  can- 
not be  taken  until  the  patent  actually  issues. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK 

355 

MATERIAL  FOR  FIGURES  SHOWII 
TO  DECEMB 

Issued 
During 
Year. 
1836                                                                                     10d 

^G  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  PATENTS 
ER  31,  1911. 

Issued 
During 
Year. 
1883                                           21.196 

436 
515 
404 

1884  

19,147 
23,331 

1885  
1886  

21,797 
20,429 
19,585 
23  360 

458 
490 
488 
4S4 

1887  

1841  
1842  
1843 

1888  
1889  
1890  
1891  
1892                                      

25,322 
22  328 

1.S44  

478 

475 

22,661 

1846  
1847  
1848  

566 
495 

Ig93                                  

22,768 

1894                                  

19,875 

584 

1895                                

20,883 

988 

Ig96                                  

21,867 

884 
757 
890 
846 
1,759 

1897                                        

22,098 

1898                                     

20,404 

1899                                    

23.296 

1900                                    

24,660 

1854                                    

1901  

25,558 
27,136 

1855 

1.892 
2,315 
2,686 
3,467 
4,165 
4,363 
3  040 

1902                                  

1856  
1857 

1903  

31,046 
30,267 

1904                                      

1858  
1859  
I860  
1861 

29  784 

1906  
1907                                  

31,181 
35,880 
32,757 

1908                                        

1862 

3  221 

1909  
1910                                        

36,574 

1863 

3  781 

35,168 

1864 

4  638 

1911                             '               

32,917 
1,023.051 
456,644 
443,035 
259,634 
248,200 
141,406 
106,902 
82,933 
70,463 
53,449 
50,474 
46,915 
35,325 
26,917 
23,856 
23,023 
21,  191 

1865 

6  099 

United    States  

1866 

8  874 

1867 

12  301 

1868 

12  544 

1869  

12,957 

Belgium     
Canada    
Italy    and    Sardinia  
Austria-Hungary     

1870 

12  157 

1871  

"...    11,687 

1872  

12,200 

1873 

11  616 

1874 

I*  -:>30 

1875 

13  291 

1876 

14  17° 

Spain 

1877 

1"  9C0 

1878 

1°  345 

Russia     
Norway  
Denmark    
Japan     

1879 

1°  133 

1880 

12  926 

1881 

15  548 

1882.... 

..    18.135 

THE  UNITED  STATE 

The  fundamental  principles  upon 
which  the  present  commercial  suprem- 
acy of  the  United  States  is  based  can 
be  found  in  three  provisions  of  the 
Constitution :  First,  the  granting  of 
free  speech ;  second,  the  offer  of  re- 
muneration for  the  use  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  brain  by  providing  a  lim- 
ited period  during  which  a  man  shall 
enjoys  the  fruits  of  his  efforts ;  and 
third,  the  protection  of  personal  prop- 
erty by  the  provision  that  no  person 
shall  be  deprived  of  his  property  with-  • 
out  due  process  of  law. 

The    Constitutional    provision    men- 
tioned as  second  is  as  follows :     ''The 
Congress  shall   have   power   *    *   *    to 
promote    the   progress   of    Science    and    : 
Useful    Arts    by    securing    for    limited   j 


?  PATENT  SYSTEM. 

Times  to  Authors  and  Inventors,  the 
exclusive  Right  to  their  respective 
Writings  and  Discoveries." 

Upon  this  foundation  stands  the 
United  States  Patent  Office,  established 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  in- 
tentions of  the  framers  of  the  Consti- 
tution and  developed  far  beyond  their 
fondest  dreams,  by  American  ingenuity 
and  perseverance. 

The  value  of  our  patent  system  is 
eloquently  outlined  by  Senator  Platt. 
of  Connecticut.  In  speaking  on  a  bill 
for  the  reorganization  of  the  Patent 
Office,  he  said : 

"To  my  mind,  the  passage  of  the  act  of 
1<S36  Treating  the  Patent  Office  marks  the 
most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  our 
development — I  think  the  most  important 


356 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


event  in  the  history  of  our  Government  from 
the  Constitution  until  the  Civil  War.  The  es- 
tablishment of  the  Patent  Office  marked  the 
commencement  of  that  marvelous  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  the  country  which  is 
the  admiration  and  wonder  of  the  world,  a 
development  which  challenges  all  history  for 
a  parallel;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
th.s  unexampled  progress  has  been  not  only 
dependent  upon,  but  has  been  coincident  with, 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  patent 
system  of  this  country.  Words  fail  in  attempt- 
ing to  portray  the  advancement  of  this  country 
lor  the  last  fifty  years.  We  have  had  fifty 
years  of  progress,  fifty  years  of  inventions  ap- 
plied to  the  every -day  wants  of  life,  fifty  years 
of  patent  encouragement,  and  fifty  years 
of  a  development  in  wealth,  resources,  grand- 
eur, culture,  power,  which  is  little  short  of 
miraculous.  Population,  production,  business, 
wealth,  comfort,  culture,  power,  grandeur, 
these  have  all  kept  step  with  the  expansion  of 
the  inventive  genius  of  the  country;  and  this 
progress  has  been  made  possible  only  by  the 
inventions  of  its  citizens.  All  history  confirms 
us  in  the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  development 
by  the  mechanical  arts  of  the  industries  of  a 
country  which  brings  to  it  greatness  and  power 
and  glory.  No  purely  agricultural,  pastoral 
people  ever  achieved  any  high  standing  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  It  is  only  when  the 
brain  evolves  and  the  cunning  hand  fashions 
labor-saying  machines  that  a  nation  begins  to 
throb  with  new  energy  and  life  and  expands 
with  a  new  growth.  It  is  only  when  thought 
wrings  from  nature  her  untold  secret  treasures 
that  solid  wealth  and  strength  are  accumu- 
lated by  a  people." 

When  the  Japanese  Government  was  con- 
sidering the  establishment  of  a  patent  system, 
they  sent  a  commissioner  tn  the  United  States 
and  he  spent  several  months  in  \\  ashiugton, 
every  facility  being  given  him  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents,  One  of  the  examiners  said: 
"I  would  like  to  know  why  it  is  that  the 
people  of  Japan  desire  to  have  a  patent 
system." 

"I  will  tell  you,"  said  Mr.  Ta';ah->shi. 
['You  know  it  is  only  since  Commodore  Perry, 
in  1854,  opened  the  ports  of  Japan  to  for.'ign 
commerce  that  the  Japanese  have  been  trying 
to  become  a  great  nation,  like  other  nations 
of  the  earth,  and  we  have  looked  about  us  to 
see  what  nations  are  the  greatest,  so  that  we 
could  be  like  them;  and  we  said,  'There  is  the 
United  States,  not  much  more  than  a  hundred 
years  old,  and  America  was  not  discovered  by 
Columbus  yet  four  hundred  years  ago';  and 
we  said,  'What  is  it  that  makes  the  United 
States  such  a  great  nation?'  And  we  investi- 
gated and  found  it  was  patents,  and  we  will 
have  patents." 

The  examiner,  in  reporting  this  interview, 
added:  "Not  hi  all  history  is  there  an  instance 
of  such  unbiased  testimony  to  the  value  and 
worth  of  the  patent  system  as  practiced  in  the 
United  States." 

The  demonstration  thus  given  the  commer- 
cial world  during  the  last  three-quarters  of  a 
century  of  the  effect  of  beneficent  patent  laws 
has  led  to  their  modification  in  all  the  chief 
in  lustrial  countries,  and  the  salient  feature  of 
our  system — a  preliminary  examination  as  to 
novelty  and  patentability  prior  to  the  grant 
of  a  patent — has  in  late  years  been  incorpor- 
ated into  the  patent  systems  of  many  foreign 
countries. 


The  theory  of  patents  is  essentially 
based  on  the  principle  of  monopoly. 
Hence  we  have  the  nature  and  scope 
of  patents  changing  through  the  cen- 
turies with  the  change  in  the  concep- 
tion of  the  rights  of  the  people.  In 
its  origin  the  patent  was  a  royal  grant 
of  special  privilege  to  a  favored  sub- 

i'ect  in  the  form  of  a  private  monopoly. 
*oliti<al  evolution  has  restricted  it  to 
a  grant  for  a  limited  number  of  years 
of  an  exclusive  right  to  make,  use  and 
vend  that  which  is  the  product  of  the 
inventor's  brain.  The  discoverer  of 
new  products  in  the  arts,  and  the  in- 
ventor of  new  processes  or  machines  or 
improvements  in  machines,  adds  to 
the  public  wealth  and  is  entitled  to 
a  protection  in  their  enjoyment  as  a 
recompense.  The  knowledge  of  this 
protection  acts  also  as  a  stimulus  to 
endeavor.  Therefore  all  civilized  na- 
tions to-day  recognize  and  protect  the 
inventor's  rights. 

A  few  patents  for  inventions  were 
granted  by  the  provincial  governments 
of  the  American  colonies  and  by  the 
legislatures  of  the  States,  prior  to  the 
adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
On  the  5th  of  September,  1787,  it  was 
proposed  to  incorporate  in  a  consti- 
tution a  patent  and  copyright  clause. 
The  germinating  principle  of  this 
clause  of  the  Constitution  has  vitalized 
the  nation,  expanded  its  powers  be- 
yond the  wildest  dreams  of  its  fathers, 
and  from  it  more  than  from  any  other 
cause,  lias  grown  the  magnificent  man- 
ufacturing and  industrial  development 
which  we  to-day  present  to  the  world. 
President  Washington  realized  the 
importance  of  formulating  a  law  to 
stimulate  inventions,  and  in  his  first 
annual  message  to  Congress,  in  1790, 
said  : 

''I  can  not  forbear  intimating  to 
you  the  expediency  of  giving  effectual 
encouragement  as  well  to  the  intro- 
duction of  new  and  useful  inventions 
from  abroad  as  to  the  exertion  of  skill 
and  genius  in  producing  them  at 
home." 

Congress  was  quick  to  act,  and  on 
April  10.  17!)0.  the  first  law  upon  the 
subject  was  enacted.  It  constituted 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary 
of  War.  and  the  Attorney-General  a 
board  to  consider  all  applications  for 
patents.  Owing  to  the  fires  that  have 
destroyed  the  early  records  of  the 
Patent  Office,  some  question  has  arisen 
as  to  the  number  of  patents  issued 
under  this  act :  but  from  the  best  in- 
formation obtainable,  the  number  is 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


357 


placed  at  fifty-seven.  The  first  patent 
issued  was  to  Samuel  Hopkins,  July 
'->!,  1790,  for  making  pot  and  pearl 
ashes. 

The  archives  of  the  department  show 
that  the  issuance  of  a  patent  in  those 
days  was  a  state  occasion.  The  Presi- 
dent and  cabinet  met  in  solemn  con- 
<-la\v  and.  after  having  deliberated 
upon  whether  it  was  proper  for  the 
inventor  to  have  the  sole  right  to  the 
manufacture  of  the  child  of  his  brain, 
presented  him  with  the  papers  be- 
st owing  this  privilege  upon  him.  Hop- 
kins was  warmly  congratulated  by 
President  Washington  and  the  event 
\v;is  recorded  in  all  the  diaries  of  those 
present. 

At  this  period  the  clerical  part  of  the  work 
preparatory  to  the  issuance  of  a  patent  was 
performed  in  the  State  Department.  It  would 
be  interesting  to  see  Thomas  Jefferson,  the 
Secretary  of  War, 'and  the  Attorney -Genet*  1, 
critically  examining  the  application  and  scru- 
tinizing each  point  carefully  and  rigorously. 
The  first  year  the  majority  of  the  applications 
failed  to  pass  the  ordeal,  and  only  three  pat- 
ents were  granted.  In  those  days  every  step 
in  the  issuing  of  a  patent  was  taken  with  great 
care  and  caution.  .Mr.  Jefferson  always  seeking 
to  impress  upon  the  minds  of  his  officers  and 
the  public  that  the  granting  of  a  patent  wa>  a 
matter  of  no  ordinary  importance. 

The  act  of  1793  superseded  the  act  of  1790, 
and  remained  in  force  as  amended  from  time 
to  time  until  the  act  of  1836  was  passed.  The 
act  of  1793  was  the  only  act  ever  passed  in 
this  country  which  provided  for  the  issuance 
of  Letters  Patent  without  the  requirement  of 
an  examination  into  the  novelty  and  utility  of 
the  invention  for  which  the  patent  was  sought. 
The  act  of  1836,  with  modifications,  re- 
mained in  force  until  the  revision  of  the  patent 
laws  in  1870.  This  revision  was  largely  a  con- 
solidation of  the  statutes  then  in  force. 

Under  the  revision  of  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States  in  1S74  the  act  of  1870  was 
repealed;  but  the  revision  substantially  re- 
enacted  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  1870. 

Under  the  acts  of  1790  and  1793  Letters 
Patent  were  granted  for  a  term  of  fourteen 
years.  There  was  no  provision  for  extension: 
hut  while  the  act  of  1793  was  in  force  Congress 
extended  some  thirteen  patents. 

The  act  of  1836  provided  that  Letters  Pat- 
ent should  be"  granted  for  a  term  of  fourteen 
years,  and  provision  was  made  for  an  exten- 
sion for  a  term  of  seven  years  upon  due  appli- 
cation and  upon  a  proper  showing.  Until  1848 
petitions  for  extensions  were  passed  upon  by 
a  board  consisting  of  the  Secretary  of  State, 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  the  Solicitor 
of  the  Treasury.  After  that  time  power  was 
vested  solely  in  the  Commissioner  of  Patents. 
The  patent  act  of  March  2,  1861  (section  16), 
provided  that  all  patents  thereafter  granted 
should  remain  in  force  for  a  term  of  seventeen 
years  from  the  date  of  issue,  and  the  extension 
of  such  patents  was  prohibited. 

The  consolidated  patent  act  of  1870,  while 
providing  that  patents  should  be  granted  for 
a  term  of  seventeen  years,  also  provided  that 


patents  granted  prior  to  March  2,  1861,  might, 
upon  due  application  and  a  proper  snowing, 
be  extended  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
for  a  term  of  seven  years  from  the  expiration 
of  the  first  term. 

By  the  revision  of  the  patent  laws  in  1874 
the  prohibition  against  the  extension  of  pat- 
ents was  dropped,  and  since  that  time  Con- 
gress has  had  the  power  to  extend  Letters 
Patent.  Congress  extended  five  patents  grant- 
ed under  the  act  of  1836,  and  in  nine  instances 
authorized  patentees  to  apply  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents  for  extension  of  their  patents. 
So  far  as  one  has  been  able  to  discover,  no 
patent  granted  for  a  term  of  seventeen  years 
has  been  extended  by  Congress. 

It  was  not  until  1842  that  the  statute  was 
passed  authorizing  the  grant  of  patents  for 
designs.  Under  that  act  design  patents  were 
granted  for  seven  years.  Subsequently  provi- 
sions were  made  for  granting  them  for  terms  of 
three  and  one-half,  seven,  and  fourteen 
years,  at  the  election  of  the  applicant. 

By  the  act  of  March  2.  1861,  the  Board  of 
Examiners-in-Chief  was  established.  Prior  to 
that  time,  and  during  the  incumbency  of  Com- 
missioner Holt,  temporary  boards  of  examin- 
ers to  decide  appeals  had  been  appointed  by 
him,  and  later  on  he  created  a  permanent 
board  of  three  examiners  who  were  to  decide 
on  appeal  rejected  cases  and  submit  their  de- 
cisions to  him  for  approval. 

The  act  of  1870  made  the  first  provision  for 
:iii  Assistant  Commissioner  and  an  Examiner 
of  Interferences.  Another  provision  in  that  act 
was  the  power  given  the  Commissioner,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  to  establish  regulations  for  the  con- 
duct of  proceedings  in  the  Office. 

On  January  1,  1898,  an  act  passed  March  3, 
!    1897,  went  into  force.    Some  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  were  that  applications  for  patents 
I    should  be  completed  and  prepared  for  exami- 
nation within  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the 
application    and    that    the    applicant    should 
prosecute  the  same  within  one  year  after  an 
action   thereon  or  it  should  be  regarded  as 
abandoned  (prior  to  that  time  two  years  was 
the  limit) ;  that  an  inventor  should  be  debarred 
from  receiving  a  patent  if  his  invention  had 
been  first  patented  by  him  or  his  legal  repre 
sentatives  or  assigns  in  a  foreign  country,  pro- 
!    vided  the  application  for  the  foreign  patent 
had  been  filed  more  than  seven  months  (made 
twelve  months  by  Act  of  March  3,  1897),  prior 
r   to  the  filing  of  the  application  in  this  country; 
and  that  if  the  invention  for  which  a  patent 
;    was  applied   for  had   been   patented   or  de- 
scribed in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or 
1    any  foreign  country  for  more  than  two  years 
prior  to  the  application  a  patent  could  not 
Issue. 

The  first  provision  for  affording  accommo- 
dations for  the  Patent  Office  was  in  1810,  when 
Congress  authorized  the  purchase  of  a  building 
for  the  General  Post-office  and  for  the  office  of 
the  Keeper  of  Patents.  The  building  purchased 
was  known  as  "Blodgett's  Hotel,"  and  stood 
on  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  south  front 
of  the  building  until  recently  occupied  by  the 
Post-office  Department,  and  now  used  by  sev- 
eral bureaus  of  the  Interior  Department.  The 
east  end  of  this  building  was  used  for  the  rec- 
ords, models,  etc.,  of  the  Patent  Office.  This 
building  was  destroyed  by  fire  December  13, 
1836.  On  July  4,  1836,  an  act  was  passed  ap- 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


propriating  $108,000  for  the  erection  of  a  suit- 
able building  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
Patent  Office,  and  within  that  month  the 
erection  of  the  building  was  begun. 

It  was  the  present  south  front  of  the  Patent 
Office,  excluding  the  south  ends  of  the  east 
and  west  wings.  The  basement  (which  is 
now  the  first  or  ground  floor)  was  to  be  used 
for  storage  and  analogous  purposes,  the  first 
or  portico  floor  for  office  rooms,  and  the  second 
floor  was  to  be  one  large  hall  with  galleries  on 
either  side,  and  to  have  a  vaulted  roof.  This 
hall  was  to  be  used  for  exhibition  purposes, 
for  the  display  of  models  of  patented  and  un- 
patented  inventions,  and  also  as  a  national 
gallery  of  the  industrial  arts  and  manufactures. 

During  the  erection  of  the  Patent  Office 
building,  temporary  quarters  were  provided 
in  the  City  Hall.  In  the  spring  of  1840,  the 
building  was  completed  and  the  Office  moved 
into  it.  The  sum  of  $422,011.65  was  ex- 
pended on  this  building.  The  patented  models 
were  then  classified  and  exhibited  in  suitable 
glass  cases,  while  the  national  gallery  was  ar- 
ranged for  exhibition  of  models  and  specimens. 

By  the  act  of  March  3,  1849,  the  Interior 
Department  was  established  and  the  Patent 
Office  attached  thereto.  This  same  act  ap- 
propriated $50,000  out  of  the  patent  fund  to 
begin  the  east  or  Seventh  street  wing,  which 
was  completed  in  1852  at  a  cost  of  $1)00,000, 
$250,000  of  which  was  taken  from  the  revenue 
of  the  Patent  Office.  In  1852  the  plans  for 
the  entire  building,  as  it  now  stands,  were 
prepared.  The  west  wing  was  completed  in 
1856  and  cost  $750,000.  Work  on  the  north 
or  G  street  wing  was  begun  the  same  year. 
In  1867  this  wing  was  finished  at  a  cost  of 
$575,000.  The  entire  building  cost  $2,347,- 

In    May,     1802,    President    Jefferson    ap- 
pointed Dr.  William  Thornton  as  a  clerk  at 
$1,400  per  year,  to  have  charge  of  the  issuance 
of  patents.     He  took  the  title  of  Superintend- 
ent, and  continued  to  act  in  that  capacity 
until   his   death,    March   28,    1828.     He   was 
succeeded    by    Dr.    W7illiam    P.    Jones,    who 
acted  until  his  removal  in  the  early  part  of 
President  Jackson's  administration.     John  D. 
Craig  followed  Dr.  Jones,  and  in  1834  he  was 
succeeded  by  B.  F.  Pickett,  who  served  but  a 
brief  period.     The   last  Superintendent  was 
Henry   L.    Ellsworth,   who   became   the   first 
Commissioner   under   the   act   of    1836,    and 
served  until  1845.     The  other  Commissioners 
under  that  act  were: 
Edmund  Burke,  May  4,  1845. 
Thomas  Ewbank,  May  9,  1849. 
Silas  H.  Hodges,  November  8,  1852. 
Charles  Mason,  May  16,  1853 
Joseph  Holt,  September  10,  1857. 
William  D.  Bishop,  May  27,  1859. 
Philip  F.  Thomas,  February  16,  1860 

D.  P.  Holloway,  March  28,  1861. 
T.  C.  Theaker,  August  17,  1865. 
Elisha  Foote,  July  29,  1868   - 
Samuel  S.  Fisher,  April  26,  1869. 

Commissioner  Fisher  continued  as  Com- 
missioner for  a  short  time  under  the  act  of 
1870.  Other  Commissioners  under  that  act 
have  been: 

MD   Leggett,  January  16,  1871. 
John  M.  Thacher,  November  4,  1874 
R.  H.  Duell,  October  1,  1875.. 
Ellis  Spear,  January  30,  1877. 
H.  E.  Paine,  November  1,  1878. 

E,  M,  Marble,  May  7,  1880, 


Benjamin  Butterworth,  November  1,  IKS:-! 
M.  V.  Montgomery,  Ma--ch  23,  1885. 

B.  J.  Hall,  April  12,  1887 

C.  E.  Mitchell,  April  1,  1889. 
William  E.  Simonds,  August  1,  1891. 
John  S.  Seymour,  March  31,  1893 
Benjamin  Butterworth,  April  7.  1897. 
Charles  H.  Duell,  February  3,  1898. 
F.  I.  Allen,  April  11,  1901. 

E.  B.  Moore,  June  1,  1907. 

Commissioner  Fisher  was  the  first  to 
publish  his  decisions  and  to  have  the  copies  o; 
the  specifications  and  drawings  made  in- 
photo-lithography.  He  also  instituted  thV 
practice  of  requiring  competitive  examina- 
tions for  entrance  to  and  promotions  in  the 
examining  force  of  the  office. 

Beginning  in  1843  and  annually  thereafter 
the  Patent  Office  reports  were  published, 
which,  until  1853,  contained  merely  an. 
alphabetical  index  of  the  names  of  the  in- 
ventors, a  list  of  the  expired  patents,  and  the 
claims  of  the  patents  granted  during  the  wee;c. 
In  1853  and  afterwards  small  engraved  copies 
of  a  portion  of  the  drawings  were  added  to 
the  reports  to  explain  the  claims. 
.  The  act  of  1870  authorized  the  Commis- 
sioner to  print  copies  of  the  claims  of  the 
current  issues  of  patents  and  of  such  laws, 
decisions,  and  rules  as  were  necessary  for  the 
information  of  the  public.  In  conformity 
with  this  provision  there  was  published  weekly 
a  list  giving  the  numbers,  titles,  and  claims  of 
the  patents  issued  during  the  week  im- 
mediately preceding,  together  with  the  names 
and  residences  of  the  patentees.  This  list 
was  first  published  under  the  name  of  The 
Official  Gazette  of  the  United  States  Patent 
Office,  on  January  3,  1872.  In  July,  1872, 
portions  of  the  drawings  were  introduced  to 
illustrate  the  claims  in  the  patented  cases. 
The  Official  Gazette  has  now  become  one  of 
the  most  valuable  and  important  of  Govern- 
ment publications.  Each  Senator  and 
Representative  is  authorized  to  designate 
eight  public  libraries  to  receive  this  publica- 
tion free.  One  copy  is  also  furnished  free  to 
each  member  of  Congress.  It  is  also  sent  all 
over  the  world  in  exchange  for  similar  publica- 
tions by  other  Governments,  and  its  paid 
subscription  list  is  constantly  increasing. 

Industrial  demand  and  invention  go  hand 
in  hand.  They  act  and  react,  being  inter- 
dependent. Any  change  in  industrial  con- 
ditions creating  a  new  demand  is  at  once  met 
by  the  invention  of  the  means  for  supplying 
it,  and  through  new  inventions  new  industrial 
demands  are  every  year  being  created.  Thus 
through  the  process  of  evolution  the  industrial 
field  is  steadily  expanding,  and  a  study  of  the 
inventions  for  any  decade  will  point  out  the 
lines  of  industrial  growth  for  the  succeeding 
decade. 

The  one  millionth  patent  was  issued 
August  8,  1911,  to  Frank  H.  Holtoa 
of  Akron,  Ohio,  on  an.  improvement 
in  inflated  automobile  tires.  Patent 
number  one  had  been  issued  in  1836 
to  John  Ruggles  for  a  locomotive  en- 
gine. Patent  number  500,000  was  is- 
sued June  20,  1893.  It  therefore  took 
57  years  to  reach  the  half  million 
number  but  only  18  years  more  to 
reach  the  whole  million  number, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


359 


The  following  figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the 
relative  development  of  American  inventions, 
beginning  with  1850,  remembering  that 
9,957  patents  were  issued  up  to  July  28,  1836, 
when  the  present  series  of  patents  was  com- 
menced, and  that  6,980  patents  were  issued 
from  July  28,  1836  to  December  31,  1849 


NUMBER  OF  PATENTS  FOR  INVENTIONS  ISSUED 
DURING       EACH       CALENDAR       YEAR,       AND 
NUMBER  OF  LIVE  PATENTS  AT  THE  BE- 
GINNING OF  EACH  CALENDAR  YEAR. 

Number 
of  Patents 
Issued  Dur-  Number 
ing  the       of  Lave 
Year                                                  Year.        Patents. 
!850                                  884                6,987 

1851 

757 

7,769 
8,099 
8,474 
8,928 
10,251 
11,673 
13,518 
15,714 
18,714 
22,435 
26,252 
28,795 
31,428 
34,244 
38,034 
43,415 
51.433 
62,929 
73,824 
85,005 
94,910 
104,022 
112,937 
120.551 
128,547 
141,157 
155,200 
168,011 
177,737 
186,408 
195,325 
206,043 
218,041 
230,360 
237,204 
247,991 
256.831 
265,103 
273,601 
284,161 
297,867 
307,965 
317,335 
325,931 
332,886 
341,424 
351.158 
360,330 
365.186 
370,347 
373,811 
380,222 
384,027 
393,276 
403,114 
413,313 
421,134 
431,692 
442,121 
456,034 
468.434 

1852 

890 

1853 

846 

1854 

1,759 

1855 

1,892 

185C 

2  315 

1857 

2,686 

1858 

.  .       3  467 

1859  
1860  

1861 

4  165 

4  363 

3  040 

1862  
1863 

3,221 

3,781 

1864 

4,638 

1865 

6,099 

1866 

8,  874 

1867 

12,301 

1868 

12  544 

1869 

12  957 

1870 

12  157 

1871  

11,687 

1879 

12  200 

1873 

11  616 

1874  

12,230 

1875  

13,291 

1876  
1877  
1878       .       ... 

14,172 
12,920 
...    12  345 

1879              .     . 

12  133 

1880 

12  926 

1881 

15  548 

1882 

18  135 

1883 

21  196 

1884 

19  147 

1885 

23  331 

1886 

21  797 

1887  

20,429 

1888  

19,585 

1889  

23,360 

1890  

25  322 

1891  

22,328 

1892  
1893  

22,661 
22  768 

1894  
1895  

19,875 
20  883 

1896  
1897     
1898  
1899  
1900  
1901  
1902  
1903  

21,867 
22,098 
20,404 
23,296 
24,660 
25,558 
27,136 
.    .            31  046 

1904  

30  267 

1905  
1906  
1907  

29  784 

31,181 
35  880 

1908.     .    . 

32  757 

1909  
1910  
1911.,. 

36,574 
35.  168 
.     32.917 

The  marked  growth  in  the  number 
of  patents  to  aliens  to  be  noted  in 
recent  years  is  explained  by  the  very 
liberal  features  of  our  patent  system. 
Foreigners  stand  here  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing With  citizens  of  this  country,  and 
they  are  neither  subjected  to  restric- 
tions in  the  matter  of  annuities  or 
taxes  payable  after  the  grant  of  a  pat- 
ent, nor  required  to  work  an  inven- 
tion in  this  country  to  maintain  it  in 
force,  as  is  the  case  in  most  foreign 
countries. 

Moreover,  the  thorough  examination 
made  by  our  Patent  Office  as  to  the 
novelty  of  an  invention  prior  to  the 
allowance  of  an  application  for  a  pat- 
ent— an  examination  that  includes  not 
only  the  patents  and  literature  of  our 
own  country  bearing  on  the  art  or  in- 
dustry to  which  the  invention  relates, 
but  the  patents  of  all  patent-granting 
countries  and  the  technical  literature 
of  the  world — and  the  care  exercised 
in  criticising  the  framing  of  the  claims 
have  come  to  be  recognized  as  of  great 
value  in  the  case  of  inventions  of 
merit,  and  hence  the  majority  of  for- 
eign inventors  patenting  in  this  coun- 
try take  advantage  of  this  feature  of 
our  patent  system,  and  secure  the  ac- 
tion of  the  Patent  Office  on  an  appli- 
cation for  a  patent  before  perfecting 
their  patents  in  their  own  and  other 
foreign  countries,  taking  due  precau- 
tion to  have  their  patents  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries  so  issued  as  to  se- 
cure the  maximum  term  in  each,  so  far 
as  possible. 

In  1911,  4,058  patents  were  granted 
to  citizens  of  foreign  countries.  The 
relative  distribution  is  as  follows : 

Germany    1, 320 

England     935 

Canada   554 

France    347 

Austria-Hungary     140 

Switzerland     108 

Other    European    countries 406 

All    other    countries 248 

The  working  of  an  invention  has 
never  been  required  under  our  patent 
laws,  though  in  most  foreign  countries 
an  invention  must  be  put  into  com- 
mercial use  in  the  country  within  a 
specified  period  or  the  patent  may  be 
declared  void.  In  the  case  of  patents 
for  fine  chemicals  and  like  products, 
which  require  a  high  order  of  tech- 
nical knowledge  and  ability  for  their 
inception,  and  skilled  workmen  for 
their  manufacture,  the  effect  of  this 
requirement,  that  the  industry  must 
be  established  within  the  country,  has 


360 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


been    most    salutary    iu    building    up 
chemical    industries    within   the   home 
country,    to    some    extent    at  'the    ex- 

Patents 
and         One  to 
States  and   Territories.        Designs,  every  — 
1.  Connecticut    845             1,  319 

pense    of    other    countries    where    the 
working  of  a  patent  is  not  obligatory. 
This  shows  most  strongly  in  the  case 
of  carbon  dyes  and  in  the  patents  for 
chemicals  of  the  class  known  as  car- 
bon   compounds,    which    includes    nu- 
merous pharmaceutical  and  medicinal 
compounds  of  recent  origin,  aldehydes, 
alcohols,     phenols,     ethers,     etc.,    and 
many   synthetic  compounds,   as   vanil- 
lin, artificial  musk,  etc. 
Late    years    have    shown    a    greatly 
increased    number    of   patent    applica- 
tions  filed   by   women.      With    the   in- 
crease   in    number    there    has    been    a 
corresponding    broadening   of   the   field 
of   their   endeavors.      When    the    1910 
census  came  to  the  question  of  patents 
it    listed    944,525    patents    granted  ^  to 
men  in  this  country  since  the  beginning 
of  the  patent  system,  but  8,596  patents 

2.  District    of    Columbia  239             1,385 
3.  California     1,575             1,516 
4.  Colorado     477             1,675 
5.  Rhode   Island    315             1,723 
6.  Illinois  3,172             1,778 
7.  Massachusetts    1,842             1,828 
8.  New   Jersey    1,360             1,866 
9.   New    York    4,777              1,908 
10.  Nevada    39             2,099 
11.  Ohio      2,233             2,135 
12.  Pennsylvania     2,919             2,626 
13.  Michigan     1,035             2,715 
14.  Oregon     246             2,735 
15.  Washington    410             2,785 
16.  Idaho     105             3,101 
17.  Wisconsin    703             3.320 
18.  Montana    112             3,357 
19.   Missouri     945              3.486 
20.   Delaware      r.f,              3.613 
21.  Utah    103             3,624 
22.   Indiana     /....     720              3,720 
23.  Nebraska     318             3.74'J 
24.   Iowa     :,S3              3.  Sit! 
25.   Minnesota     47",              4.37>i 
26.   North    Dakota    132              4.UT2 
27.   Kansas     3*2              4  41'7 

were  credited  to  women,  nine-tenths  of 

28.  Maryland     272             4.7*;:.' 
29.  Arizona     41             4.984 

the   percentage  of  patents   granted    to 
woman  increases  yearly.     Thus,  from 
1790  until  1888  there  were  2,455  pat- 
ents granted  women,  and  from  1888  to 
1895,  2,526,  in  seven  years  more'  than 
doubling   the  total   that   had   been   ac- 
cruing   for    the    previous    ninety-eight 
years.    And  from  1895  until  1910  there 
were  3,615  patents  more,  bringing  the 
total  number  up  to  8,596,  as  stated. 

30.  Maine    142             5.228 
31.   New    Hampshire    81              5,316 
32.  South    Dakota    109             5,357 
::::.   Wyoming     26              5,614 
34.  Vermont     61              5,835 
35.  West    Virginia    196             6,230 
36.   New    Mexico    50              6,546 
37.  Texas     591             6,593 
38.  Oklahoma    235             7,052 
39.  Florida     104             7,237 
40.  Virginia    226              9,122 
41.   Kentucky     240              9,541 
42.   Louisiana    :  165            10,039 

43.   North    Carolina    191            11,551 

of    the    relative   protection    which    the 
several  sections  of  the  United   States 
receive    under    our    patent    system,    it 

44.  Georgia     224            11,647 
45.  Arkansas    135            11,663 
46.  Tennessee    175           12,484 
47.  Alaska     5           12,871 

48.  Alabama     163            13,117 

49    Mississippi                                          113            15  904 

distribution  of  patents  granted  during 

50    South    Carolina                                   65            23  314 

a  normal  year.    The  table  below  shows 
the  states  and   territories  arranged  in 
an  order  showing  the  ratio  of  patents 
granted  in   1911  to   the  population  of 
the  several  states  and  territories. 
Attention  is  now  directed  to  how  a 
patent   is   obtained   under   the    system 
in   the  United    States.      We  will   sup- 
pose  a   new   form   of   door   hinge   has 
been  invented.     What  is  the  procedure 
that  the  inventor  should  resort  to? 
In    the   first    place   it   is   highly   de- 
sirable to  employ  a  competent  attorney, 
one    skilled    in    the    patent    law    and 
practice.      The   inventor   may   prepare 
and  prosecute  his  own  application  and 
his  case  will  receive  the  same  careful 
attention    in    the    Patent    Office    as    if 
.he    had    employed    an    attorney.      But 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Patent 
practice  is  technical     The  change  of 

a  word  here  and  there  may  make  the 
difference    between    protection   and    no 
protection.      If  the  invention  is  worth 
patenting  it  is  worth  as  good  a  patent 
as     is    obtainable,     and    the    inventor 
should  not  forget  that  the  patent  may 
have   to   go   through   the   mill   of   tech- 
nical   construction    in    the    courts    at 
great  expense. 
Then    a    preliminary    search    should 
be    made.      The    applicant    can    make 
such   at   the    Patent   Office   or  his   at- 
torney   will    have    such    made.      This 
search    is    made    for    the    purpose    of 
determining  if  the  device  is  old.    Again 
it    should    be    remembered    that    many 
patents  are  never  used  as  a  basis  for 
manufacture    for    one    reason    or    an- 
other, so  that,  while  the  inventor  may 
never    have    seen    a    device    like    that 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


361 


which  he  has  devised  and  •  may  have 
produced  it  from  wholly  original 
thought  and  experiment,  yet  someone 
else  may  have  reached  the  same  re- 
sult before,  patented  it,  and  then  done 
nothing  more  with  it. 

Assuming  that  the  preliminary 
search  brings  forth  no  device  like  the 
hinge  under  discussion  the  next  thing 
is  to  prepare  the  application  papers. 
These  include  a  petition,  an  oath,  a 
drawing,  a  specification  and  claims. 

The  petition  is  addressed  to  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  setting  forth 
applicant's  residence  and  other  formal 
matters  and  prays  the  grant  of  letters 
patent.  The  oath  states  that  appli- 
cant believes  himself  to  be  the  original, 
first  and  sole  inventor  and  the  other 
statutory  prerequisites.  Forms  for 
liotli  are  given  in  a  publication  entitled 
••Rules  of  Practice  in  the  United  States 
Patent  Office."  which  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Patent  Office  or  these  forms 
will  be  prepared  for  execution  by  the 
attorney. 

The  drawing  must  be  of  a  prescribed 
size  and  clearly  illustrate  the  construc- 
tion of  the  device. 

The  specification  is  a  detailed  de- 
scription of  the  device  referring  to  let- 
tered or  numbered  parts  of  the  draw- 
ing, for  amplification.  The  descrip- 
tion and  drawing  must  contain  a  dis- 
closure of  the  construction,  nature  and 
use  of  the  device  so  full,  clear  and 
complete  as  to  enable  others  skilled 
in  the  art  to  make  and  use  the  same, 
for  the  public  must  be  informed  that 
they  may  make  and  use  the  device 
after  the  patent  has  expired. 

The  claims  are  short  statements, 
drawn  in  technical  form,  setting  forth 
the  elements  of  the  machine  or  im- 
provement or  the  steps  of  the  process 
that  applicant  believes  he  has  invented. 
These  should  be  as  broad  as  the  state 
of  the  art  warrants,  and  should  be 
drawn  with  very  great  care  to  be  of 
any  value.  Only  one  skilled  in  patent 
practise  should  undertake  the  prepara- 
tion of  claims.  Too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  laid  on  this  point. 

These  application  papers,  together 
with  $15  for  a  filing  fee,  are  now  to 
be  sent  to  the  Patent  Office.  Here 
they  are  received  by  the  Application 
Division  and  duly  recorded  in  books 
kept  for  that  purpose,  and  each  ap- 
plication is  given  its  serial  number. 
The  application  is  then  sent  to  that 
division  in  the  office  where  devices  of 
that  nature  are  examined  and  given  to 


an  examiner  skilled  in  the  art  to  which 
the  device  appertains.  Then  begins 
the  prosecution  of  the  case.  The  first 
step  is  to  make  an  examination  of  the 
case. 

The  American  patent  system  is 
known  as  the  examination  system  be- 
cause of  the  careful  examination  given 
each  application  to  determine  the 
I  validity  of  the  claims  presented  for 
!  patenting.  The  examination  system  is 
the  ideal  system,  provided  the  exam- 
ination can  be  made  with  sufficient 
care  to  minimize  the  likelihood  of  the 
issue  of  patents  for  inventions  not  of 
a  patentable  nature.  The  field  of 
search,  however,  yearly  increases,  and 
it  becomes  more  and  more  difficult 
through  lack  of  time  to  make  a  perfect 
examination.  Something  more  than 
three  million  domestic  and  foreign  pat- 
ents have  been  issued,  while  the  num- 
ber of  scientific  publications  has  enor- 
mously increased.  It  is  only  by  means 
of  a  perfect  classification  that  this 
great  mass  of  matter  can  be  so  divided 
as  to  be  conveniently  accessible  for  use 
in  the  examination  of  any  individual 
case. 

The  claims  are  compared  with  the 
disclosures  of  these  United  States  and 
foreign  patents  to  see  if  they  are  met 
in  terms  by  devices  old  in  the  art.  If 
so  they  are  rejected,  and  the  applicant 
is  so  informed,  and  the  patents  or 
publications,  together  with  the  reasons 
if  they  are  not  self-evident,  are  enu- 
merated in  a  letter  written  from  the 
office. 

Applicant  has  then  one  year  in 
which  to  take  action  on  his  case.  He 
may  amend  his  claims  to  avoid  the 
references  cited  or  he  may  ask  for  re- 
consideration. The  application  is  then 
taken  up  for  further  examination. 

During  the  prosecution  of  the  case 
questions  of  interference,  appeal,  peti- 
tion, etc.,  may  arise.  The  procedure 
in  such  events  is  more  or  less  techni- 
cal and  unless  applicant  has  employed 
an  attorney  he  should  study  carefully 
the  "Rules  of  Practice,"  before  he- 
ferred  to.  for  instructions.  The  nature 
of  this  section  will  not  admit  of  fur- 
ther detail  in  meeting  the  very  great 
number  of  different  situations  that  may 
arise. 

Assuming,  however,  that  the  claims 
are  found  to  be  patentable  and  the 
specification  and  claims  unobjection- 
able in  form,  the  application  is  passed 
to  issue.  The  application  is  sent  to 
the  Issue  and  Gazette  Division  and 


362 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  applicant  is  informed  that  the  pat- 
ent will  issue  upon  the  receipt  of  the 
final  fee  of  $20.  He  has  six  months 
in  which  to  pay  this  fee.  When  paid 
the  application  is  given  its  patent  num- 
ber, the  specification  and  claims  are 
printed,  the  drawing  is  photolitho- 
graphed  and  the  printed  copy  and  the 
drawing,  together  with  a  copy  of  the 
form  of  patent  grant  with  seal  affixed, 
is  sent  to  the  Commissioner  for  his 
signature.  The  patent  has  then  issued 
amd  is  sent  to  the  inventor. 

The  country  is  enriched  by  inven- 
tions and  offers  for  them  a  small  pre- 
mium ;  this  premium  is  a  seventeen 
years'  monopoly  of  their  fruit — no 
more,  no  less.  Having  purchased  the 
invention  for  this  insignificant  price, 
the  purchase  is  consummated  by  the 
publication  in  the  patent  records  of 
the  details  of  the  invention  so  that  he 
who  runs  may  read.  The  whole  thing 
is  a  strictly  business  transaction,  and 
this  character  is  emphasized  by  the 
fact  that  the  inventor  is  required  to 
pay  for  the  clerical  and  expert  labor 
required  to  put  his  invention  into 
shape  for  issuing.  His  patent  fees  are 
designed  to  cover  this  expense,  and  do 
so,  with  a  considerable  margin  to 
spare.  Thus  the  people  of  the  United 
States  are  perpetually  being  enriched 
by  the  work  of  inventors,  at  absolutely 
no  cost  to  themselves. 

The  inventor  does  not  work  for  love 
nor  for  glory  alone,  but  in  the  hopes 
of  a  return  for  his  labor.  Glory  and 
love  of  his  species  are  elements  actuat- 
ing his  work,  and  in  many  cases  he 
invents  because  he  cannot  help  himself 
— because  his  genius  is  a  hard  task 
master  and  keeps  him  at  work.  But 
none  the  less,  the  great  incitement  to 


invention  "is  the  hope  of  obtaining  a 
valuable  patent,  and  without  this  in- 
ducement inventions  would  be  few  and 
far  between,  and  America  would,  with- 
out the  patent  system,  be  far  in  ar- 
rears of  the  rest  of  the  world,  instead 
of  leading  it,  as  it  does  to-day.  The 
few  pregnant  sentences  of  the  patent 
statutes — sentences  the  force  of  whose 
every  word  has  been  laboriously  ad- 
judicated by  our  highest  tribunal,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States — 
are  responsible  for  America's  most 
characteristic  element  of  prosperity, 
the  work  of  her  inventors,  to  whom  be- 
longs the  credit. 

It  should  continue  to  be  the  policy 
of  the  government  of  a  nation  whose 
inventors  have  given  to  the  world  the 
cotton  gin  and  the  reaper,  the  sewing 
machine  and  the  typewriter,  the  elec- 
tric telegraph  and  telephone,  the  ro- 
tary web  perfecting  printing  press  and 
the  linotype,  the  incandescent  lamp 
and  the  phonograph,  and  thousands  of 
other  inventions  that  have  revolution- 
ized every  industrial  art,  to  encourage 
invention  in  every  lawful  way  and  to 
provide  that,  so  far  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, the  money  paid  to  the  Govern- 
ment by  inventors  be  used  for  their 
benefit.  The  wisdom  of  the  policy  has 
been  demonstrated. 

The  world  owes  as  much  to  invent- 
ors as  to  statesmen  or  warriors.  To 
them  the  United  States  is  the  greatest 
debtor,  so  much  have  they  advanced 
American  manufactures.  Their  labor- 
saving  machinery  does  work  that  it 
would  take  millions  of  men  using  hand 
implements  to  perform.  In  this  cen- 
tury the  debt  will  be  piled  still  higher, 
for  inventors  never  rest. 


DISTINGUISHED  AMERICAN  INVENTORS. 


Benjamin  Franklin;  b.  Boston,  1706;  d. 
1790;  at  12,  printer's  apprentice,  fond  of  use- 
ful reading;  27  to  40,  teaches  himself  Latin, 
etc.,  makes  various  useful  improvements;  at 
40,  studies  electricity;  1752,  brings  electricity 
from  clouds  by  kite,  and  invents  the  lightning 
rod. 

Eli  Whitney,  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin;  b. 
Westborough,  Mass.,  1765;  d.  1825;  went  to 
Georgia  1792  as  teacher;  1793,  invents  the  cot- 
ton-gin, prior  to  which  a  full  day's  work  of 
one  person  was  to  clean  by  hand  one  pound  of 
cotton;  one  machine  performs  the  labor  of 
five  thousand  persons;  1800,  founds  Whitney- 
ville,  makes  firearms,  by  the  interchangeable 
system  for  the  parts. 

Robert  Fulton;  b.  Little  Britain,  Pa.,  1765; 
d.  1825;  artist  painter;  invents  steamboat  1793; 
invents  submarine  torpedoes*  1797  to  1801; 


builds  steamboat  in  France  1803;  launches 
passenger  boat  Clermont  at  N.  Y.  1807,  and 
steams  to  Albany;  1812,  builds  steam  ferry- 
boats; 1814,  builds  first  steam  war  vessel. 

Jethro  Wood,  inventor  of  the  modern  cast- 
iron  plough;  b.  White  Creek,  N.  Y.,  1774;  d. 
1834;  patented  the  plough  1814;  previously  the 
plough  was  a  stick  of  wood  plated  with  iron ; 
lawsuits  against  infringers  consumed  his 
means;  Secretary  Seward  said:  "No  man  has 
benefited  the  country  pecuniarily  more  than 
Jethro  Wood,  and  no  man  has  been  as  in- 
adequately rewarded." 

Thomas  Blanchard;  b.  1788,  Button,  Mass.: 
d.  1864;  invented  tack  machine  1806;  builds 
successful  steam  carriage  1825;  builds  the 
stern-wheel  boat  for  shallow  waters,  now  in 
common  use  on  Western  rivers ;  1843,  patents 
the  lathe  for  turning  irregular  forms,  now  in 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


363 


common  use  all  over  the  world  for  turning 
lasts,  spokes,  axe-handles,  gun-stocks,  hat- 
blocks,  tackle-blocks,  etc. 

Ross  Winans,  of  Baltimore;  b.  1798,  N.  J. ; 
d.  1877;  author  of  many  inventions  relating  to 
railways;  first  patent,  1828;  he  designed  and 
patented  the  pivoted,  double  truck,  long  pas- 
senger cars  now  in  common  use.  His  genius 
also  assisted  the  development  of  railways  in 
Russia. 

Cyrus  H.  McCormick,  inventor  of  harvesting 
machines;  b.  Walnut  Grove,  Va.,  1809;  d. 
1884;  in  1851  he  exhibited  his  invention  at 
the  World's  Fair,  London,  with  practical  suc- 
cess. The  mowing  of  one  acre  was  one  man's 
day's  work;  a  boy  with  a  mowing  machine 
now  cuts  10  acres  a  day.  Mr.  McCormick' s 
patents  made  him  a  millionaire. 

Charles  Goodyear,  inventor  and  patentee  of 
the  simple  mixture  of  rubber  and  sulphur,  the 
basis  of  the  present  great  rubber  industries 
throughout  the  world;  b.  New  Haven,  Conn., 
1800;  d.  1860;  in  1889,  by  the  accidental  mix- 
ture of  a  bit  of  rubber  and  sulphur  on  a  red- 
hot  stove  he  discovered  the  process  of  vul- 
canization. The  Goodyear  patents  proved  im- 
mensely profitable. 

Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  inventor  and  patentee 
of  electric  telegraph;  b.  Charlestown,  Mass., 
1791;  d.  1872;  artist  painter;  exhibited  first 
drawings  of  telegraph  1832;  half-mile  wire  in 
operation  1835;  caveat  1837;  Congress  appro- 
priated $30,000  and  in  1884  first  telegraph  line 
from  Washington  to  Baltimore  was  opened; 
after  long  contests  the  courts  sustained  his 
patents  and  he  realized  from  them  a  large 
fortune. 

Elias  Howe,  inventor  of  the  modern  sewing 
machine;  b.  Spencer,  Mass.,  1819;  d.  1867; 
machinist;  sewing  machine  patented  1846; 
from  that  time  to  1854  his  priority  was  con- 
tested and  he  suffered  from  poverty,  when  a 
decision  of  the  courts  in  his  favor  brought 
him  large  royalties  and  he  realized  several 
millions  from  his  patent. 

James  B.  Eads;  b.  1820;  d.  1887;  author  and 
constructor  of  the  great  steel  bridge  over  the 
Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  1867,  and  the  jetties 
below  New  Orleans,  1876.  His  remarkable 
energy  was  shown  in  1861  when  he  built  and 
delivered  complete  to  the  Government,  all 
within  sixty-five  days,  seven  iron-plated 
steamers,  600  tons  each;  subsequently  other 
steamers.  Some  of  the  most  brilliant  suc- 
cesses of  the  Union  arms  were  due  to  his 
extraordinary  rapidity  in  constructing  these 
vessels. 

Prof.  Joseph  Henry;  b.  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1799; 
d.  1878;  in  1828  invented  the  present  form  of 
the  electro-magnet  which  laid  the  foundation 
for  practically  the  entire  electrical  art  and  is 
probably  the  most  important  single  contribu- 
tion thereto.  In  1831  he  demonstrated  the 
practicability  of  the  electric  current  to  effect 
mechanical  movements  and  operate  signals  at 
a  distant  point,  which  was  the  beginning  of 
the  electro-magnetic  telegraph;  he  devised  a 
system  of  circuits  and  batteries,  which  con- 
tained the  principle  of  the  relay  and  local 
circuit,  and  also  invented  one  of  the  earliest 
electro-magnetic  engines.  He  made  many  sci- 
entific researches  in  electricity  and  general 
physics  and  left  many  valuable  papers  there- 
on. In  1826  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Albany 
Academy;  was  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1832,  and  in 
1846  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  at  Washington,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  Prof.  Henry  was  probably  the 
greatest  of  American  physicists. 


Dr.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  the  inventor 
of  the  telephone;  b.  1847  at  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, moved  to  Canada  1872  and  afterwards  to 
Boston;  here  he  became  widely  known  as  an 
instructor  in  phonetics  and  as  an  authority  in 
teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb;  in  1873  he  began 
the  study  of  the  transmission  of  musical  tones 
by  telegraph;  in  1876  he  invented  and  patented 
the  speaking  telephone,  which  has  become 
one  of  the  marvels  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  one  of  the  greatest  commercial  enterprises 
of  the  world;  in  1880  the  French  Government 
awarded  him  the  Volta  prize  of  $10,000  and  he 
has  subsequently  received  the  ribbon  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  from  France  and  many  honor- 
ary degrees,  both  at  home  and  abroad;  Dr. 
Bell  still  continues  his  scientific  work  at  his 
home  in  Washington  and  has  made  valuable 
contributions  to  the  phonograph  and  aerial 
navigation. 

Samuel  Colt;  b.  Hartford.  Conn.,  1814;  d. 
1862;  he  studied  chemistry  and  became  a  lec- 
turer on  that  subject;  in  1835  he  secured  pat- 
ents on  a  revolving  pistol,  a  model  of  which 
he  had  made  while  a  boy  when  at  sea;  he 
built  and  maintained  a  large  armory  in  Hart- 
ford, Conn;  in  1847  he  contracted  to  make 
1,000  weapons  for  General  Taylor;  In  1843  he 
laid  and  successfully  tested  the  first  sub- 
marine telegraph  cable. 

Thomas  A.  Edison;  b.  1847,  at  Milan,  Ohio; 
from  a  poor  boy  in  a  country  village,  with  a 
limited  education,  he  has  become  the  most 
fertile  inventor  the  world  has  ever  known;  his 
most  important  inventions  are  the  phonograph 
in  1877,  the  incandescent  electric  lamp,  1878; 
the  quadruples  telegraph,  1874-1878;  the  elec- 
tric pen,  1876;  magnetic  ore  separator,  1880; 
and  the  three-wire  electric  circuit,  1883;  his 
first  patent  was  an  electric  vote-recording  ma- 
chine, taken  in  1869;  early  in  life  Edison 
started  to  run  a  newspaper,  but  his  genius 
lay  in  the  field  of  electricity,  where  as  an 
expert  telegrapher  he  began  his  great  repu- 
tation; his  numerous  inventions  have  brought 
him  great  wealth;  a  fine  villa  in  Llewellyn 
Park,  at  Orange,  N.  J.,  Is  his  home,  and  his 
extensive  laboratory  near  by  is  still  the  scene 
of  his  constant  work;  he  is  the  world's  most 
persevering  inventor,  and  there  are  few  fields 
of  work  into  which  his  inventive  genius  has 
not  entered;  in  late  years  he  has  done  much 
work  in  connection  with  the  preparation  of 
detachable  molds  for  cement  houses. 

Captain  John  Ericsson;  b.  1803  in  Sweden; 
d.  in  New  York,  1889;  at  10  years  of  age, 
designed  a  sawmill  and  a  pumping  engine; 
made  and  patented  many  inventions  in  England 
in  early  life;  in  1829  entered  a  locomotive  in 
competition  with  Stephenson's  Rocket;  in  1836 
patented  in  England  his  double-screw  propeller 
and  shortly  after  came  to  the  United  States 
and  incorporated  it  in  a  steamer;  in  1861, 
built  for  the  United  States  Government  the 
turret  ironclad  Monitor;  was  the  inventor  of 
the  hot-air  engine  which  bears  his  name;  also 
a  torpedo  boat  which  was  designed  to  dis- 
charge a  torpedo  by  means  of  compressed  air 
beneath  the  water;  he  was  an  indefatigable 
worker  and  made  many  other  inventions;  his 
diary,  kept  daily  for  40  years,  comprehended 
14,000  pages. 

Charles  F.  Brush;  b.  near  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
1849;  prominently  identified  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  dynamo,  the  arc  light  and  the 
storage  battery,  in  which  fields  he  made  many 
important  inventions:  in  1880  the  Brush  Com- 
pany put  its  electric  lights  into  New  York 
City  and  has  since  extended  its  installations 
into  most  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  United 


864 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


States;  in  1881.  at  the  Paris  Electrical  Expo- 
sition, he  received  the  ribbon  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor. 

George  Westinghouse,  Jr.;  b.  at  Central 
Bridge,  N.  Y.,  1846;  while  still  a  boy  he 
modeled  and  built  a  steam  engine;  his  first 
profitable  invention  was  a  railroad  frog;  his 
most  notable  inventions,  however,  were  in 
railroad  airbrakes,  the  first  patents  for  which 
were  taken  out  in  1872;  the  system  now  known 
by  his  name  has  grown  to  almost  universal 
adoption  and  constitutes  a  great  labor  saving 
and  life  saving  adjunct  to  railroad  transporta- 
tion; Mr.  Vvestinghouse,  whose  home  is  at 
Pittsburg,  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  develop 
and  use  natural  gas  from  deep  wells;  in  late 
years  he  has  made  ana  patented  many  inven- 
tions in  electrical  machinery  for  the  develop- 
ment of  power  and  light,  and  has  commer- 
cially developed  the  same  on  a  large  scale. 

Ottmar  Mergenthaler ;  b.  1854,  at  Wurtem- 
berg,  Germany;  d.  1899;  inventor  of  the  lino- 
type machine;  his  early  training  as  a  watch 
and  clock  maker  well  fitted  him  for  the  pains- 
taking and  complicated  work  of  his  life,  which 
was  to  make  a  machine  which  would  mold  the 
type  and  set  it  up  in  one  operation;  in  1872 
Mergenthaler  came  to  Baltimore  and  entered  a 
machine  shop,  in  which  he  subsequently  be- 
came a  partner;  the  first  linotype  machine  was 
built  in  1886  and  put  to  use  in  the  composing 
room  of  the  New  York  Tribune;  to-day  all 
large  newspapers  and  publishing  houses  are 
equipped  with  great  batteries  of  these  ma- 
chines, costing  over  $3,000  each,  and  each 
performing  the  work  of  five  compositors. 

Nicola    Tesla;    b.    in    the    border    country    of 


Austria-Hungary,  1857;  his  first  invention, 
made  at  Budapest,  Hungary,  in  1881,  was  a 
telephone  repeater;  he  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1884  and  later  became  a  naturalized 
citizen;  his  work  has  been  largely  in  elec- 
trical fields,  but  of  late  he  has  done  much 
work  in  the  direction  of  developing  steam 
turbines. 

Emile  Berliner;  b.  in  Hanover,  Germany, 
May  20,  1851;  he  invented  the  loose  contact 
telephone  transmitter  and  many  other  Impor- 
tant improvements  in  telephone;  in  1887  he 
invented  the  gramophone,  the  talking  machine 
well  known  as  the  Victor  type;  he  was 
awarded  the  John  Scott  medal  by  the  Franklin 
Institute. 

Wilbur  Wright;  b.  In  Henry  County,  Ind., 
April  16,  1867;  d.  May  30,  1912;  Orville  Wright, 
b.  Aug.  19,  1871;  the  Wright  brothers  became 
interested  in  mechanical  flight  in  1896;  at  the 
suggestion  of  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley,  Secretary 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  they  went  to 
the  sand  hills  of  Killdevil,  N.  C.,  in  1900,  to 
carry  out  a  series  of  field  experiments;  they 
developed  a  motor  far  in  advance  of  those 
before  used  in  connection  with  mechanical 
flight  and  by  1905  they  had  a  flying  machine 
in  which  they  flew  nearly  35  miles  at  Dayton, 
Ohio;  the  first  public  exhibition  of  importance 
j  was  given  in  this  country  at  Fort  Myer  in 
1908  by  Orville  Wright;  Wilbur  Wright  at 
this  time  was  making  record  flights  at  Le 
Mans,  France;  from  then  until  Wilbur's  death 
the  two  were  constantly  associated  in  develop- 
ing their  heavier  than  air  machines;  they  be- 
came the  world's  best  known  aviators. 


ABSTRACTS  OF  DECISIONS. 


Where  an  inventor  has  completed  his  in- 
vention, if  he  neither  applies  for  a  patent  nor 
puts  it  to  practical  use.  a  subsequent  inventor 
who  promptly  applies  is  entitled  to  the  patent. 
and  the  first  one  is  deemed  to  have  abandoned 
his  rights.  Pattee  v.  Russell,  3  O.  G.,  181; 
Ex  parte  Carre,  5  O.  G.,  30;  Johnson  v.  Root, 
1  Fisher,  351. 

As  between  two  rival  inventors,  the  test  of 
priority  is  the  diligence  of  the  one  first  to 
conceive  it.  If  he  has  been  diligent  in  per- 
fecting it,  he  is  entitled  to  receive  the  patent. 
If  he  has  been  negligent,  the  patent  is  awarded 
to  his  opponent.  Robinson  on  Patents,  Sec. 
375. 

The  construction  and  use  for  two  years  in 
public  of  a  working  machine,  whether  the  in- 
ventor has  or  has  not  abandoned  it,  excludes 
the  grant  of  a  patent  to  a  subsequent  in- 
ventor. An  abandonment  in  such  case  inures 
to  the  benefit  of  the  public  and  not  to  the 
benefit  of  a  subsequent  inventor.  Young  v. 
Van  Duser,  16  O.  G.,  95. 

Just  where  the  line  of  invention  lies  in  an 
accomplished  result  is  frequently  difficult  for 
the  courts  to  determine.  That  it  must  ex- 
tend beyond  the  merely  novel  and  useful  and 
into  the  domain  of  original  thought  has  been 
determined.  The  extent  of  the  mental 
process,  however,  is  immaterial.  The  result 
may  come  out  of  long  consideration  or  it  rnay 
be  the  revelation  of  a  flash  of  thought. 
Snyder  v.  Fisher,  78  O.  G.,  485. 

A  function  result  or  principle  is  not 
patentable,  but  a  party  is  entitled  to  claim 
his  invention  as  broadly  as  the  prior  art 
permits.  Ex  parte  Pisko,513 ;  Gourick,  85-15. 


It  is  well  settled  law  that  a  patent  can  not 
issue  for  a  result  sought  to  be  accomplished  bv 
the  inventor  of  a  machine  but  only  for  the 
mechanical  means  or  instrumentalities  In 
which  that  result  is  obtained.  One  cannot 
describe  a  machine  which  will  perform  a 
certain  function  and  then  claim  the  function 
itself  and  all  other  machines  that  may  be 
invented  by  others  to  nerform  the  same 
function.  In  re  Gardner,  140  O.  G.,  258. 

A  mere  aggregation  or  combination  of  old 
devices  is  not  patentable  when  the  elements 
are  unchanged  in  function  and  effect.  Thev 
are  patentable  when,  "by  the  action  of  the 
elements  unon  each  other,  or  by  their  joint 
action  on  their  common  object,  they  perform 
additional  functions  and  accomplish  addi- 
tional effects."  Robinson  on  Patents,  Sec. 
154. 

A  change  of  shape  enabling  an  instrument 
to  perform  new  functions  is  sometimes  in- 
vention. Wilson  v.  Coo,  18  Biatch,  532; 
Collar  Co.  v.  White,  7  O.  G.,  690,  877. 

A  patent  which  is  simply  for  a  method  of 
transacting  business  or  keeping  accounts  is 
not  valid.  U.  S.  Credit  System  Co.  v. 
American  Indemnity  Co.,  63  O.  G.,  318. 

The  mere  combination  of  articles  disclosed 
in  two  former  patents  will  not  constitute  in- 
vention, unless  it  results  in  producing  a  new 
and  useful  article  not  applied  by  those 
familiar  with  the  state  of  the  art.  In  re 
Faber,  136  O.  G.,  229. 

Patentable  novelty  may  be  found  in  an 
improvement  which  simplifies  a  complicated 
train  of  mechanism  by  eliminating  some  of 
the  elements  with  the  result  that  defects  due 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


365 


to  the  presence  of  those  elements  are  done 
away  with.  Brown  v.  Huntington  Piano  Co., 
134  "Fed.,  735. 

It  involves  no  invention  to  omit  a  part 
together  with  its  function.  Ex  parte 
McElroy.  161  O.  G.,  753. 

Where  the  claims  are  distinguishable  over 
the  prior  art  by  mere  arbitrary  variations 
which  amount  only  to  changes  of  mechanical 
design  and  which  accomplish  no  new  result, 
held  that  such  claims  are  unpatentable. 
Ex  parte  Hill,  117  O.  G.,  2365. 

The  substitution  of  one  material  for  another 
involves  invention  where  the  substituted 
material  is  used  in  a  relation  in  which  it  had 
not  before  been  used  and  in  which  it  ac- 
complished new  and  very  beneficial  results 
which  were  long  sought  by  those  skilled  in  the  ! 
art  George  *  rost  Co.  et  al  v.  Cohn  et  al, 
119  Fed.,  505. 

There  is  no  invention  apparently  involved 
in  putting  some  other  mechanism  well  known 
i.i  the  art  and  well  adapted  for  such  use  in  the 
place  of  previously  used  mechanism  in  an  old 
device  operating  "in  an  old  way  when  such 
substitution  does  not  involve  any  material 
rearrangement.  New  Departure  Bell  Co.  v. 
Bevin  Bros.  Manufacturing  Co.  75  O.  G.,2196. 

Mere  change  of  proportion  is  not  sufficient 
to  avoid  a  charge  of  infringement  and  is  not, 
therefore,  sufficient  to  establish  difference  of 
invention  Thompson-Houston  Electric  .Co. 
v.  Western  Electric  Co.  et  al.  75  O.  G.,  347. 

In  claiming  a  patent  for  the  discovery  of  a 
useful  result  in  any  art,  machine,  manu- 
facture or  composition  of  matter  by  the  use 
of  certain  means,  the  applicant  must  specify 
the  means  he  uses  in  a  manner  so  full  and 
exact  that  any  one  skilled  in  the  science  to 
which  it  appertains  can  by  using  the  means 
he  specifies  without  any  addition  or  sub- 
traction from  them  produce  precisely  the 
result  he  describes.  In  re  Blackmore,  140 
O.  G.,  1209. 

A  patentee  is  bound  by  the  limitations 
imposed  on  his  patent,  whether  they  are 
voluntary  or  enforced  by  the  Patent  Office, 
and  if  he  accepts  claims  not  covering  his  entire 


invention      he     abandons      the      remainder 
Toepfer  v.  Goetz,  41  O.  G.,  933. 

Claims  should  be  construed,  if  possible,  to 
sustain  the  patentee's  right  to  all  he  has 
invented.  Ransom  v.  Mayor  of  N.  Y.  (1856), 
Fisher,  252. 

Ihe  law  requires  that  manufacturers  of 
patented  articles  give  notice  to  the  public 
that  the  goods  are  patented  by  marking 
thereon  the  date  of  the  patent  or  giving 
equivalent  notice.  When  this  law  is  not 
complied  with,  only  nominal  damages  can  be 
recovered.  Wilson  v.  Singer  Mfg.  Co.,  4 
Bann.  &  A.  637;  McCourt  v.  Brodie,  5  Fisher, 
384. 

To  prevent  fraudulent  impositions  on  the 
public  it  is  forbidden  that  unpatented  articles 
be  stamped  "Patented,"  ancj  where  this  is 
done  with  intention  to  deceive,  a  penalty  of 
one  hundred  dollars  and  costs  for  each  article 
so  stamped  is  provided.  Any  person  may 
brinw  action  against  such  offenders.  Walker 
v.  Hawxhurst,  5  Blatch.  494;  Tompkins  v. 
Butterfield,  25  Fed.  Rep  556. 

The  assignor  of  a  patented  invention  is 
estopped  from  denying  the  validity  of  his  own 
patent  or  his  own  title  to  the  interest  trans- 
ferred. He  cannot  become  the  owner  of  an 
older  patent  and  hold  it  against  his  assignee. 
Robinson  on  Patents,  Sec.  787,  and  notes. 

Any  assignment  which  does  not  convey  to 
the  assignee  the  entire  and  unqualified 
monoply  which  the  patentee  holds  in  the 
territory  specified,  or  an  undivided  interest 
in  the  entire  monoply,  is  a  mere  license. 
Sanford  v.  Messer,  2  O.  G.,  470. 

Where  a  patented  machine  was  sold  by 
complainant  with  a  license  agreement  that  it 
was  to  be  used  only  with  ink  made  by  com- 
plainant and  defendant  with  knowledge  of 
such  license  agreement  sold  to  the  owner  of 
such  machine,  ink  not  made  by  complainant 
with  the  expectation  that  this  ink  was  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  such  machine,  held 
that  the  acts  of  defendant  constituted  con- 
tributory infringement  of  complainant's 
patent.  "  U.  S.  Supreme  Court.  Henry  et  al 
v.  A.  B.  Dick  Co.,  176  O.  G.,  751. 


FOREIGN  PATENTS. 


CANADA,  DOMINION  OF. — The  laws  of  Can- 
ada follow  somewhat  closely  the  practice  in    > 
the  United  States.     The  term  of  a  patent  is 
eighteen  years.  The  general  practice,  however, 
is  to  divide  the  fees,  making  payment  only  for    j 
a  term  of  six  years  at  one  time.    Applications    ' 
are  subjected  to  examination  as  to  novelty  and 
usefulness,  as  in  the  United  States.   Theappli-    ! 
cation  must  be  filed  in  Canada  not  later  than 
f luring   the   year   following   the   issue   of   the 
United  States  or  other  foreign  patent.    If  the 
inventor  neglects  to  file  his  application  within 
the   twelve   months,    the   invention    become- 
public  property.     It  is  not  permissible  to  im- 
port the  patented  article  into  the  Dominion 
after  twelve  months  from  the  date  of  the  Cana- 
dian patent.    \\  ithin  two  years  from  said  date    j 
the  maMuiacture  and  sale  of  the  article  under    i 
the  patent  must  have  been  begun.  These  exac- 
tions may  be  relaxed  under  certain  conditions. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
fourteen  years.  An  examination  is  made  in 
Great  Britain  to  ascertain  whether  the  inven- 


tion has  been  disclosed  in  the  specifications  of 
British  patents  granted  within  titty  years  of 
the  filing  of  the  British  application.  W  hile  this 
is  the  extent  of  the  examination  by  the  Patent 
Office,  it  is  sufficient  to  invalidate  a  British 
patent  to  show  in  court  that  the  invention  was 
published,  or  was  in  public  use,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain before  the  date  of  the  invention  of.  the 
British  application.  In  Great  Britain  the  true 
inventor  should  apply  for  the  patent  in  his 
own  name;  but  if  the  invention  has  been  con- 
ceived in  a  foreign  country,  the  first  introducer 
may  obtain  the  patent  whether  he  be  the  true 
inventor  or  not.  Under  these  circumstances, 
therefore,  a  foreign  assignee  may  apply  for  the 
patent  in  his  own  name  without  the  true  in- 
ventor being  known.  After  the  fourth  year 
there  are  annual  taxes,  gradually  increasing  in 
amount.  The  patent  becomes  void  if  the  tax 
is  not  paid.  No  time  is  set  within  which  the 
manufacture  of  the  invention  must  be  com- 
menced, but  after  three  years  if  the  manufac- 
ture has  not  begun,  the  patentee  may  be  com- 


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Copyright   1912,    by   Munn   &  Co..   Inc. 

METROPOLITAN  LIFE  BUILDING. 

Photographs    to    scale 


Copyright  1908,    by  Byron,    New  York. 

SINGER  BUILDING. 
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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


367 


pelled  to  grant  licenses,  or  the  patent  may  be 
declared  invalid. 

FRANCE. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  There  is  no  examination  as  to  novelty, 
and  the  patent  is  granted  to  the  first  applicant, 
whether  or  not  he  be  the  true  inventor.  The 
life  of  the  patent  depends  upon  the  payment 
of  annual  taxes.  The  patent  must  be  worked 
in  France  within  two  years  from  the  date  of 
the  signing  of  the  patent.  If  these  conditions 
are  not  complied  with  the  patent  becomes 
public  property  but  the  working  provisions 
referred  to  are  modified  by  the  terms  of  the 
International  Convention,  under  which  the 
revocation  of  a  French  patent  is  prevented 
when  the  patent  is  granted  to  a  citizen  of  a 
country  which  is  a  member  of  the  Convention 
until  after  the  expiration  of  the  third  year 
counting  from  the  filing  of  the  French  ap- 
plication. 

GERMANY. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  patent  is  issued  to  the  first  appli- 
cant, but  if  he  is  not  the  true  inventor  he 
should,  before  filing  the  application,,  obtain 
the  written  consent  of  the  inventor.  The  ap- 
plication is  subjected  to  a  rigid  examination. 
The  patent  is  subject  to  an  annual  progressive 
tax,  and  must  be  worked  within  a  period  of 
three  years  but  the  working  provisions  in 
Germany  are  modified  by  a  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Germany,  under  the 
provisions  of  which  the  revocation  of  a 
German  patent  granted  to  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  is  prevented  when  the  patented 
article  is  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 
AUSTRIA. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
vear<.  The  practice  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
practice  in  Germany,  although  the  examina- 
tion is  generally  not  so  exacting.  The  patent 
is  subject  to  an  annual  tax  and  it  must  be 
worked  within  a  period  of  three  years. 

HUNGARY. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  laws  are  similar  to  those  of  Ger- 
many. There  is  a  progressive  annual  tax  and 
the  patent  must  be  worked  within  a  period  of 
three  years. 

BELGIUM. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  twenty 
years.  The  first  applicant  obtains  the  patent 
whether  or  not  he  is  the  true  inventor.  There 
is  a  small  annual  tax,  and  the  patent  should 
be  worked  within  one  year  of  the  working 
elsewhere  but  the  working  provisions  in 
Belgium  are  modified  under  the  terms  of  the 
International  Convention  which  prevent  the 
revocation  of  a  Belgian  patent  granted  to  a 
ritizen  of  a  country  which  is  a  member  of  the 
Convention  until  after  the  expiration  of  three 
years  counting  from  the  filing  of  the  Belgian 
patent  Application. 

ITALY. — The  maximum  term  of  a  patent  is 
fifteen  years.  The  patent  is  granted  to  the 
first  applicant.  The  patent  is  subject  to  an 
annual  tax.  The  patent  becomes  invalid  if  it 
is  not  worked  within  one  year  or  if  work  under 
it  has  been  suspended  for  a  whole  year,  where 
the  term  is  five  years  or  less;  or,  where  the 
term  is  more  than  five  years,  if  it  is  not  worked 
within  two  vears  or  work  under  it  has  been 
suspended  for  two  years  but  the  working 
provisions  in  Italy  are  modified  by  the  pro- 
visions of  the  International  Convention,  with 
reference  to  which  see  "France,"  referred  to 
above. 

RUSSIA. — The  term  of  the  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  the  payment 


of  annual  taxes  and  must  be  worked  within 
five  years. 

SPAIN. — The  term  of  the  patent  is  twenty 
years,  subject  to  the  payment  of  annual  taxes. 
It  must  be  worked  within  two  years.  The  pat- 
ent is  issued  to  the  first  applicant,  whether  or 
not  be  the  true  inventor.  The  working 
provisions  are  modified  under  the  terms  of 
the  International  Convention. 

SWITZERLAND. — The  term  of  the  patent  i* 
fifteen  years,  subject  to  an  annual  tax.  Work- 
ing must  take  place  within  three  years.  The 
true  inventor  or  his  assignee  can  obtain  a 
patent  but  when  the  Swiss  patent  is  granted 
to  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  it  is  un- 
necessary for  him  to  work  the  patent  pro- 
vided the  invention  is  being  worked  in  the 
United  .States. 

NORWAY. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fourteen 
years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  a  small  annual 
tax.  The  application  must  be  filed  in  the  name 
of  the  true  inventor  or  his  assignee.  Applica- 
tions must  be  filed  within  twelve  months  of 
the  publication  of  the  patent  in  any  foreign 
country.  The  patentee  may  be  compelled  to 
grant  licenses.  The  application  must  be 
filed  either  before  the  issue  of  the  United 
States  patent  or  during  the  year  following 
the  filing  of  the  United  States  application. 

SWEDEN. — The  term  of  a  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  patent  is  subject  to  an  annual  tax. 
The  conditions  are  similar  to  those  existent  in 
Norway.  Working  Is  not  now  necessary  in 
Sweden,  but  the  patentee  may  be  compelled 
to  grant  licenses  should  he  fail  to  carry  on 
the  manufacture  in  Sweden. 

DENMARK. — The  laws  are  similar  to  those 
of  Sweden  but  the  patent  should  be  worked 
within  three  years. 

PORTUGAL. — The  term  of  the  patent  varies 
from  one  to  fifteen  years,  the  fees  payable 
depending  upon  the  term  of  the  patent.  A 
patent  must  be  worked  within  two  years  but 
the  working  provisions  are  modified  by  the 
provisions  of  the  International  Convention 
under  which  the  working  is  not  required  when 
the  patentee  is  a  citizen  of  a  country  which  is 
a  member  of  the  Convention  until  after  the 
expiration  of  three  years  from  the  date  of 
filing  of  the  application  in  Portugal. 

NETHERLANDS. — The  term  of  a  patent  is 
fifteen  years.  The  patent  is  granted  to  the  first 
applicant.  The  patentee  must  have  a  bona 
fide  industrial  establishment  where  the  pat- 
ented article  is  manufactured  within  five  years 
or  the  patent  is  revocable.  The  patent  is  sub- 
ject to  an  annually  increasing  tax. 

AUSTRALIA. — The  Australian  patent  pro- 
tects an  invention  in  Victoria,  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  Tas. 
mania.  West  Australia  and  Papua,  but  not  in 
New  Zealand,  which  has  its  own  patent  law. 
The  term  of  the  Australian  patent  is  fourteen 
years,  a  tax  being  due  before  the  expiration  of 
the  seventh  year.  When  the  patent  is  not 
worked  a  compulsory  license  or  revocation  of 
the  patent  may  be  enforced  after  two  years 
from  the  granting  of  the  patent  but  Australia 
is  a  member  of  the  International  Convention, 
and  the  working  provisions  are  therefore 
modified  by  the  terms  of  the  convention. 

NEW  ZEALAND. — The  term  of  the  patent  is 
fourteen  years,  taxes  being  due  before  the  end 
of  the  fourth  and  seventh  years.  Compulsory 
licenses  may  be  obtained. 


368 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


BRITISH  INDIA. — The  patent  is  granted  for 
fourteen  years  with  a  possible  term  of  ex- 
tension. The  application  should  be  filed 
\vithin  one  year  of  the  issue  of  the  patent  in 
any  other  country  and  before  the  invention  has 
been  publicly  used  or  made  publicly  known 
in  any  part  of  British  India.  Taxes  are 
payable  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  and 
annually  thereafter.  If  the  patent  is  not 
worked  to  an  adequate  extent  within  four 
years  the  patentee  may  be  compelled  to  grant 
licenses  to  prevent  the  revocation  of  the 
patent. 

TURKEY. — Patents  are  granted  for  five,  ten 
or  fifteen  years.  The  application  must  be  filed 
by  the  inventor  or  his  assignee.  The  patent  is 
subject  to  an  annual  tax.  The  patent  must.be 
worked  within  two  years. 

PORTO  Rico. — Protection  is  secured  by  fil- 
ing a  certified  copy  of  the  United  States  pat- 
ent with  the  Secretary  of  the  Government  and 
by  complying  with  certain  legal  formalities. 

PHILIPPINES. — The  modus  operandi  is  the 
same  as  that  just  described  as  applying  to 
Porto  Rico. 

CUBA. — Since  Cuba  has  become  an  inde- 
pendent republic  it  has  established  a  patent 
system.  The  term  of  the  patent  is  seventeen 
years.  Working  should  be  established  within 
one  year  but  the  term  for  the  working  of  the 
Cuoan  patent  is  modified  by  the  provisions 
of  the  Convention.  No  taxes  after  the  issue 
of  the  patent. 

MEXICO. — The  term  is  twenty  years.  The 
application  must  be  filed  in  Mexico  either 
within  twelve  months  from  the  date  of  filing 
of  the  first  application  in  another  country  or 


within  three  months  from  the  date  of  issue 
of  the  foreign  patent.  There  are  no  taxes 
after  the  issue  of  the  patent.  If  the  Mexican 
patent  is  not  worked  the  patentee  may  be 
required,  after  the  expiration  of  three  years 
of  the  patent  term,  to  grant  licenses  per- 
mitting others  to  manufacture  in  Mexico. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  REPUBLICS. — Patents  are 
issued  by  all  of  the  South  American  Republic*. 
The  principal  countries  in  which  patent  pro- 
tection is'  sought  are  Brazil,  in  which  the  laws 
are  quite  favorable  to  foreigners  and  where  the 
term  is  fifteen  years;  Chile,  where  the  term  is 
generally  ten  years,  and  Argentina,  where  the 
terms  are  five,  ten  and  fifteen  years,  according 
to  the  merits  of  the  invention.  Patents  are 
also  frequently  secured  in  Venezuela,  Peru, 
Ecuador,  Colombia  and  Paraguay,  but  only 
for  certain  classes  of  invention,  owing  to  the 
expense  involved  in  procuring  the  patents. 

SOUTH  AFRICA.— Patents  are  obtainable  in 
four  important  states.  Cape  Colony,  Transvaal, 
Congo  Free  State  and  Orange  tree  State.  In 
Cape  Colony  the  term  is  fourteen  years.  There 
are  no  'conditions  as  to  working  the  patent. 
The  law  is  otherwise  similar  to  that  of  Great 
Britain. 

JAPAN. — The  term  of  the  patent  is  fifteen 
years.  The  applicant  must  be  the  inventor  or 
derive  his  title  from  the  inventor.  There  is  an 
examination  of  the  application.  The  patent  is 
subject  to  an  increasing  tax,  and  must  be 
worked  within  three  years.  The  tuxes  for  the 
first,  second  and  third  years  of  the  patent 
term  are  paid  before  the  patent  is  issued.  The 
subsequent  taxes  are  paid  annually  after  the 
expiration  of  the  third  year  of  the  patent  term. 


THE  PATENT  LAWS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The    Constitutional    Provision.— The    Congress    !    Interior,    shall   superintend    or   perform    all    du- 
to     promote     the    j    ties    respecting    the    granting    and     issuing     of 


shall     have     power     * 

progress  of  Science  and  Useful'  Arts,  by  se- 
curing for  limited  Times  to  Authors  and  In- 
ventors the  exclusive  Right  to  their  respective 
Writings  and  Discoveries. 

STATUTES. 
ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    PATENT    OFFICE. 

Title   XI,    Rev.    Stat.,    p.    80: 

Sec.  475.  There  shall  be  in  the  Department 
of  the  Interior  an  office  known  as  the  Patent 
Office,  where  all  records,  books,  models,  draw- 
ings, specifications,  and  other  papers  and 
things  pertaining  to  patents  shall  be  safely 
kept  and  preserved. 

Sec.  476.  There  shall  be  in  the  Patent  Of- 
fice a  Commissioner  of  Patents,  one  Assistant 
Commissioner,  and  three  examiners-in-chief, 
who  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Sen- 
ate. All  other  offices,  clerks  and  employees 
authorized  by  law  for  the  Office  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  upon 
the  nomination  of  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents. 

Sec.  480.  All  officers  and  employees  of  the 
Patent  Office  shall  be  incapable,  during  the 
period  for  which  they  hold  their  appoint- 
ments, to  acquire  or  take,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, except  by  inheritance  or  bequest,  any 
right  of  interest  in  any  patent  issued  by  the 
Office. 

Sec.  481.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 


patents  directed  by  law ;  and  he  shall  have 
charge  of  all  books,  records,  papers,  models, 
I  machines,  and  other  things  belonging  to  the 
I  Patent  Office. 

Sec.  482.  The  examihers-in-chief  shall  be 
persons  of  competent  legal  knowledge  and  sci- 
entific ability.,  whose  duty  it  shall  be,  on  the 
written  petition  of  the  appellant,  to  revise  and 
determine  upon  the  validity  of  the  adverse 
decisions  of  examiners  upon  applications  for 
patents,  and  for  reissues  of  patents,  and  in 
interference  cases;  and  when  required  by  the 
Commissioner,  they  shall  hear  and  report  upon 
claims  for  extensions,  and  perform  such  other 
like  duties  as  he  may  assign  them. 

Sec.  483.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents,  sub- 
ject to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  may  from  time  to  time  establish  regu- 
lations, not  inconsistent  with  law,  for  the 
conduct  of  proceedings  in  the  Patent  Office. 

Sec.  488.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents  may 
require  all  papers  filed  in  the  Patent  Office, 
if  not  correctly,  legibly,  and  clearly  written, 
to  be  printed  at  the  cost  of  the  party  filing 
them. 

Title    XIII,    Rev.    Stat.,    p.    169: 

Sec.  892.  Written  or  printed  copies  of  any 
records,  books,  papers,  or  drawings  belonging 
to  the  Patent  Office,  and  of  letters  patent 
authenticated  by  the  seal  and  certified  by  the 
Commissioner  or  Acting  Commissioner  thereof, 
shall  be  evidence  in  all  cases  wherein  the 
originals  could  be  evidence ;  and  any  person 
making  application  therefor,  and  paying  the 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


369 


fee  required  by  law,   shall  have  certified  copies 
thereof. 

Sec.  89$.  Copies  of  the  specifications  and 
drawings  of  foreign  letters  patent  certified  as 
provided  in  the  preceding  section,  shall  be 
prima  facie  evidence  of  the  fact  of  the  granting 
of  such  letters  patent,  and  of  the  date  and 
contents  thereof. 

Sec.  894.  The  printed  copies  of  specifica- 
tions and  drawings  of  patents,  which  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents  is  authorized  to  print 
for  gratuitous  distribution,  and  to  deposit  in 
the  capitols  of  the  States  and  Territories,  and 
in  the  clerks'  offices  of  the  district  court, 
shall,  when  certified  by  him  and  authenticated 
by  the  seal  of  his  office,  be  received  in  all 
courts  as  evidence  of  all  matters  therein  con- 
tained. 

Sec.  973.  When  judgment  or  decree  is  ren- 
dered for  the  plaintiff  or  complainant,  in  any 
suit  at  law  or  in  equity,  for  the  infringement 
of  a  part  of  a  patent,  In  which  it  appears 
that  the  patentee,  in  his  specification,  claimed 
to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor  or  dis- 
coverer of  any  material  or  substantial  part  of 
the  thing  patented,  of  which  he  was  not  the 
original  and  first  inventor,  no  costs  shall  be 
recovered,  unless  the  proper  disclaimer,  as 
provided  by  the  patent  laws,  has  been  entered 
at  the  Patent  Office  before  the  suit  was 
brought.  (See  Sees.  4917,  4922.) 

Sec.  1537.  No  patented  article  connected 
with  marine  engines  shall  hereafter  be  pur- 
chased or  used  in  connection  with  any  steam 
vessels  of  war  until  the  same  shall  have  been 
submitted  to  a  competent  board  of  naval  engi- 
neers, and  recommended  by  such  board,  in 
writing,  for  purchase  and  use. 
Title  XVII,  Rev.  Stat.,  p.  292: 
Sec.  1673.  No  royalty  shall  be  paid  by  the 
United  States  to  any  one  of  its  officers  or 
employees  for  the  use  of  any  patent  for  the 
system,  or  any  part  thereof,  nor  for  any  such 
patent  in  which  said  officers  or  employees 
may  be  directly  or  indirectly  interested. 
Title  LX,  Rev.  Stat.,  1878,  chap.  1.  p.  945: 
Sec.  4883.  All  patents  shall  be  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
under  the  seal  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  shall 
be  signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  and 
they  shall  be  recorded,  together  with  the  spe- 
cifications, in  the  Patent  Office  in  books  to  be 
kept  for  that  purpose. 

Sec.  4884.  Every  patent  shall  contain  a 
short  title  or  description  of  the  invention  or 
discover}*,  correctly  indicating  its  nature  and 
design,  and  a  grant  to  the  patentee,  his  heirs 
or  assigns,  for  the  term  of  seventeen  years, 
of  the  exclusive  right  to  make,  use,  and  vend 
the  invention  or  discovery  throughout  the 
United  States  and  the  Territories  thereof,  re- 
ferring to  the  specification  for  the  particulars 
thereof.  A  copy  of  the  specification  and  draw- 
ings shall  be  annexed  to  the  patent  and  be 
a  part  thereof. 

Sec.  4885.  Every  patent  shall  issue  within 
a  period  of  three  months  from  the  date  of 
the  payment  of  the  final  fee,  which  fee  shall 
be  paid  not  later  than  six  months  from  the 
time  at  which  the  application  was  passed  and 
allowed  and  notice  thereof  was  sent  to  the 
applicant  or  his  agent;  and  if  the  final  fee 
is  not  paid  within  that  period  the  patent 
shall  be  withheld. 

Sec.  4886.  Any  person  who  has  invented  or 
discovered  any  new  and  useful  art,  machine, 
manufacture,  or  composition  of  matter,  or  any 
new  and  useful  improvements  thereof,  not 
known  or  used  by  others  in  this  country,  be- 


fore his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  and 
not  patented  or  described  in  any  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country,  before 
his  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  or  more 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  appli- 
cation, unless  the  same  is  proved  to  have 
been  abandoned,  may,  upon  payment  of  the 
fees  required  by  law,  and  other  due  proceed- 
ing had,  obtain  a  patent  therefor. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents  are  authorized  to  grant 
any  officer  of  the  Government,  except  officers 
and  employees  of  the  Patent  Office,  a  patent 
for  any  invention  of  the  classes  mentioned  in 
section  4886  of  the  Revised  Statutes  when  such 
invention  is  used  or  to  be  used  in  the  public 
service,  without  the  payment  of  any  fee;  Pro- 
vided, That  the  applicant  in  his  application 
shall  state  that  the  invention  described  therein, 
if  patented,  may  be  used  by  the  Government, 
or  any  of  its  officers  or  employees  in  prose- 
cution of  work  for  the  Government,  or  by 
any  other  person  in  the  United  States,  without 
the  payment  to  him  of  any  royalty  thereon, 
which  stipulation  shall  be  included  in  the 
patent. 

Sec.  4887.  No  person  otherwise  entitled 
thereto  shall  be  debarred  from  receiving  a 
patent  for  his  invention  or  discovery,  nor 
shall  any  patent  be  declared  invalid  by  reason 
of  its  having  been  first  patented  or  caused  to 
be  patented  by  the  invento;  or  his  legal  rep- 
resentatives or  assigns  in  a  foreign  country, 
unless  the  application  for  said  foreign  patent 
was  filed  more  than  twelve  months,  in  cases 
within  the  provisions  of  section  4886  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  and  four  months  in  cases 
of  designs,  prior  to  the  filing  of  the  appli- 
cation in  this  country,  in  which  case  no 
patent  shall  be  granted  in  this  country. 

An  application  for  patent  for  an  invention 
or  discovery  or  for  a  design  filed  in  this 
country  by  any  person  who  has  previously 
regularly  filed  "  an  application  for  a  patent 
for  the  same  invention,  discovery,  or  design 
in  a  foreign  country  which,  by  treaty,  con- 
vention, or  law,  affords  similar  privileges  to 
citizens  of  the  United  States  shall  have  the 
same  force  and  effect  as  the  same  application 
would  have  if  filed  in  this  country  on  the 
date  on  which  the  application  for  patent  for 
the  same  invention,  discovery,  or  design  was 
first  filed  in  such  foreign  country,  provided 
the  application  in  this  country  is  filed  within 
twelve  months  in  cases  within  the  provisions 
of  section  4886  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  and 
within  four  months  in  cases  of  designs,  from 
the  earliest  date  on  which  any  such  foreign 
application  was  filed.  But  no  patent  shall  be 
granted  on  an  application  for  patent  for  an 
invention  or  discovery  or  a  design  which  had 
been  patented  or  described  in  a  printed  pub- 
lication in  this  or  any  foreign  country  more 
than  two  years  before  the  date  of  the  actual 
filing  of  the  application  in  this  country,  or 
which  had  been  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in 
this  country  for  more  than  two  years  priori 
to  such  filing. 

Sec.  4888.  Before  any  inventor  or  discoverer 
shall  receive  a  patent  for  his  invention  or 
discovery,  he  shall  make  application  therefor, 
in  writing,  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
and  shall  file  in  the  Patent  Office  a  written 
description  of  the  same,  and  of  the  manner 
and  process  of  making,  constructing,  compound- 
ing, and  using  it.  in  such  full,  clear,  con- 
ripe,  and  exact  terms  as  to  enable  any  person 
skilled  in  the  art  or  science  to  which  it  ap- 


370 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


pertains,  or  with  which  it  is  most  nearly  con- 
nected, to  make,  construct,  compound,  and 
use  the  same;  and  in  case  of  a  machine,  he 
shall  explain  the  principle  thereof,  and  the 
best  mode  in  which  he  has  contemplated  ap- 
plying that  principle,  so  as  to  distinguish  it 
from  other  inventions;  and  he  shall  particu- 
larly point  out  and  distinctly  claim  the  part, 
improvement,  or  combination  which  he  claims 
as  his  .nvention  or  discovery.  The  specifica- 
tion and  claim  shall  be  signed  by  the  in- 
ventor and  attested  by  two  witnesses. 

Sec.  4889.  When  the  nature  of  the  case 
admits  of  drawings,  the  applicant  shall  fur- 
nish one  copy  signed  by  the  inventor  or  his 
attorney  in  fact,  and  attested  by  two  wit- 
nesses, which  shall  be  filed  in  the  Patent 
Office;  and  a  copy  of  the  drawing,  to  be  fur- 
nished by  the  Patent  Office,  shall  be  attached 
to  the  patent  as  a  part  of  the  specification. 

Sec.  4890.  When  the  invention  or  discovery 
Is  of  a  composition  of  matter,  the  applicant, 
if  required  by  the  Commissioner,  shall  furnish 
specimens  of  ingredients  and  of  the  compo- 
sition, sufficient  in  quantity  for  the  purpose 
of  experiment. 

Sec.  4891.  In  all  cases  which  admit  of 
representation  by  model,  the  applicant,  if 
required  by  the  Commissioner,  shall  furnish 
a  model  of  convenient  size  to  exhibit  advan- 
tageously the  several  parts  of  his  invention  or 
discovery. 

Sec.  4892.  The  applicant  shall  make  oath 
that  he  does  verily  believe  himself  to  be  the 
original  and  first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  the 
art,  machine,  manufacture,  composition,  or 
improvement  for  which  he  solicits  a  patent; 
that  he  does  not  know  and  does  not  believe 
that  the  same  was  ever  before  known  or  used; 
and  shall  state  of  what  country  he  is  a  citi- 
zen. Such  oath  may  be  made  before  any 
person  within  the  United  States  authorized 
by  law  to  administer  oaths,  or,  when  the 
applicant  resides  in  a  foreign  country,  before 
any  minister,  charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or 
commercial  agent  holding  commission  under 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  before 
any  notary  public,  judge,  or  magistrate  having 
an  official  seal  and  authorized  to  administer 
oaths  in  the  foreign  country  in  which  the 
applicant  may  be,  whose  authority  shall  be 
proved  by  certificate  of  a  diplomatic  or  con- 
sular officer  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4893.  On  the  filing  of  any  such  appli- 
cation and  the  payment  of  the  fees  required 
by  law,  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  shall 
cause  an  examination  to  be  made  of  the  al- 
leged new  invention  or  discovery;  and  if  on 
such  examination  it  shall  appear  that  the 
claimant  is  justly  entitled  to  a  patent  under 
the  law,  and  that  the  same  is  sufficiently  useful 
and  important,  the  Commissioner  shall  issue 
a  patent  therefor. 

Sec.  4894.  All  applications  for  patents  shall 
be  completed  and  prepared  for  examination 
within  one  year  after  the  filing  of  the  appli- 
cation, and  in  default  thereof,  or  upon  failure 
of  the  applicant  to  prosecute  the  same  within 
one  year  after  any  action  therein,  of  which 
notice  shall  have  been  given  to  the  applicant, 
they  shall  be  regarded  as  abandoned  by  the 
parties  thereto,  unless  it  be  shown  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
that  such  delay  was  unavoidable. 

Sec.  4895.  Patents  may  be  granted  and  is- 
sued or  reissued  to  the  assignee  of  the  inventor 
or  discoverer;  but  the  assignment  must  first 
be  entered  of  record  in  the  Patent  Office.  And 
in  all  cases  of  an  application  by  an  assignee 
for  the  issue  of  a  patent,  the  application  shall 


be  made  and  the  specification  sworn  to  by  the 
inventor  or  discoverer;  and  in  all  cases  of  an 
application  for  a  reissue  of  any  patent,  the 
application  must  be  made  and  the  corrected 
specification  signed  by  the  inventor  or  dis- 
coverer, If  he  is  living,  unless  the  patent 
was  issued  and  the  assignment  made  before 
the  eighth  day  of  July,  1870. 

Sec.  4896.  When  any  person,  having  made 
any  new  invention  or  discovery  for  which  a 
patent  might  have  been  granted,  dies  beforfe 
a  patent  is  granted,  the  right  of  applying  for 
and  obtaining  the  patent  shall  devolve  on  his 
executor  or  administrator,  in  trust  for  the 
heirs  at  law  of  the  deceased,  in  case  he  shall 
have  died  intestate;  or  if  he  shall  have  left 
a  will  disposing  of  the  same,  then  in  trust 
for  his  devisees,  in  as  full  manne.-  and  on  the 
same  terms  and  conditions  as  the  same  might 
have  been  claimed  or  enjoyed  by  him  in  his 
lifetime;  and  when  any  person  having  made 
any  new  invention  or  discovery  for  which  a 
patent  might  have  been  granted  becomes  in- 
sane before  a  patent  is  granted  the  right  of 
applying  for  and  obtaining  the  patent  shall 
devolve  on  his  legally  appointed  guardian, 
conservator,  or  representative  in  trust  for  his 
estate  in  as  full  manner  and  on  the  same 
terms  and  conditions  as  the  same  might  have 
been  claimed  or  enjoyed  by  him  while  sane 
and  when  the  application  is  made  by  such 
legal  representatives  the  oath  or  affirmation 
required  to  be  made  shall  be  so  varied  in 
form  that  it  can  be  made  by  them.  The  exec- 
utor or  administrator  duly  authorized  under 
the  law  of  any  foreign  country  to  administer 
upon  the  estate  of  the  deceased  inventor  shall, 
in  case  the  said  inventor  was  not  domiciled 
in  the  United  States  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
have  the  right  to  apply  for  and  obtain  the 
patent.  The  authority  of  «uch  foreign  exec- 
utor or  administrator  shall  be  proved  by  cer- 
tificate of  a  diplomatic  or  consular  officer  of 
the  United  States. 

The  foregoing  section,  as  to  insane  persons, 
Is  to  cover  all  applications  now  on  file  in 
the  Patent  Office  or  which  may  be  hereafter 
made. 

Sec.  4897.  Any  person  who  has  an  interest 
in  an  invention  or  discovery,  whether  as  in- 
ventor, discoverer  or  assignee,  for  which  a 
patent  was  ordered  to  issue  upon  the  pay- 
ment of  the  final  fee,  but  who  fails  to  make 
payment  thereof  within  six  months  from  the 
time  at  which  it  was  passed  and  allowed,  and 
notice  thereof  was  sent  to  the  applicant  or 
his  agent,  shall  have  a  right  to  make  an 
application  for  a  patent  for  such  invention 
or  discovery  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  an 
original  application.  But  such  second  appli- 
catibh  must  be  made  within  two  years  after 
the  allowance  of  the  original  application.  But 
no  person  shall  be  held  responsible  in  damages 
for  the  manufacture  or  use  of  any  article  or 
thing  for  which  a  patent  was  ordered  to  issue 
under  such  renewed  application  prior  to  the 
issue  of  the  patent.  And  upon  the  hearing 
of  renewed  applications  preferred  under  this 
section,  abandonment  snail  be  considered  as  a 
question  of  fact. 

Sec.  4898.  Every  patent  or  any  interest 
therein  shall  be  assignable  in  law  by  an  in- 
strument in  writing,  and  the  patentee  or  his 
assigns  or  legal  representatives  may  in  like 
manner  grant  and  convey  an  exclusive  right 
under  his  patent  to  the  whole  or  any  specified 
part  of  the  United  States.  An  assignment, 
grant,  or  conveyance  shall  be  void  as  against 
any  subsequent  purchaser  or  mortgagee  for  a 
valuable  consideration,  without  notice,  unless 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


371 


it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent  Office  within  three 
months  from  the  date  thereof. 

If  any  such  assignment,  grant,  or  convey- 
ance of  any  patent  shall  be  acknowledged  be- 
fore any  notary  public  of  the  several  States 
or  Territories  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or 
any  commissioner  of  the  United  States  Circuit 
court,  or  before  any  secretary  of  legation  or 
consular  officer  authorized  to  administer  oaths 
or  perform  notarial  acts  under  section  1750  of 
the  Revised  Statutes,  the  certificate  of  such 
acknowledgment,  under  the  hand  and  official 
seal  of  such  notary  or  other  officer,  shall  be 
prima  facie  evidence  of  the  execution  of  such 
assignment,  grant  or  conveyance. 

Sec.  4899.  Every  person  who  purchases  of 
the  inventor  or  discoverer,  or,  with  his  knowl- 
edge and  consent,  constructs  any  newly  in- 
vented or  discovered  machine,  or  other  patent- 
able  article,  prior  to  the  application  by  the 
inventor  or  discoverer  for  a  patent,  or  who 
sells  or  uses  one  so  constructed,  shall  have 
the  right  to  use,  and  vend  to  others  to  be 
used,  the  specific  thing  so  made  or  purchased, 
without  liability  therefor. 

Sec.  4900.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  pat- 
entees, and  their  assigns  and  legal  represen- 
tatives, and  of  all  persons  making  or  vending 
any  patented  article  for  or  under  them,  to 
give  sufficient  notice  to  the  public  that  the 
same  is  patented  either  by  fixing  thereon  the 
word  "patented,"  together  with  the  day  and 
year  the  patent  was  granted;  or  when,  from 
the  character  of  the  article,  this  cannot  be 
done,  by  fixing  to  it,  or  to  the  package  where- 
in one  or  more  of  them  is  inclosed,  a  label 
containing  the  like  notice;  and  in  any  suit  for 
infringement,  by  the  party  failing  so  to  mark, 
no  damages  shall  be  recovered  by  the  plain- 
tiff, except  on  proof  that  the  defendant  was 
duly  notified  of  the  infringement,  and  con- 
tinued, after  such  notice,  to  make,  use,  or 
vend  the  article  so  patented. 

Sec.  4901.  Every  person  who,  in  any  man- 
ner, marks  upon  anything  made,  used,  or  sold 
by  him  for  which  he  has  not  obtained  a  pat- 
ent, the  name  or  any  imitation  of  the  name 
of  any  person  who  has  obtained  a  patent 
therefor,  without  the  consent  of  such  pat- 
entee, or  his  assigns  or  legal  representatives; 
or 

Who,  in  any  manner,  marks  upon  or  affixes 
to  any  such  patented  article  the  word  "pat- 
ent" or  "patentee,"  or  the  words  "letters 
patent,"  or  any  word  of  like  import,  with 
intent  to  imitate  or  counterfeit  the  mark  or 
device  of  the  patentee,  without  having  the 
license  or  consent  of  such  patentee  or  his 
assigns  or  legal  representatives;  or 

Who,  in  any  manner,  marks  upon  or  affixes 
to  any  unpatented  article  the  word  "patent" 
or  any  word  importing  that  the  same  is  pat- 
ented, for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  public, 
ehall  be  liable,  for  every  such  offense,  to  a 
penalty  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars, 
with  costs;  one-half  of  said  penalty  to  the 
person  who  shall  sue  for  the  same,  and  the 
other  to  the  use  of  the  United  States,  to  be 
recovered  by  suit  in  any  district  court  of  the 
United  States  within  whose  jurisdiction  such 
offense  may  have  been  committed. 

Sec.  4903.  Whenever,  on  examination,  any 
claim  for  a  patent  is  rejected,  the  Commis- 
sioner shall  notify  the  applicant  thereof,  giving 
him  briefly  the  reasons  for  such  rejection,  to- 
gether with  such  information  and  references 
as  may  be  useful  in  judging  of  the  propriety 
of  renewing  his  application  or  of  altering  his 
specification:  and  if,  after  receiving  such 
notice,  the  applicant  persists  in  his  claim  for 


a  patent,  with  or  without  altering  his  specifica- 
tions, the  Commissioner  shall  order  a  re-ex- 
amination of  the  case. 

Sec.  4904.  Whenever  an  application  is  made 
for  a  patent  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Commissioner,  would  interfere  with  any  pend- 
ing application,  or  with  any  unexpired  patent, 
he  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the  applicants, 
or  applicant  and  patentee,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  shall  direct  the  primary  examiner  to 
proceed  to  determine  the  question  of  priority 
of  invention.  And  the  Commissioner  may 
issue  a  patent  to  the  party  who  is  adjudged 
the  prior  inventor,  unless  the  adverse  party 
appeals  from  the  decision  of  the  primary  ex- 
aminer, or  of  the  board  of  examiners-in-chief, 
as  the  case  may  be,  within  such  time,  not 
less  than  twenty  days,  as  the  Commissioner 
shall  prescribe. 

Sec.  4905.  The  Commissioner  of  Patents  may 
establish  rules  for  taking  affidavits  and  depo- 
sitions required  in  cases  pending  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office,  and  such  affidavits  and  depositions 
may  be  taken  before  any  officer  authorized  by 
law  to  take  depositions  to  be  used  in  the 
courts  of  the  United  States  or  of  the  State 
where  the  officer  resides. 

Sec.  4906.  The  clerk  of  any  court  of  the 
United  States,  for  any  district  or  Territory 
wherein  testimony  is  to  be  taken  for  use  in 
any  contested  case  pending  in  the  Patent 
Office,  shall,  upon  the  application  of  any  party 
thereto,  or  of  his  agent  or  attorney,  issue 
a  subpoena  for  any  witness  residing  or  being 
\vithin  such  district  or  Territory,  commanding 
him  to  appear  and  testify  before  any  officer  in 
such  district  or  Territory  authorized  to  take 
depositions  and  affidavits,  at  any  time  and 
place  in  the  subpoena  stated.  But  no  witness 
shall  be  required  to  attend  at  any  place  more 
than  forty  miles  from  the  place  where  the 
subpoena  is  served  upon  him. 

Sec.  4907.  Every  witness  duly  subpoenaed 
and  in  attendance  shall  be  allowed  the  same 
fees  as  are  allowed  to  witnesses  attending  the 
courts  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4908.  Whenever  any  witness,  after  be- 
ing duly  served  with  such  subpoena,  neglects 
or  refuses  to  appear,  or  after  appearing  re- 
fuses to  testify,  the  judge  of  the  court  whose 
clerk  issued  the  subpoena  may,  on  proof  of 
such  neglect  or  refusal,  enforce  obedience  to 
the  process,  or  punish  the  disobedience,  as  in 
other  like  cases.  But  no  witness  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  contempt  for  disobeying  such 
subpoena,  unless  his  fees  and  traveling  ex- 
penses in  going  to,  returning  from,  and  one 
day's  attendance  at  the  place  of  examination, 
are  paid  or  tendered  him  at  the  time  of  the 
service  of  the  subpoena;  nor  for  refusing  to 
disclose  any  secret  invention  or  discovery 
made  or  owned  by  himself. 

Sec.  4909.  Every  applicant  for  a  patent  or 
for  the  reissue  of  a  patent,  any  of  the  claims 
of  which  have  been  twice  rejected,  and  every 
party  to  an  interference,  may  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  the  primary  examiner,  or  of 
the  examiner  in  charge  of  interferences  In 
such  case,  to  the  board  of  examiners-in-chief; 
having  once  paid  the  fee  for  such  appeal. 

Sec.  4910.  If  such  party  is  dissatisfied  with 
the  decision  of  the  examiners-in-chief,  he  may, 
on  payment  of  the  fee  prescribed,  appeal  to 
the  Commissioner  in  person. 

Sec.  4911.  If  such  party,  except  a  party  to 
an"  interference,  is  dissatisfied  with  the  de- 
cision of  the  Commissioner,  he  may  appeal 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia, sitting  in  bane. 


372 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


373 


Sec.  4912.  When  an  appeal  IB  taken  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
the  appellant  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the 
Commissioner,  and  file  in  the  Patent  Office 
within  such  time  as  the  Commissioner  shall 
appoint,  his  reasons  of  appeal,  specifically  set 
forth  in  writing. 

Sec.  4913.  The  court  shall,  before  hearing 
such  appeal,  give  notice  to  the  Commissioner 
of  the  time  and  place  of  the  hearing,  and  on 
receiving  such  notice  the  Commissioner  shall 
give  notice  of  such  time  and  place  in  such 
manner  as  the  court  may  prescribe,  to  all 
parties  who  appear  to  be  interested  therein. 
The  party  appealing  shall  lay  before  the  court 
certified  copies  of  all  the  original  papers  and 
evidence  in  the  case,  and  the  Commissioner 
shall  furnish  the  court  with  the  grounds  of  his 
decision,  fully  set  forth  in  writing,  touching 
all  the  points  involved  by  the  reasons  of 
appeal.  And  at  the  request  of  any  party  in- 
terested, or  of  the  court,  the  Commissioner 
and  the  examiners  may  be  examined  under 
oath,  in  explanation  of  the  principles  of  the 
thing  for  which  a  patent  is  demanded 

Sec.  4914.  The  court,  on  petition,  shall  hear 
and  determine  such  appeal,  and  revise  the 
decision  appealed  from  in  a  summary  way, 
on  the  evidence  produced  before  the  Commis- 
sioner, at  such  early  and  convenient  time  as 
the  court  may  appoint;  and  the  revision  shall 
be  confined  to  the  points  set  forth  in  the 
reasons  of  appeal.  After  hearing  the  case  the 
court  shall  return  to  the  Commissioner  a  cer- 
tificate of  its  proceedings  and  decision,  which 
shall  be  entered  of  record  in  the  Patent  Of- 
fice, and  shall  govern  the  further  proceedings 
in  the  case.  But  no  opinion  or  decision  of  the 
court  in  any  such  case  shall  preclude  any 
person  interested  from  the  right  to  contest 
the  validity  of  such  patent  in  any  court 
wherein  the  same  may  be  called  in  question. 

Sec.  4915.  Whenever  a  patent  on  applica- 
tion is  refused,  either  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents  or  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia  upon  appeal  from  the 
Commissioner,  the  applicant  may  have  remedy 
by  bill  in  equity;  and  the  court  having  cog- 
nizance thereof,  on  notice  to  adverse  parties 
and  other  due  proceedings  had,  may  adjudge 
that  such  applicant  is  entitled,  according  to 
law,  to  receive  a  patent  for  his  invention,  as 
specified  in  his  claim,  or  for  any  part  thereof, 
as  the  facts  in  the  case  may  appear.  And  such 
adjudication,  if  it  be  ia  favor  of  the  right 
of  the  applicant,  shall  authorize  the  Commis- 
sioner to  issue  such  patent  on  the  applicant 
filing  in  the  Patent  Office  a  copy  of  the  ad- 
judication, and  otherwise  complying  with  the 
requirements  of  law.  In  all  cases  where  there 
is  no  opposing  party,  a  copy  of  the  bill  shall 
be  served  on  the  Commissioner;  and  all  the 
expenses  of  the  proceeding  shall  be  paid  by 
the  applicant,  whether  the  final  decision  is  in 
his  favor  or  not. 

R.  S.,  U.  S.,  Sup.,  Vol.  2.  c.  74,  Feb.  9, 
1893.  Be  it  enacted,  etc.,  That  there  shall 
be,  and  there  is  hereby,  established  in  the 
District  of  Columbia  a  court,  to  be  known  as 
the  court  of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Sec.  6.  That  the  said  court  of  appeals 
shall  establish  a  term  of  the  court  during 
each  and  every  month  in  each  year  excepting 
the  months  of  July  and  August. 

Sec.  8.  That  any  final  judgment  or  decree 
of  the  said  court  of  appeals  may  be  re-exam- 
ined and  affirmed,  reversed,  or  modified  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  upon 
writ  of  error  or  appeal,  in  all  causes  in  which 


the  matter  in  dispute,  exclusive  of  costs,  shall 
exceed  the  sum  of  five  thousand  dollars,  in 
the  same  manner  and  under  the  same  regula- 
tions as  heretofore  provided  for  in  cases  of 
writs  of  error  on  judgment  or  appeals  from 
decrees  rendered  in  the  supreme  court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica in  Congress  assembled,  That  in  any  case 
heretofore  made  final  in  the  court  of  appeals 
of  the  District  of  Columbia,  it  shall  be  com- 
petent for  the  Supreme  Court  to  require,  by 
certiorari  or  otherwise,  any  such  case  to  be 
certified  to  the  Supreme  Court  for  its  review 
and  determination,  with  the  same  power  and 
authority  in  the  case  as  if  it  had  been  car- 
ried by  appeal  or  writ  of  error  to  the  Supreme 
Court. 

Sec.  9.  That  the  determination  of  appeals 
from  the  decision  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents,  now  vested  in  the  general  term  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  District  of  Columbia, 
in  pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  section  780 
of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States, 
relating  to  the  District  of  Columbia,  shall 
hereafter  be  and  the  same  is  hereby  vested 
in  the  court  of  appeals  created  by  this  act; 

And  in  addition,  any  party  aggrieved  by  a 
decision  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in 
any  interference  case  may  appeal  therefrom  to 
said  court  of  appeals. 

Title    LX,    Rev.    Stat.,    1878,    p.    950: 

Sec.  4916.  Whenever  any  patent  is  inopera- 
tive or  invalid,  by  reason  of  a  defective  or 
insufficient  specification,  or  by  reason  of  the 
patentee  claiming  as  his  own  invention  or 
discovery  more  than  he  had  a  right  to  claim 
as  new,  if  the  error  has  arisen  by  inadvertence, 
accident,  or  mistake,  and  without  any  fraud- 
ulent or  deceptive  intention,  the  Commissioner 
shall,  on  the  surrender  of  such  patent  and 
the  payment  of  the  duty  required  by  law, 
cause  a  new  patent  for  the  same  invention, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  corrected  speci- 
fication, to  be  issued  to  the  patentee,  or,  in 
case  of  his  death  or  of  an  assignment  of  the 
whole  or  any  undivided  part  of  the  original 
patent,  then  to  his  executors,  administrators, 
or  assigns,  for  the  unexpired  part  of  the  term 
of  the  original  patent.  Such  surrender  shall 
take  effect  upon  the  issue  of  the  amended 
patent.  The  Commissioner  may,  in  his  dis- 
cretion, cause  several  patents  to  be  issued  for 
distinct  and  separate  parts  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented, upon  demand  of  the  applicant,  and  upon 
payment  of  the  required  fee  for  a  reissue  for 
each  of  such  reissued  letters  patent.  The  spe- 
cifications and  claim  in  every  such  case  shall 
be  subject  to  revision  and  restriction  in  the 
same  manner  as  original  applications  are. 
Every  patent  so  reissued,  together  with  the  cor- 
rected specifications,  shall  have  the  same  ef- 
fect and  operation  in  law,  on  the  trial  of  all 
actions  for  causes  thereafter  arising,  as  if  the 
same  had  been  originally  filed  in  such  cor- 
rected form;  but  no  new  matter  shall  be  in- 
troduced into  the  specification,  nor  in  case 
of  a  machine  patent  shall  the  model  or  draw- 
ings be  amended,  except  each  by  the  other; 
but  when  there  is  neither  model  nor  drawing; 
amendments  may  be  made  upon  proof  satis- 
factory to  the  Commissioner  that  such  new 
matter  or  amendment  was  a  part  of  the  orig- 
inal invention,  and  was  omitted  from  the  spe- 
cification by  inadvertence,  accident,  or  mis- 
take, as  aforesaid. 

Sec.  4917.  Whenever,  through  inadvertence, 
accident,  or  mistake,  and  without  any  fraud- 
ulent or  deceptive  intention,  a  patentee  has 


374 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


claimed  more  than  that  of  which  he  was  the 
uriginal  or  first  inventor  or  discoverer,  his 
patent  shall  be  valid  tor  all  that  part  which 
is  truly  and  justly  his  own,  provided  the 
same  is  a  material  or  substantial  part  of  the 
thing  patented;  and  any  such  patentee,  his 
heirs  or  assigns,  whether  of  the  whole  or  any 
sectional  interest  therein,  may,  on  payment 
of  the  fee  required  by  law,  make  disclaimer 
of  such  parts  of  the  thing  patented  as  he 
shall  not  chose  to  claim  or  to  hold  by  virtue 
of  the  patent  or  assignment,  stating  therein 
the  extent  of  his  interest  in  such  patent.  Such 
disclaimer  shall  be  in  writing,  attested  by 
one  or  more  witnesses,  and  recorded  in  the 
patent  office;  and  it  shall  thereafter  be  con- 
sidered as  part  of  the  original  specification  to 
the  extent  of  the  interest  possessed  by  the 
claimant  and  by  those  claiming  under  him 
after  the  record  thereof.  But  no  such  dis- 
claimer shall  affect  any  action  pending  at  the 
time  of  its  being  filed,  except  so  far  as  may 
relate  to  the  question  of  unreasonable  neglect 
or  delay  in  filing  it. 

Sec.  4918.  Whenever  there  are  interfering 
patents,  any  person  interested  in  any  one 
of  them,  or  in  the  working  of  the  invention 
claimed  under  either  of  them,  may  have  re- 
lief against  the  interfering  patentee,  and  all 
parties  interested  under  him,  by  suit  in  equity 
against  the  owners  of  the  interfering  patent; 
and  the  court,  on  notice  to  adverse  parties, 
and  other  due  proceedings  had  according  to 
the  course  of  equity,  may  adjudge  and  declare 
either  of  the  patents  void  in  whole  or  in  part, 
or  inoperative  or  invalid  in  any  particular 
part  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
interest  of  the  parties  in  the  patent  or  the 
invention  patented.  But  no  such  judgment 
or  adjudication  shall  affect  the  right  of  any 
person  except  the  parties  to  the  suit  and  those 
deriving  title  under  them  subsequent  to  the 
rendition  of  such  judgment. 

Sec.  4919.  Damages  for  the  infringement 
of  any  patent  may  be  recovered  by  action  on 
the  case,  in  the  name  of  the  party  inter- 
ested either  as  patentee,  assignee,  or  grantee. 
And  whenever  in  any  such  action  a  verdict  is 
rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  the  court  may  enter 
judgment  thereon  for  any  sum  above  the 
amount  found  by  the  verdict  as  the  actual 
damages  sustained,  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  not  exceeding  three  times 
the  amount  of  such  verdict,  together  with  the 
costs. 

Sec.  4920.  In  any  action  for  infringement 
the  defendant  may  plead  the  general  issue, 
and,  having  given  notice  in  writing  to  the 
plaintiff  or  his  attorney  thirty  days  before, 
may  prove  on  trial  any  one  or  more  of  the 
following  special  matters: 

First. — That  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the 
public  the  description  and  specification  filed  by 
the  patentee  in  the  Patent  Office  was  made 
to  contain  less  than  the  whole  truth  relative 
to  his  invention  or  discovery,  or  more  than 
is  necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effect;  or. 

Second.— That  he  had  surreptitiously  or  un- 
justly obtained  the  patent  for  that  which  was 
in  fact  invented  by  another,  who  was  using 
reasonable  diligence  in  adapting  and  perfect- 
ing the  same;  or, 

Third. — That  it  has  been  patented  or  de- 
scribed in  some  printed  publication  prior  to 
his  supposed  invention  or  discovery  thereof,  or 
more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  application 
for  a  patent  therefor;  or, 

Fourth.— That  he  was  not  the  original  and 
first  inventor  or  discoverer  of  any  material 

ana  substantial  part  of  the  thing  patented;  or, 


Fifth. — That  it  had  been  in  public  use  or 
on  sale  in  this  country  for  more  than  two 
years  before  his  application  for  a  patent,  or 
had  been  abandoned  to  the  public. 

And  in  notices  as  to  proof  of  previous  in- 
vention, knowledge,  or  use  of  the  thing  pat- 
ented, the  defendant  shall  state  the  names  of 
the  patentees  and  the  dates  of  their  patents, 
and  when  granted,  and  the  names  and  resi- 
dences of  the  persons  alleged  to  have  invented 
or  to  have  had  the  prior  knowledge  of  the 
thing  patented,  and  where  and  by  whom  it 
had  been  used;  and  if  any  one  or  more  of 
the  special  matters  alleged  shall  be  found  for 
the  defendant,  judgment  shall  be  rendered  for 
him  with  costs.  And  the  like  defenses  may 
be  pleaded  in  any  suit  in  equity  for  relief 
against  an  alleged  infringement;  and  proofs 
of  the  same  may  be  given  upon  like  notice 
in  the  answer  of  the  defendant,  and  with  the 
like  effect. 

Sec.  4921.     The     several     courts     vested     with 

jurisdiction    of   cases    arising    under   the   patent 

laws    shall    have    power    to    grant    injunctions 

ccording     to     the     course     and     principles     of 

ourts     of     equity,     to     prevent     the     violation 

f     any     right     secured     by     patent,     on     such 

erms     as     the     court     may     deem     reasonable ; 

nd     upon     a    decree    being     rendered     in     any 

uch    case    for    an    infringement    the    complain- 

nt    shall    be    entitled    to    recover,    in    addition 

D    the    profits    to    be    accounted     for    by     the 

defendant,     the    damages    the    complainant    has 

sustained    thereby;    and    the    court    shall    assess 

the    same    or    cause    the    same    to    be    assessed 

under   its  direction.     And   the  court   shall   have 

the   same   power   to   increase   such   damages,    in 

its     discretion,     as     is    given     to     increase    the 

damages    found    by    verdicts    in    actions    in    the 

nature    of    actions    of    trespass    upon    the    case. 

But     in     any     suit     or     action     brought     for 

the     infringement    of    any    patent     there    shall 

be    no   recovery   of   profits    or   damages    for   any 

infringement    committed    more    than    six    years 

before    the    filing    of    the    bill    of    complaint    or 

the  issuing   of  the  writ   in  such  suit  or  action, 

and     this     provision     shall     apply     to     existing 

causes    of    action. 

Sec.  2.  That  said  courts,  when  sitting  in 
equity  for  the  trial  of  patent  causes,  may 
impanel  a  jury  of  not  less  than  five  and 
not  more  than  twelve  perspns,  subject  to 
such  general  rules  in  the  premises  as  may, 
from  time  to  time,  be  made  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  submit  to  them  such  questions  of 
fact  arising  in  such  cause  as  such  circuit 
court  shall  deem  expedient. 

And  the  verdict  of  such  jury  shall  be 
treated  and  proceeded  upon  in  the  same 
manner  and  with  the  same  effect  as  in  the 
case  of  issues  sent  from  chancery  to  a  court 
of  law  and  returned  with  such  findings. 

Sec.  4922.  Whenever,  through  inadvertence, 
accident,  or  mistake,  and  without  any  wilful 
default  or  intent  to  defraud  or  mislead  the 
public,  a  patentee  has,  in  his  specification, 
claimed  to  be  the  original  and  first  inventor 
or  discoverer  of  any  material  or  substan- 
tial part  of  the  thing  patented,  of  which 
he  was  not  the  original  and  first  inventor 
or  discoverer,  every  such  patentee,  his  ex- 
ecutors, administrators,  and  assigns,  whether 
of  the  whole  or  any  sectional  interest  in  the 
patent,  may  maintain  a  suit  at  law  or  in 
equity,  for  the  infringement  of  any  part 
thereof,  which  was  bona  fide  his  own,  if  it 
is  a  material  and  substantial  part  of  the 
thing  patented,  and  definitely  distinguishable 

from   the   parts    claimed   without   right,    not- 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


375 


withstanding  the  specifications  may  embrace 
more  than  that  of  which  the  patentee  was 
the  first  inventor  or  discoverer.  But  in  every 
such  case  in  which  a  judgment  or  decree 
shall  be  rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  no  costs 
shall  be  recovered  unless  the  proper  disclaimer 
has  been  entered  at  the  Patent  Office  before 
the  commencement  of  the  suit  But  no  patentee 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  this 
section  if  he  has  unreasonably  neglected  or 
delayed  to  enter  a  disclaimer. 


Sec.  4923.    Whenever   it    appears    that    a    pat 
entee,    at   the    time    of   maKui  •    hi 
for    the    patent,     btlitvvu     n 
original  and  first  invtiuor   . 
thing    patented,     the    same    siia.il    not 
to    be    void    on    account    of    u. 
discovery     or     any     part    thereof     t. 
known    or    used    in    a    foreign    cu_ 
his    invention    or    discovery    thtreot,    it    it    ha 
not    been    patented    or    described    in    a    i.-nnte 
publication. 


DESIGNS. 

Sec.  4929.  Any  person  who  has  invented  any  |  by  him  from  the  manufacture  or  sale,  as 
new  original,  and  ornamental  design  for  an  '  aforesaid,  of  the  article  or  articles  to  which 
article  of  manufacture,  not  known  or  used  |  the  design,  or  colorable  imitation  thereof, 


by  others  in  this  country  before  his  invention 
thereof,  and  not  patented  or  described  in  any 
printed  publication  in  this  or  any  foreign 
country  before  his  invention  thereof,  or  mor& 
than  two  years  prior  to  his  application,  and 
not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in  this  country 
for  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his  applica- 
tion, unless  the  same  is  proved  to  have  been 
abandoned,  may,  upon  payment  of  the  fees 
required  by  law  and  other  due  proceedings 
had,  the  same  as  in  cases  of  invention  or 
discoveries  covered  by  section  4886,  obtain  a 
patent  therefor. 

Sec.  4930.  The  Commissioner  may  dispense 
with  models  of  designs  when  the  design  can 
be  sufficiently  represented  by  drawings  or 
photographs. 

Sec  4931.  Patents  for  designs  may  be  granted 
for  the  term  of  three  years  and  six  months, 
or  for  seven  years,  or  for  fourteen  years,  as 
the  applicant  may,  in  his  application,  elect. 

Sec.  4932.     Patentees    of    designs    issued    prior 
to    the    second    day    of    March,     1861,    shall    be 
entitled    to    extension    of    their   respective   pat-    j 
ents   for  the   term  of  seven   years,    in  the  same 
manner    and    under    the    same    restrictions    as    ! 
are     provided     for    the     extension     of     patents 
for    inventions    or    discoveries    issued    prior    to    i 
the    second    day    of    March,    1861. 

Sec.  4933.    All   the   regulations  and  provisions 
which    apply    to    obtaining    or    protecting    pat-    ', 
ents    for    inventions    or    discoveries    not    incon- 
sistent with  the  provisions  of  this  Title,    shall 
apply    to    patents    for    designs. 

CHAPTER  105.— An  Act  to  Amend  the  Law  j 
Relating  to  Patents,  Trade-marks,  and  Copy-  \ 
rights. 

Be    it    enacted,    etc.,    That    hereafter    during 
the    term    of    letters    patent    for    a    design,     it 
shall    be    unlawful    for   any    person    other    than 
the   owner   of   said   letters   patent,    without   the 
license    of    such    owner    to    apply    the    design 
secured  by  such  letters  patent,   or  any  colorable 
imitation   thereof,    to    any   article    of   manufac- 
ture   for    the    purpose    of    sale,     or    to    sell    or    i 
expose   for  sale   any   article   of   manufacture   to    i 
which  such  design  or  colorable  imitation  shall,    | 
without    the    license    of    the    owner,    have    been    ! 
applied,    knowing   that    the   same    has   been    so 
applied.      Any   person    violating   the   provisions,     ' 
or    either    of    them,    of    this    section,    shall    be 
liable     in    the    amount     of     two     hundred     and 
fifty  dollars;  and  in   case  the  total  profit  made    | 


has  been  applied,  exceeds  the  sum  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  he  shall  be  further 
i  liable  for  the  excess  of  such  profit  over  and 
i  above  the  sum  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dol- 
1  lars;  and  the  full  amount  of  such  liab  lity 
j  may  be  recovered  by  the  owner  of  the  letters 
;  patent,  to  his  own  use,  in  any  circuit  court 
j  of  the  United  States  having  jurisdiction  of 
i  the  parties,  either  by  action  at  law  or  upon 
i  a  bill  in  equity  for  an  injunction  to  restrain 
i  such  infringement. 

Sec.  2.    That    nothing    in    this    act    contained 
!    shall    prevent,    lessen,    impeach,    or    avoid    any 
remedy   at   law   or  in   equity   which   any   owner 
I    of    letters    patent    for    a    design,    aggrieved    by 
i    the  infringement  of  the  same,    might  have  had 
if    this    act    had    not    been    passed;    but    such 
owner  shall   not   twice  recover  the  profit  made 
from    the    infringement 

Sec.  4934.  The  following  shall  be  the  rates 
for  patent  fees : 

On     filing    each    original     application    for    a 
patent,    except   in   design   cases,    fifteen   dollars. 
On    issuing    each    original    patent,    except    in 
|    design  cases,   twenty   dollars. 

In  design  cases:  For  three  years  and  six 
months,  ten  dollars;  for  seven  years,  fifteen 
dollars;  for  fourteen  years,  thirty  dollars. 

On    every    application    for    the    reissue    of    a 
patent,    thirty    dollars. 
On    filing    each    disclaimer,    ten    dollars. 

On  an  appeal  for  the  first  time  from  the 
primary  examiners  to  the  examiners-in-chief, 
ten  dollars. 

On  every  appeal  from  the  examiners-in-chief 
to  the  Commissioner,  twenty  dollars. 

For  certified  copies  of  patents  and  other 
papers,  including  certified  printed  copies,  ten 
cents  per  hundred  words. 

For  recording  every  assignment,  power  of 
attorney,  or  other  paper,  of  three  hundred 
words  or  under,  one  dollar;  of  over  three 
hundred  and  under  one  thousand  words,  two 
dollars;  and  for  each  additional  thousand  words 
or  fraction  thereof,  one  dollar. 

Certified  copies  of  such  drawings  and  speci- 
fications may  be  furnished  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents  to  persons  applying  therefor  upon 
payment  of  the  present  rates  for  uncertified 
copies,  and  twenty-five  cents  additional  for 
each  certification. 

For  copies  of  drawings,  the  reasonable  cost 
of  making  them. 


PATENT  RIGHTS  VEST  IN  ASSIGNEE  IN  BANKRUPTCY. 


Sec.  5046.  All  property  conveyed  by  the  bank- 
rupt in  fraud  of  his  creditors;  all  rights  in 
equity,  choses  in  action,  patent  rights,  and 
copyrights;  all  debts  due  him,  or  any  person 
for  his  use,  and  all  liens  and  securities  there- 
for; and  all  his  rights  of  action  for  property 


or  estate,  real  or  personal,  and  for  any  cause 
of  action  which  he  had  against  any  person 
arising  from  contract  or  from  the  unlawful 
taking  or  detent-'on,  or  Injury  to  the  property 
of  the  bankrupt;  and  all  his  rights  of  re- 
deeming such  property  or  estate;  together  with 


376 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ELECTRICAL   SYMBOLS 


LAMP  C/KCU/r 


Jtf 


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0.c.*toro/t 

(Sf/f/CJ  H/OM0)  (SHUMT  WOUMO) 


—  ^  —          1 


1234*567890 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


377 


the  like  right,  title,  power,  and  authority 
to  sell,  manage,  dispose  of,  sue  for,  and 
recover  or  defend  the  same,  as  the  bankrupt 
might  have  had  if  no  assignment  had  been 
made,  shall,  in  virtue  of  the  adjudication  of 
bankruptcy  and  the  appointment  of  his  as- 
signee, but  subject  to  the  exceptions  stated 
in  the  preceding  section,  be  at  once  vested 
is  [in]  such  assignee. 

Sec.  70.  Title  to  Property.  The  trustee  of 
the  estate  of  a  bankrupt,  upon  his  appoint- 
ment and  qualification,  and  his  successor  or 
successors,  if  he  shall  have  one  or  more,  upon 
his  or  their  appointment  and  qualification, 
shall  in  turn  be  vested  by  operation  of  law 
with  the  title  of  the  bankrupt,  as  of  the  date 
he  was  adjudged  a  bankrupt,  except  in  so  far 
as  -it  is  to  property  which  is  exempt,  to  all 
(1)  documents  relating  to  his  property;  (2) 
interests  in  patents,  patent  rights,  copyrights, 
and  trade-marks. 

PUBLIC— No.    305.     June    25,    1910. 

An  act  to  provide  additional  protection  for 
owners  of  patents  of  the  United  States  and 
for  other  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America 


in  Congress  assembled,  That  whenever  an  In- 
vention described  In  and  covered  by  a  patent 
of  the  United  States  shall  hereafter  be  used 
by  the  United  States  without  license  of  the 
owner  thereof  or  lawful  right  to  use  the 
same,  such  owner  may  recover  reasonable  com- 
pensation for  such  use  by  suit  in  the  Court 
of  Claims:  Provided,  however,  that  said  Court 
of  Claims  shall  not  entertain  a  suit  or  re- 
ward compensation  under  the  provisions  of 
this  Act  where  the  claim  for  compensation  Is 
based  on  the  use  by  the  United  States  of 
any  article  heretofore  owned,  leased,  used  by 
or  in  the  possession  of  the  United  States: 
Provided  further.  That  in  any  such  suit  the 
United  States  may  avail  Itself  of  any  and  all 
defenses,  general  or  special,  which  might  be 
pleaded  by  a  defendant  in  an  action  for  In- 
fringement, as  set  forth  In  Title  Sixty  of  the 
Revised  Statutes,  or  otherwise;  And  provided 
further,  That  the  benefits  of  this  Act  shall 
not  inure  to  any  patentee,  who,  when  he 
makes  such  claim,  is  in  the  employment  or 
service  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States; 
or  the  assignee  of  any  such  patentee;  nor 
shall  this  act  apply  to  any  device  discovered 
or  invented  by  such  employee  during  the  time 
of  his  employment  or  service. 


COURTS. 


Public— No.   475.     March  3,    1911 

An  Act  to  codify,  revise  and  amend  the  laws 
relating  to  the  judiciary. 

Title— The    Judiciary. 

Sec.  24.  The  district  courts  shall  have  orig- 
inal jurisdiction  as  follows: 

Seventh.  Of  all  suits  at  law  or  in  equity 
arising  under  the  patent,  the  copyright,  and 
the  trade-mark  laws. 

Sec.  48.  In  suits  brought  for  the  infringe- 
ment of  letters  patent,  the  district  courts  of 
the  United  States  shall  have  jurisdiction,  in 
law  or  in  equity,  in  the  district  of  which  the 
defendant  is  an  inhabitant,  or  in  any  district 
in  which  the  defendant,  whether  a  person, 
partnership,  or  corporation,  shall  have  com- 
mitted acts  of  infringement  and  ha%-e  a  regu- 
lar and  established  place  of  business.  If  such 
suit  is  brought  in  a  district  of  which  the 
defendant  is  not  an  inhabitant,  but  in  which 
such  defendant  has  a  regular  and  established 
place  of  business,  service  of  process,  summons, 
or  subpoena  upon  the  defendant  may  be  made 
by  service  upon  the  agent  or  agents  engaged 
in  conducting  such  business  in  the  district  in 
which  suit  is  brought. 

Sec.  128.  The  circuit  courts  of  appeals  shall 
exercise  appellate  jurisdiction  to  review  by 
appeal  or  writ  or  error  final  decisions  in  the 
district  courts,  *****  in  all  cases 
other  than,  those  in  which  appeals  and  writs 
of  error  may  be  taken  direct  to  the  Supreme 
Court  *****;  the  judgments  and  de- 
crees of  the  circuit  courts  of  appeal  shall  be 
final  *  *  *  in  all  cases  arising  under 
the  patents  laws,  under  the  copyright 
laws,  *  *  *. 

Sec.  239.  In  any  case  within  its  appellate 
jurisdiction,  as  defined  in  section  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight,  the  circuit  court  of  appeals 
at  any  time  may  certify  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  any  questions  or  proposi- 
tions of  law  concerning  which  it  desires  the 
instruction  of  that  court  for  its  proper  deci- 
sion; and  thereupon  the  Supreme  Court  may 
either  give  its  instruction  on  the  questions 
and  propositions  certified  to  It,  which  shall  be 
binding  upon  the  circuit  court  of  appeals  in 
such  case,  or  it  may  require  that  the  whole 


record  and  cause  be  sent  up  to  It  for  its 
consideration,  and  thereupon  shall  decide  the 
whole  matter  in  controversy  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  it  had  been  brought  there  for  review 
by  writ  of  error  or  appeal. 

Sec.  250.  Any  final  judgment  or  decree  of 
the  court  of  appeals  of  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia may  be  re-examined  and  affirmed,  re- 
versed, or  modified  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States  upon  writ  of  error  or  appeal, 
In  the  following  cases: 

Except  as  provided  in  the  next  succeeding 
section,  the  judgments  and  decrees  of  said  court 
of  appeals  shall  be  final  in  all  cases  arising 
under  the  patent  laws,  the  copyright 
laws,  »  *  *. 

Sec.  251.  In  any  case  in  which  the  judgment 
or  decree  of  said  court  of  appeals  is  made  final 
by  the  section  last  preceding,  it  shall  be 
competent  for  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  to  require,  by  certiorari  or 
otherwise,  any  such  case  to  be  certified  to  it 
i  for  its  review  and  determination,  with  the 
:  same  power  and  authority  in  the  case  as  if 
I  it  had  been  carried  by  writ  of  error  or  ap- 
peal to  said  Supreme  Court.  It  shall  also 
be  competent  for  said  court  of  appeals,  in 
any  case  in  which  its  judgment  or  decree 
is  made  final  under  the  section  last  preceding, 
at  any  time  to  certffy  to  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States  any  questions  or  proposi- 
tions of  law  concerning  which  it  desires  the 
instruction  of  that  court  for  their  proper  de- 
!  cision;  and  thereupon  the  Supreme  Court 
,  may  either  give  its  instruction  on  the  ques- 
tions and  propositions  certified  to  it,  which 
shall  be  binding  upon  said  court  of  appeals  in 
such  case,  or  it  may  require  that  the  whole 
record  and  cause  be  sent  up  to  it  for  its 
consideration,  and  thereupon  shall  decide  the 
whole  matter  in  controversy  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  if  It  had  been  brought  there  for  review 
by  writ  of  error  or  appeal. 

Sec.  256.  The  jurisdiction  vested  in  the 
courts  of  the  United  States  in  the  cases  and 
proceedings  hereinafter  mentioned  shall  be  ex- 
clusive of  the  courts  of  the  several  States. 

Fifth.  Of  all  cases  arising  under  the  patent- 
right,  or  copyright  laws  of  the  United  States. 


378 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINTS  AND  LABELS. 


Excerpts  from  an  Act  approved  March  4, 
1909,  entitled  an  Act  to  amend  and  consolidate 
the  Acts  respecting  copyright,  relating  to 
pnnts  and  labels. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America 
in  Congress  assembled,  That  any  person  en- 
titled thereto,  upon  complying  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act,  shall  have  the  exclusive 
right: 

(a)  To  print,  reprint,  publish,  copy,  and 
vend  the  copyrighted  work; 

Sec.  7.  That  no  copyright  shall  subsist  in 
the  original  text  of  any  work  which  is  in 
the  public  domain,  or  in  any  work  which  was 
published  in  this  country  or  any  foreign 
country  prior  to  the  going  into  effect  of  this 
Act  and  has  not  been  already  copyrighted  in 
the  United  States,  or  in  any  publication  of 
the  United  States  Government,  or  any  re- 
print, in  whole  or  in  part,  thereof:  Provided, 
however,  That  the  publication  or  republica- 
tion  by  the  Government,  either  separately  or  in 
a  public  document,  of  any  material  in  which 
copyright  is  subsisting  shall  not  be  taken  to 
cause  any  abridgment  or  annulment  of  the 
copyright  or  to  authorize  any  use  or  appropri- 
at  on  of  such  copyright  material  without  the 
consent  of  the  copyright  proprietor. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  author  or  proprietor  of 
any  work  made  the  subject  of  copyright  by  this 
Act,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, shall  have  copyright  for  such  work  un- 
der the  conditions  and  for  the  terms  specified 
In  this  Act.  Provided,  however,  That  the 
copyright  secured  by  this  Act  shall  extend  to 
the  work  of  an  author  or  proprietor  who  is 
a  citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state  or 
nation,  only: 

(a)  When  an  alien  author  or  proprietor  shall 
be    domiciled    within   the    United    States   at    the 
time    of    the    first     publication     of     his    work; 
or 

(b)  When    the     foreign    state    or     nation     of 
which    such    author   or   proprietor   is   a    citizen 
or    subject    grants,    either    by    treaty,     conven- 
tion,    agreement,     or    law,     to    citizens    of    the 
United     States     the     benefit     of     copyright     on 
substantially    the    same    basis    as    to    its    own 
citizens,    or    copyright    protection    substantially 
equal  to  the  protection  secured  to  such  foreign 
author    under   this   Act    or   by   treaty;    or   when 
such    foreign    state    or    nation    is    a    party    to 
an   international   agreement   which   provides   for 
reciprocity    in    the    granting    of    copyright,    by 
the     terms     of    which     agreement     the     United 
States    may,    at    its    pleasure,    become    a    party 
thereto. 

The  existence  of  the  reciprocal  conditions 
aforesaid  shall  be  determfned  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  by  proclamation  made 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  purposes  of  this 
Act  may  require. 

Sec.  9.  That  any  person  entitled  thereto  by 
this  Act  may  secure  copyright  for  his  work 
by  publication  thereof  with  the  notice  of  copy- 
right required  by  this  Act;  and  such  notice 
shall  be  affixed  to  each  copy  thereof  pub- 
lished or  offered  for  sale  in  the  United  States 
by  authority  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  books  seeking  ad  interim 
protection.  *  *  * 

Sec.  18.  That  the  notice  of  copyright  re- 
quired by  section  nine  of  this  Act  shall  con- 
s!st  either  of  the  word  "Copyright"  or  the 
abbreviation  "Copr.",  accompanied  by  the 
name  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  and  if  the 
work  be  a  printed  literary,  musical,  or  drama- 


tic work,  the  notice  shall  include  also  the 
year  in  which  the  copyright  was  secured  by- 
publication.  In  the  case,  however,  of  copies 
of  works  specified  in  subsections  (f)  to  (k), 
inclusive,  of  section  five  of  this  Act,  the 
notice  may  consist  of  the  letter  C  inclosed 
within  a  circle,  accompanied  by  the  initials, 
monogram,  mark,  or  symbol  of  the  copy- 
right proprietor:  Provided,  That  on  some 
accessible  portion  of  such  copies  or  of  the 
margin,  back,  permanent  base,  or  pedestal, 
or  of  the  substance  on  which  such  copies  shall 
be  mounted,  his  name  shall  appear.  But  in 
the  case  of  works  in  which  copyright  is  sub- 
sisting when  this  Act  shall  go  into  effect, 
the  notice  of  copyright  may  be  either  in 
one  of  the  forms  prescribed  herein  or  in 
one  of  those  prescribed  by  the  Act  of  June 
eighteenth,  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-four. 

Sec.  23.  That  the  copyright  secured  by  this 
Act  shall  endure  for  twenty-eight  years  from 
the  date  of  first  publication,  whether  the 
copyrighted  work  bears  the  author's  true  name 
or  is  published  anonymously  or  under  an 
assumed  name:  Provided,  That  in  the  case 
of  any  posthumous  work  or  of  any  periodical, 
cyclopaedic,  or  other  composite  work  upon 
which  the  copyright  was  originally  secured  by 
the  proprietor  thereof,  or  of  any  work  copy- 
righted by  a  corporate  body  (otherwise  than 
as  assignee  or  licensee  of  the  individual  au- 
thor) or  by  an  employer  for  whom  such 
work  is  made  for  hire,  the  proprietor  of  such 
copyright  shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal  and 
extension  of  the  copyright  in  such  work  for 
the  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  when 
application  for  such  renewal  and  extension 
shall  have  been  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  original  term 
of  copyright:  And  Provided  further,  That  in 
the  case  of  any  other  copyrighted  work,  in- 
cluding a  contribution  by  an  individual  au- 
thor to  a  periodical  or  to  a  cyclopaedic  or 
other  composite  work  when  such  contribution 
has  been  separately  registered,  the  author  of 
such  work  if  stHl  living,  or  the  widow,  widow- 
er, or  children  of  the  author,  if  the  author 
be  not  living,  or  if  such  author,  widow,  wid- 
ower, or  children  be  not  living,  then  the  au- 
thor's, executor's  or  in  the  absence  of  a  will, 
his  next  of  kin  shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal 
and  extension  of  the  copyright  in  such  work 
for  a  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  when 
application  for  such  renewal  and  extension 
shall  have  been  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  original  term  of 
copyright:  And  provided  further,  That  in 
default  of  the  registration  of  such  application 
for  renewal  and  extension,  the  copyright  in 
any  work  shall  determine  at  the  expiration  of 
twenty-eight  years  from  first  publication. 

Sec.  24.  That  the  copyright  subsisting  in 
any  work  at  the  time  when  this  Act  goes 
into  effect  may,  at  the  expiration  of  the 
term  provided  for  under  existing  law,  be 
renewed  and  extended  by  the  author  of  such 
work  if  still  living,  or  the  widow,  widower, 
or  children  of  the  author,  if  the  author  be 
not  living,  or  if  such  author,  widow,  widower, 
or  children  be  not  living,  then  by  the  au- 
thor's executors,  or  in  the  absence  of  a  will, 
his  next  of  kin,  for  a  further  period  such 
that  the  entire  term  shall  be  equal  to  that 
secured  by  this  Act,  including  the  renewal 
period:  Provided,  however,  That  if  the  work 
be  a  composite  work  upon  which  copyright 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


379 


was  originally  secured  by  the  proprietor  there- 
of, then  such  proprietor  shall  be  entitled  to 
the  privilege  of  renewal  and  extension  granted 
under  this  section:  Provided,  That  applica- 
tion for  such  renewal  and  extension  shall  be 
made  to  the  copyright  office  and  duly  registered 
therein  within  one  year  prior  to  the  expira- 
tion of  the  existing  term. 

Sec.  42.  That  copyright  secured  under  this 
or  previous  Acts  of  the  United  Stages  may 
be  assigned,  granted,  or  mortgaged  by  an 
instrument  in  writing  signed  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  copyright,  or  may  be  bequeathed  by 
will. 

Act  approved  June  18,  1874,  relating  to 
registration  of  prints  and  labels. 

Sections  3,  4,  and  5  of  the  act  of  Congress 
relating  to  patents,  trade-marks,  and  copy- 
rights, approved  June  18,  1874  (18  Stat.  L,., 
p.  78)  are  as  follows: 

Sec  3.  That  in  the  construction  of  this  act 
the  words  "engraving,  cut,  and  print"  shall  be 


applied  only  to  pictorial  illustrations  or  works 
connected  with  the  fine  arts,  and  no  prints  or 
labels  designed  to  be  used  for  any  other 
articles  of  manufacture  shall  be  entered  under 
the  copyright  law,  but  may  be  registered  in 
the  Patent  Office.  And  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  is  hereby  charged  with  the  supervi- 
sion and  control  of  the  entry  or  registry  of 
such  prints  or  labels,  in  conformity  with  the 
regulations  provided  by  law  as  to  copyright  of 
prints,  except  that  there  shall  be  paid  for 
recording  the  title  of  any  print  or  label,  not 
a  trade-mark,  six  dollars,  which  shall  cover 
the  expense  of  furnishing  a  copy  of  the 
record,  under  the  seal  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents,  to  the  party  entering  the  same. 

Sec.  4.  That  all  laws  and  parts  of  laws  in- 
consistent with  the  foregoing  provisions  be, 
and  the  same  are  hereby,  repealed. 

Sec.  5.  That  this  act  shall  take  effect  on 
and  after  the  first  day  of  August,  eighteen 
hundred  and  seventy-four. 


TRADE-MARKS. 


Act  of  February  20,  1905  (As  Amended). 
AN  ACT  To  authorize  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks used  in  commerce  with  foreign  na- 
tions or  among  the  several  States  or  with 
Indian  tribes,  and  to  protect  the  same. 
Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  Ameri- 
ca in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  owner 
of  a  trade-mark  used  in  commerce  with  for- 
eign nations,  or  among  the  several  States,  or 
with  Indian  tribes,  provided  such  owner  shall 
be  domiciled  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States,  or  resides  in  or  is  located  in  any  for- 
eign country  which,  by  treaty,  convention,  or 
law,  affords  similar  privileges  to  the  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  may  obtain  registration 
for  such  trade-mark  by  complying  with  the  fol- 
lowing requirements:  First,  by  filing  in  the 
Patent  Office  an  application  therefor,  in  writ- 
ing, addressed  to  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, signed  by  the  applicant,  specifying  his 
name,  domicile,  location,  and  citizenship;  the 
class  of  merchandise  and  the  particular  de- 
scription of  goods  comprised  in  such  class  to 
which  the  trade-mark  is  appropriated;  a  state- 
ment of  the  mode  in  which  the  same  is  ap- 
plied and  affixed  to  goods,  and  the  length  of 
time  during  which  the  trade-mark  has  been 
used;  a  description  of  the  trade-mark  itself 
shall  be  Included,  if  desired  by  the  applicant 
or  required  by  the  commissioner,  provided  such 
description  Is  of  a  character  to  meet  the  ap- 
proval of  the  commissioner.  With  this  state- 
ment shall  be  filed  a  drawing  of  the  trade- 
mark, signed  by  the  applicant,  or  his  attorney, 
and  such  number  of  specimens  of  the  trade- 
mark as  actually  used  as  may  be  required  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents.  Second,  by  pay- 
ing into  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  the 
sum  of  ten  dollars,  and  otherwise  complying 
with  the  requirements  of  this  act  and  such 
regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents. 

Sec.  2  That  the  application  prescribed  in 
the  foregoing  section,  in  order  to  create  any 
right  whatever  in  favor  of  the  party  filing  it, 
must  be  accompanied  by  a  written  declaration 
verified  by  the  applicant,  or  by  a  member 
of  the  firm  or  an  officer  of  the  corporation 
or  association  applying,  to  the  effect  that  the 
applicant  believes  himself  or  the  firm,  cor- 
poratipn,  gr  association  in  whose  behalf  he 


the  application  to  be  the  owner  of  the 
trade-mark  sought  to  be  registered,  and  that 
no  other  person,  firm,  corporation,  or  associa- 
tion, to  the  best  of  the  applicant's  knowledge 
and  belief,  has  the  right  to  use  such  trade- 
mark in  the  United  States,  either  in  the 
identical  form  or  in  such  near  resemblance 
thereto  as  might  be  calculated  to  deceive;  that 
such  trade-mark  is  used  in  commerce  among 
the  several  States,  or  with  foreign  -nations,  or 
with  Indian  tribes,  and  that  the  description 
and  drawing,  presented  truly  represent  the 
trade-mark  sought  to  be  registered.  If  the 
applicant  resides  or  is  located  in  a  foreign 
country,  the  statement  required  shall,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  foregoing,  set  forth  that  the 
trade-mark  has  been  registered  by  the  appli- 
cant, or  that  an  application  for  the  registra- 
tion thereof  has  been  filed  by  him  in  the 
foreign  country  in  which  he  resides  or  is 
located,  and  shall  give  the  date  of  such 
registration,  or  the  application  therefor,  as 
the  case  may  be,  except  that  in  the  applica- 
tion in  such  cases  it  shall  not  be  necessary  to 
state  that  the  mark  has  been  used  in  com- 
merce with  the  United  States  or  among  the 
States  thereof.  The  verification  required  by 
this  section  may  be  made  before  any  person 
within  the  United  States  authorized  by  law 
to  administer  oaths,  or,  when  the  applicant 
resides  in  a  foreign  country,  before  any  min- 
ister, charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or  commercial 
agent  holding  commission  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  or  before  any  no- 
tary public,  judge,  or  magistrate  having  an 
official  seal  and  authorized  to  administer  oaths 
in  the  foreign  country,  in  which  the  applicant 
may  be  whose  authority  shall  be  proved  by  a 
certificate  of  a  diplomatic  or  consular  officer 
of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  3.  That  every  applicant  for  registra- 
tion of  a  trade-mark,  or  for  renewal  of  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  who  is  not  domiciled 
within  the  United  States,  shall,  before  the 
issuance  of  the  certificate  of  registration,  as 
hereinafter  provided  for,  designate,  by  a  no- 
tice in  writing,  filed  in  the  Patent  Office, 
some  person  residing  within  the  United  States 
on  whom  process  or  notice  of  proceedings 
affecting  the  right  of  ownership  of  the  trade- 
mark of  which  such  applicant  may  claim  to  be 
the  owner,  brought  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act  or  under  other  laws  of  the  United 


880 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


States,  may  be  served,  with  the  same  force 
and  effect  as  it  served  upon  the  applicant 
or  registrant  in  person.  For  the  purposes  of 
this  act  it  shall  be  deemed  sufficient  to 
serve  such  notice  upon  such  applicant,  regis- 
trant, or  representative  by  leaving  a  copy  of 
such  process  or  notice  addressed  to  him  at 
the  last  address  of  which  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  has  been  notified. 

Sec.  4.  That  an  application  for  registration 
of  a  trade-mark  filed  in  this  country  by  any 
person  who  has  previously  regularly  filed  in 
any  foreign  country  which,  by  treaty,  conven- 
tion, or  law,  affords  similar  privileges  to  cit- 
izens of  the  United  States  an  application  for 
registration  of  the  same  trade-mark  shall  be 
accorded  the  same  force  and  effect  as  would 
be  accorded  to  the  same  application  if  filed 
in  this  country  on  the  date  on  which  appli- 
cation for  registration  of  the  same  trade-mark 
was  first  filed  in  such  foreign  country:  Pro- 
vided, That  such  application  is  filed  in  th  s 
country  within  four  months  from  the  date  on 
which  the  application  was  first  filed  in  such 
foreign  country:  And  provided,  That  certificate 
of  registration  shall  not  be  issued  for  any 
mark  for  registration  of  which  application  has 
been  filed  by  an  applicant  located  in  a  foreign 
country  until  such  mark  has  been  actually 
registered  by  the  applicant  in  the  country  in 
which  he  is  located. 

Sec.  5.  That  no  mark  by  which  the  goods 
of  the  owner  of  the  mark  may  be  disting- 
uished from  other  goods  of  the  same  class 
shall  be  refused  registration  as  a  trade-mark 
on  account  of  the  nature  of  such  mark  unless 
such  mark— 

(a)  Consists     of     or     comprises     immoral     or 
scandalous  matter. 

(b)  Consists     of    or     comprises     the     flag    or 
coat   of   arms   or   other   insignia   of  the   United 
States,    or   any    simulation   thereof,    or    of    any 
State,    or   municipality,    or   of   any   foreign   na- 
tion,   or    of    any    design    or    picture    that    has 
been    or    may    hereafter    be    adopted     by    any 
fraternal  society  as  its  emblem:  Provided,   That 
trade-marks   which   are  identical   with   a   regis- 
tered or  known   trade-mark   owned   and    in    use 
by    another,    and    appropriated    to    merchandise 
of  the  same  descriptive  properties,   or  which  so 
nearly   resemble    a    registered    or   known    trade- 
mark   owned   and   in    use   by    another    and    ap- 
propriated    to     merchandise    of    the    same     de- 
scriptive   properties,    as    to    be    likely    to    cause 
confusion  or  mistake   in  the  mind   of  the  pub- 
lic,   or    to    deceive    purchasers,     shall    not    be 
registered :       Provided,     That     no     mark    which 
consists  merely   in  the  name  of  an    individual, 
firm,     corporation,    or    association    not    written, 
printed,     impressed,     or    woven     in     some    par- 
ticular or  distinctive  manner   or   in   association 
with  a  portrait  of  the   individual  or  merely   in 
words   or  devices  which   are  descriptive   of  the 
goods    with    which    they    are    used,    or    of    the 
character  or  quality   of   such   goods,    or  merely 
a   geographical    name   or   term,    shall   be   regis- 
tered   under   the    terms    of    the   act:     Provided 
further,   That  no  portrait  of  a  living  individual 
may   be  registered   as   a  trade-mark,    except   by 
the    consent    of   such    individual,    evidenced    by 
an    Instrument   in   writing:     And   provided    fur- 
ther,    That    nothing    herein    shall    prevent    the 
registration    of    any    mark    used    by    the    appli- 
cant   or    his    predecessors,     or    by    those    from 
whom   title   to    the   mark    Is   derived,    in   com- 
merce with  foreign  nations  or  among  the  sev- 
eral  States,    or  with  Indian  tribes,    which  was 
in    actual    and    exclusive    use   as   a   trade-mark 
of     the     applicant     or     his     predecessors     from 
whom  he  derived  title   for  ten   years  next  pre- 


ceding February  twentieth,  nineteen  hundred 
and  five:  Provided  further,  That  nothing  hero- 
in shall  prevent  the  registration  of  a  trade- 
mark otherwise  registrable  because  of  Its  being 
the  name  of  the  applicant  or  a  portion  thereof. 

Sec.  6.  That  on  the  filing  of  an  application 
for  registration  of  a  trade-mark  which  com- 
plies with  the  requirements  of  this  act,  and 
the  payment  of  the  fees  herein  provided  for, 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents  shall  cause  an 
examination  thereof  to  be  made,  and  if  on 
such  examination  it  shall  appear  that  the  ap- 
plicant is  entitled  to  have  his  trade-mark 
registered  under  the  provisions  of  th.s  act, 
the  commissioner  shall  cause  the  mark  to  be 
published  at  least  once  in  the  Official  Gazette 
of  the  Patent  Office.  Any  person  who  believes 
he  would  be  damaged  by  the  registration  of  a 
mark  may  oppose  the  same  by  filing  notice  of 
opposition,  stating  the  grounds  therefor,  in  the 
Patent  Office  within  thirty  days  after  the  pub- 
lication of  the  mark  sought  to  be  registered, 
which  said  notice  of  opposition  shall  be  veri- 
fied by  the  person  filing  the  same  before  one 
of  the  officers  mentioned  in  section  two  of 
this  act.  An  opposition  may  be  filed  by  a 
duly  authorized  attorney,  but  such  opposition 
shall  be  null  and  void  unless  verified  by  the 
opposer  within  a  reasonable  time  after  such 
filing.  If  no  notice  of  opposition  is  filed 
within  said  time,  the  commissioner  shall  issue 
a  certificate  of  registration  therefor,  as  here- 
inafter provided  for.  If  on  examination  an 
application  is  refused,  the  commissioner  shall 
notify  the  applicant,  giving  him  his  reasons 
therefor. 

Sec.  7.  That  in  all  cases  where  notice  of 
opposition  has  been  filed  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  shall  notify  the  applicant  thereof  and 
the  grounds  therefor. 

Whenever  application  is  made  for  the  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark  which  is  substantially 
identical  with  a  trade-mark  appropriated  to 
goods  of  the  same  descriptive  properties,  for 
which  a  certificate  of  registration  has  been 
previously  issued  to  another,  or  for  registra- 
tion of  which  another  has  previously  made 
application,  or  which  so  nearly  resembles  such 
trade-mark,  or  a  known  trade-mark  owned  and 
used  by  another,  as,  In  the  opinion  of  the 
commissioner,  to  be  likely  to  be  mistaken 
therefor  by  the  public,  he  may  declare  that 
an  interference  exists  as  to  such  trade-mark, 
and  in  every  case  of  interference  or  opposition 
to  registration  he  shall  direct  the  examiner  in 
charge  of  interferences  to  determine  the  ques- 
tion of  the  right  of  registration  to  such  trade- 
mark, and  of  the  sufficiency  of  objections  to 
registration,  in  such  manner  and  upon  such 
notice  to  those  interested  as  the  commissioner 
may  by  rules  prescribe. 

The  commissioner  may  refuse  to  register  the 
mark  against  the  registration  of  which,  objec- 
tion is  filed,  or  may  refuse  to  register  both  of 
two  interfering  marks,  or  may  register  the 
mark,  as  a  trade-mark,  for  the  person  first  to 
adopt  and  use  the  mark,  if  otherwise  entitled 
to  register  the  same,  unlesa  an  appeal  is  taken, 
as  hereinafter  provided  for,  from  his  decision, 
by  a  party  interested  in  the  proceeding,  within 
such  time  (not  less  than  twenty  days)  as  the 
commissioner  may  prescribe. 

Sec.  8.  That  every  applicant  for  the  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  or  for  the  renewal 
of  the  registration  of  a  trade-mark,  which 
application  is  refused,  or  a  party  to  an  inter- 
ference against  whom  a  decision  has  been  ren- 
dered, or  a  party  who  has  filed  a  notice  of 
opposition  as  to  a  trade-mark,  may  appeal 
from  the  decision  of  the  examiner  In  charge 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


381 


of  trade-marks,  or  the  examiner  in  charge  of 
interferences,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  com- 
missioner in  person,  having  once  paid  the  tee 
for  such  appeal. 

Sec.  9.  That  if  an  applicant  for  registration 
of  a  trade-mark,  or  a  party  to  an  interference 
as  to  a  trade-mark,  or  a  party  who  has  filed 
opposition  to  the  registration  of  a  trade-mark, 
or  party  to  an  application  for  the  cancellation 
of  the  registration  of  a  trade-mark,  is  dissatis- 
fied with  the  decision  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents,  he  may  appeal  to  the  court  of  ap- 
peals of  the  District  of  Columbia,  on  comply- 
ing with  the  conditions  required  in  case  of 
an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  commis- 
sioner by  an  applicant  for  patent,  or  a  party 
to  an  interference  as  to  an  invention,  and  the 
same  rules  of  practice  and  procedure  shall 
govern  in  every  stage  of  such  proceedings,  as 
far  as  the  same  may  be  applicable. 

Sec.  10.  That  every  registered  trade-mark, 
and  every  mark  for  the  registration  of  which 
application  has  been  made,  together  with  the 
application  for  registration  of  the  same,  shall 
be  assignable  in  connection  with  the  good  will 
of  the  business  in  which  the  mark  is  used. 
Such  assignment  must  be  by  an  instrument  in 
writing  and  duly  acknowledged  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  country  or  State  in  which  the 
same  is  executed;  any  such  assignment  shall 
be  void  as  against  any  subsequent  purchaser 
for  a  valuable  consideration,  without  notice, 
unless  it  is  recorded  in  the  Patent  Office 
within  three  months  from  date  thereof.  The 
commissioner  shall  keep  a  record  of  such  as- 
signments. 

Sec.  11.  That  certificates  of  registration  of 
trade-marks  shall  be  issued  in  the  name  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  under  the  seal  of 
the  Patent  Office,  and  shall  be  signed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Patents,  and  a  record  thereof, 
together  with  printed  copies  of  the  drawing 
and  statement  of  the  applicant,  shall  be  kept 
in  books  for  that  purpose.  The  certificate 
shall  state  the  date  on  which  the  application 
for  registration  was  received  in  the  Patent 
Office.  Certificates  of  registration  of  trade- 
marks may  be  issued  to  the  assignee  of  the 
applicant,  but  the  assignment  must  first  be 
entered  of  record  in  the  Patent  Office. 

Written  or  printed  copies  of  any  records, 
books,  papers,  or  drawings  relating  to  trade- 
marks belonging  to  the  Patent  Office,  and  of 
certificates  of  registration,  authenticated  by 
the  seal  of  the  Patent  Office  and  certified  by 
the  commissioner  thereof,  shall  be  evidence 
in  all  cases  wherein  the  originals  could  be 
evidence;  and  any  person  making  application 
therefor  and  paying  the  fee  required  by  law 
shall  have  certified  copies  thereof. 

Sec.  12. — That  a  certificate  of  registration 
shall  remain  in  force  for  twenty  years,  except 
that  in  the  case  of  trade-marks  previously 
registered  in  a  foreign  country  such  certificate 
shall  cease  to  be  in  force  on  the  day  on 
which  the  trade-mark  ceases  to  be  protected 
in  such  foreign  country,  and  shall  in  no  case 
remain  in  force  more  than  twenty  years,  unless 
renewed.  Certificates  of  registration  may  be 
from  time  to  time  renewed  for  like  periods  on 
payment  of  the  renewal  fees  required  by  this 
act,  upon  request  by  the  registrant,  his  legal 
representatives,  or  transferees  of  record  in  the 
Patent  Office,  and  such  request  may  be  made 
at  any  time  not  more  than  six  months  prior 
to  the  expiration  of  the  period  for  which  the 
certificates  of  registration  were  issued  or  re- 
newed. Certificates  of  registration  in  force  at 
the  date  at  which  this  act  takes  effect  shall 
remain  in  force  for  the  period  for  which  they 


were  issued,  but  shall  be  renewable  on  the 
same  conditions  and  for  the  same  periods  as 
certificates  issued  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  and  when  so  renewed  shall  have  the  same 
force  and  effect  as  certificates  issued  under  this 
act. 

Sec.  13.  That  whenever  any  person  shall 
deem  himself  injured  by  the  registration  of  a 
trade-mark  in  the  Patent  Office  he  may  at  any 
time  apply  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
to  cancel  the  registration  thereof.  The  com- 
missioner shall  refer  such  application  to  the 
examiner  in  charge  of  interferences,  who  is 
empowered  to  hear  and  determine  this  question 
and  who  shall  give  notice  thereof  to  the  regis- 
trant. If  it  appear  after  a  hearing  before  the 
examiner  that  the  registrant  was  not  entitled 
to  the  use  of  the  mark  at  the  date  of  his 
application  for  registration  thereof,  or  that  the 
mark  is  not  used  by  the  registrant,  or  has 
been  abandoned,  and  the  examiner  shall  so 
decide,  the  commissioner  shall  cancel  the  regis- 
tration. Appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  com- 
missioner in  person  from  the  decision  of  ex- 
aminer of  interferences. 

Sec.  14.  That  the  following  shall  be  the 
rates  for  trade-mark  fees : 

On  filing  each  original  application  for  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  ten  dollars:  Provided, 
That  an  application  for  registration  of  a 
trade-mark  pending  at  the  date  of  the  passage 
of  this  act,  and  on  which  certificate  of  regis- 
tration shall  not  have  issued  at  such  date,  may. 
at  the  option  of  the  applicant,  be  proceeded 
with  and  registered  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act  without  the  payment  of  further  fee. 

On  filing  each  application  for  renewal  of  the 
registration  of  a  trade-mark,  ten  dollars. 

On  filing  notice  of  opposition  to  the  regis- 
tration of  a  trade-mark,  ten  dollars. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  examiner  in  charge 
of  trade-marks  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents, 
fifteen  dollars. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  ex- 
aminer in  charge  of  interferences,  awarding 
ownership  of  a  trade-mark  or  canceling  the 
registration  of  a  trade-mark,  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Patents,  fifteen  dollars 

For  certified  and  uncertified  copies  of  cer- 
tificates of  registration  and  other  papers,  and 
for  recording  transfers  and  other  papers,  the 
same  fees  as  required  by  law  for  such  copies 
of  patents  and  for  recording  assignments  and 
other  papers  relating  to  patents. 

Sec.  15.  That  sections  forty-nine  hundred  and 
thirty-five  and  forty-nine  hundred  and  thirty- 
six  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  relating  to  the 
payment  of  patent  fees  and  to  the  repayment 
of  fees  paid  by  mistake,  are  hereby  made  ap- 
plicable to  trade-mark  fees. 

Sec.  16.  That  the  registration  of  a  trade- 
mark under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be 
prima  facie  evidence  of  ownership.  Any  per- 
son who  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner  thereof,  reproduce,  counterfeit,  copy, 
or  colorably  imitate  any  such  trade-mark  and 
aflix  the  same  to  merchandise  of  substantially 
the  same  descriptive  properties  as  those  set 
forth  in  the  registration,  or  to  labels,  signs, 
prints,  packages,  wrappers  or  receptacles  intend- 
ed to  be  used  upon  or  in  connection  with  the 
sale  of  merchandise  of  substantially  the  same 
descriptive  properties  as  those  set  forth  in  such 
registration,  and  shall  use,  or  shall  have  used, 
such  reproduction,  counterfeit,  copy,  or  color- 
able imitation  in  commerce  among  the  several 
States,  or  with  a  foreign  nation,  or  with  the 
Indian  tribes,  shall  be  liable  to  an  action  for 
damages  therefor  at  the  suit  of  the  owner 
thereof:  and  whenever  in  any  such  action  a 


382 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


verdict  is  rendered  for  the  plaintiff,  the  court 
may  enter  judgment  therein  for  any  sum  above 
the  amount  found  by  the  verdict  as  the  actual 
damages,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  not  exceeding  three  times  the  amount 
of  such  verdict,  together  with  the  costs. 

Sec.  17.  That  the  circuit  and  territorial 
courts  of  the  United  States  and  the  supreme 
court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  shall  have 
original  Jurisdiction,  and  the  circuit  courts  of 
appeal  of  the  United  States  and  the  court  of 
appeals  of  the  District  of  Columbia  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  all  suits  at  law  or  in 
equity  respecting  trade-marks  registered  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  aris- 
ing under  the  present  act,  without  regard  to 
the  amount  in  controversy. 

Sec.  18.  That  writs  of  certiorari  may  be 
granted  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  for  the  review  of  cases  arising  under 
this  act  in  the  same  manner  as  provided  for 
patent  cases  by  the  act  creating  the  circuit 
court  of  appeals. 

Sec.  19.  That  the  several  courts  vested  with 
jurisdiction  of  cases  arising  under  the  present 
act  shall  have  power  to  grant  injunctions,  ac- 
cording to  the  course  and  principles  of  equity, 
to  prevent  the  violation  of  any  right  of  the 
owner  of  a  trade-mark  registered  under  this 
act,  on  such  terms  as  the  court  may  deem 
reasonable;  and  upon  a  decree  being  rendered 
in  any  such  case  for  wrongful  use  of  a  trade- 
mark the  complainant  shall  be  entitled  to  re- 
cover, in  addition  to  the  profits  to  be  accounted 
for  by  the  defendant,  the  damages-  the  com- 
plainant has  sustained  thereby,  and  the  court 
shall  assess  the  same  or  cause  the  same  to  be 
assessed  under  its  direction.  The  court  shall 
have  the  same  power  to  increase  such  dam- 
ages, in  its  discretion,  as  is  given  by  section 
sixteen  of  this  act  for  increasing  damages 
found  by  verdict  in  actions  of  law;  and  in 
assessing  profits  the  plaintiff  shall  be  required 
to  prove  defendant's  sales  only;  defendant  must 
prove  all  elements  of  cost  which  are  claimed. 

Sec.  20.  That  in  any  case  involving  the 
right  to  a  trade-mark  registered  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  in  which  the 
verdict  has  been  found  for  the  plaintiff,  or  an 
injunction  issued,  the  court  may  order  that  all 
labels,  signs,  prints,  packages,  wrappers,  or 
receptacles  in  the  possession  of  the  defendant, 
bearing  the  trade-mark  of  the  plaintiff  or 
complainant,  or  any  reproduction,  counterfeit, 
copy,  or  colorable  imitation  thereof,  shall  be 
delivered  up  and  destroyed.  Any  injunction 
that  may  be  granted  upon  hearing,  after  notice 
to  the  defendant,  to  prevent  the  violation  of 
any  right  of  the  owner  of  a  trade-mark  regis- 
tered in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  by  any  circuit  court  of  the  United  States, 
or  by  a  judge  thereof,  may  be  served  on  the 
parties  against  whom  such  injunction  may  be 
granted  anywhere  in  the  United  States  where 
they  may  be  found,  and  shall  be  operative,  and 
may  be  enforced  by  proceedings  to  punish  for 
contempt,  or  otherwise,  by  the  court  by  which 
such  injunction  was  granted,  or  by  any  other 
circuit  court,  or  judge  thereof,  in  the  United 
States,  or  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  or  a  judge  thereof.  The 
said  courts,  or  judges  thereof,  shall  have  juris- 
diction to  enforce  said  injunction,  as  herein 
provided,  as  fully  as  if  the  injunction  had 
been  granted  by  the  circuit  court  in  which  it 
is  sought  to  be  enforced.  The  clerk  of  the 
court  or  judge  granting  the  injunction  shall, 
when  required  to  do  so  by  the  court  before 
which  application  to  enforce  said  injunction  is 
made,  transfer  without  delay  to  said  court  a 


certified  copy  of  all  the  papers  on  which  the 
said  injunction  was  granted  that  are  on  tile 
in  his  office. 

Sec.  21.  That  no  action  or  suit  shall  be 
maintained  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  in 
any  case  when  the  trade-mark  is  used  in  un- 
lawful business,  or  upon  any  article  injurious 
in  itself,  or  which  mark  has  been  used  with 
the  design  of  deceiving  the  public  in  the  pur- 
chase of  merchandise,  or  has  been  abandoned, 
or  upon  any  certificate  of  registration  fraudu- 
lently obtained. 

Sec.  22.  That  whenever  there  are  interfering 
registered  trade-marks,  any  person  interested 
in  any  one  of  them  may  have  relief  against 
the  interfering  registrant,  and  all  persons  in- 
terested under  him,  by  suit  in  equity  against 
the  said  registrant,  and  the  court,  on  notice 
to  adverse  parties  and  other  due  proceedings 
had  according  to  the  course  of  equity,  may 
adjudge  and  declare  either  of  the  registrations 
void  in  whole  or  in  part  according  to  the  in- 
terest of  the  parties  in  the  trade-mark,  and 
may  order  the  certificate  of  registration  to  be 
delivered  up  to  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
for  cancellation. 

Sec.  23.  That  nothing  in  this  act  shall  pre- 
vent, lessen,  impeach,  or  avoid  any  remedy  at 
law  or  in  equity  which  any  party  aggrieved  by 
any  wrongful  use  of  any  trade-mark  might 
have  had  if  the  provisions  of  this  act  had  not 
been  passed. 

Sec.  24.  That  all  applications  for  registration 
pending  in  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act 
may  be  amended  with  a  view  to  bringing 
them,  and  the  certificates  issued  upon  such 
applications,  under  its  provisions,  and  the 
prosecution  of  such  applications  may  be  pro- 
ceeded with  under  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sec.  25.  That  any  person  who  shall  procure 
registration  of  a  trade-mark,  or  entry  thereof, 
in  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
by  a  false  or  fraudulent  declaration  or  repre- 
sentation, oral  or  in  writing,  or  by  any  false 
means,  shall  be  liable  to  pay  any  damages 
sustained  in  consequence  thereof  to  the  injured 
party,  to  be  recovered  by  an  action  on  the 

Sec.  26.  That  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
is  authorized  to  make  rules  and  regulations, 
not  inconsistent  with  law,  for  the  conduct  of 
proceedings  in  reference  to  the  registration  of 
trade-marks  provided  for  by  this  act. 

Sec.  27.  That  no  article  of  imported  mer- 
chandise which  shall  copy  or  simulate  the 
name  of  any  domestic  manufacture,  or  manu- 
facturer or  trader,  or  of  any  manufacturer  or 
trader  located  in  any  foreign  country  which, 
by  treaty,  convention,  or  law  affords  similar 
privileges  to  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or 
which  shall  copy  or  simulate  a  trade-mark 
registered  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  this  act  or  shall  bear  a  name  or  mark 
calculated  to  induce  the  public  to  believe  that 
the  article  is  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  or  that  it  is  manufactured  in  any  for- 
eign country  or  locality  other  than  the  coun- 
try or  locality  in  which  it  is  in  fact  manu- 
factured, shall  be  admitted  to  entry  at  any 
custom  house  of  the  United  States,  and,  in 
order  to  aid  the  officers  of  the  customs  in  en- 
forcing this  prohibition,  any  domestic  manu- 
facturer or  trader,  and  any  foreign  manufac- 
turer or  trader,  who  is  entitled  under  the 
provisions  of  a  treaty,  convention,  declaration 
or  agreement  between  the  United  States  and 
any  foreign  country  to  the  advantages  afforded 
by  law  to  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  re- 
spect to  trade-marks  and  commercial  names, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


383 


may  require  his  name  and  residence,  and  the 
name  of  the  locality  in  which  his  goods  are 
manufactured,  and  a  copy  of  the  certificate  of 
registration  of  his  trade-mark,  issued  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  provisions  of  this  act,  to  be 
re  orded  in  books  which  shall  be  kept  for  this 
purpose  in  the  Department  of  the  Treasury, 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall  prescribe,  and  may  furnish  to 
the  department  facsimiles  of  his  name,  the 
name  of  the  locality  in  which  his  goods  are 
manufactured,  or  of  his  registered  trade-mark; 
and  thereupon  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
shall  cause  one  or  more  copies  of  the  same 
to  be  transmitted  to  each  collector  or  other 
proper  officer  of  the  customs. 

Sec.  28.  That  it  shall  "be  the  duty  of  the 
registrant  to  give  notice  to  the  public  that  a 
trade-mark  is  registered,  either  by  affixing 
thereon  the  words  "Registered  in  U.  S.  Patent 
Office,"  or  abbreviated  thus,  "Reg.  U.  S.  Pat. 
Off.,"  or  when,  from  the  character  or  size  of 
the  trade-mark,  or  from  its  manner  of  attach- 
ment to  the  article  to  which  it  is  appropriated, 
this  cannot  be  done,  then  by  affixing  a  label 
containing  a  like  notice  to  the  package  or  re- 
ceptacle wherein  the  article  or  articles  are 
inclosed;  and  in  any  suit  for  infringement  by 
a  party  failing  so  to  give  notice  of  registration 
no  damages  shall  be  recovered,  except  on 
proof  that  the  defendant  was  duly  notified  of 
infringement  and  continued  the  same  after  such 
notice. 

Sec.  29.  That  in  construing  this  act  the  fol- 
lowing rules  must  be  observed,  except  where 
the  contrary  intent  is  plainly  apparent  from 
the  context  thereof:  The  United  States  in- 
cludes and  embraces  all  territory  which  is 
under  the  jurisdiction  and  control  of  the 
United  States.  The  word  "States"  includes 
and  embraces  the  District  of  Columbia,  the 
Territories  of  the  United  States,  and  such  other 
territory  as  shall  be  under  the  jurisdiction  and 
control  of  the  United  States.  The  terms  "per- 
son" and  "owner,"  and  any  other  word  or 
term  used  to  designate  the  applicant  or  other 
entitled  to  a  benefit  or  privilege  or  rendered 
liable  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  include 
a  firm,  corporation,  or  association  as  well  as  a 
natural  person.  The  terms  "applicant"  and 
"registrant"  embrace  the  successors  and  as- 
signs of  such  applicant  or  registrant.  The 
term  "trade-mark"  includes  any  mark  which 
is  entitled  to  registration  under  the  terms  of 
this  act,  and  whether  registered  or  not,  and 
a  trade-mark  shall  be  deemed  to  be  "affixed" 
to  an  article  when  it  is  placed  in  any  manner 
in  or  upon  either  the  article  itself  or  the 
receptacle  or  package  or  upon  the  envelope 
or  other  thing  in,  by,  or  with  which  the 
goods  are  packed  or  inclosed  or  otherwise  pre- 
pared for  sale  or  distribution. 

Sec.  30.  That  this  act  shall  be  in  force  and 
take  effect  April  first,  nineteen  hundred  and 
five.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent 
with  this  act  are  hereby  repealed  except  so  far 
as  the  same  may  apply  to  certificates  of  regis- 
tration issued  under  the  act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-one,  entitled  "An  act  to  authorize  the 
registration  of  trade-marks  and  protect  the 
same,"  or  under  the  act  approved  August  fifth, 
eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-two,  entitled  "An 
act  relating  to  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks." 

Approved   February  20,    1905. 


ACT   OF   MAY   4,    1906. 

AN  ACT  To  amend  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  relating  to  the  registration  of  trade- 
marks. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  Commissioner  of  Patents 
shall  establish  classes  of  merchandise  for  the 
purpose  of  trade-mark  registration,  and  shall 
determine  the  particular  descriptions  of  goods 
comprised  in  each  class.  On  a  single  applica- 
tion for  registration  of  a  trade-mark  the  trade- 
mark may  be  registered  at  the  option  of  the 
applicant  for  any  or  all  goods  upon  which  the 
mark  has  actually  been  used  comprised  in  a 
single  class  of  merchandise,  provided  the  par- 
ticular descriptions  of  goods  be  stated. 

Sec.  3.  That  any  owner  of  a  trade-mark 
who  shall  have  a  manufacturing  establishment 
within  the  territory  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  accorded,  so  far  as  the  registration  and 
protection  of  trade-marks  used  on  the  products 
of  such  establishment  are  concerned,  the  same 
rights  and  privileges  that  are  accorded  to 
owners  of  trade-marks  domiciled  within  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  by  the  act  en- 
titled "An  act  to  authorize  the  registration  of 
trade-marks  used  in  commerce  with  foreign 
nations  or  among  the  several  States  or  with 
Indian  tribes,  and  to  protect  the  same,"  ap- 
proved February  twentieth,  nineteen  hundred 
and  five. 

Sec.  4.  That  this  act  shall  take  effect  July 
first,  nineteen  hundred  and  six. 

Act  to  incorporate  the  American  National  Red 
Cross,  approved  January  5,  1905  (as  amended 
June  23,  1910). 

Sec.  4.  That  from  and  after  the  passage  of 
this  act  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  to 
falsely  or  fraudulently  hold  himself  out  as.  or 
represent  or  pretend  himself  to  be  a  member 
of  or  an  agent  for  the  American  National  Red 
Cross  for  the  purpose  of  soliciting,  collecting, 
or  receiving  money  or  material;  or  for  any 
person  to  wear  or  display  the  sign  of  the  Red 
Cross  or  any  insignia  colored  in  imitation 
thereof  for  the  fraudulent  purpose  of  inducing 
the  belief  that  he  is  a  member  of  or  an  agent 
for  the  American  National  Red  Cross.  It  shall 
be  unlawful  for  any  person,  corporation,  or 
association  other  than  the  American  National 
Red  Cross  and  its  duly  authorized  employees 
and  agents  and  the  Army  and  Navy  sanitary 
and  hospital  authorities  of  the  United  States, 
for  the  purpose  of  trade  or  as  an  advertise- 
ment, to  induce  the  sale  of  any  article  what- 
soever or  for  any  business  or  charitable  pur- 
pose to  use  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  of  America  and  its  exterior  possessions 
the  emblem  of  the  Greek  Red  Cross  on  a  white 
ground,  or  any  sign  or  insignia  made  or  col- 
ored in  imitation  thereof,  or  of  the  words 
"Red  Cross"  or  "Geneva  Cross"  or  any  com- 
bination of  these  words:  Provided,  however, 
That  no  person,  corporation,  or  association 
that  actually  used  or  whose  assignor  actually 
used  the  said  emblem,  sign,  insignia,  or 
words  for  any  lawful  purpose  prior  to  January 
fifth,  nineteen  hundred  and  five  shall  be 
deemed  forbidden  by  this  act  to  continue  the 
use  thereof  for  the  same  purpose  and  for  the 
same  class  of  goods.  If  any  person  violates 
the  provision  of  this  section  he  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon 
conviction  in  any  Federal  court  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  or  more  than 
five  hundred  dollars,  or  imprisonment  for  a 


384 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


term  not  exceeding  one  year,   or  both,  for  each 
and   every   offense. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  endowment  fund  of  the 
American  National  Red  Cross  shall  be  kept  and 
invested  under  the  management  and  control 


of  a  board  of  nine  trustees,  who  shall  be 
elected  from  time  to  time  by  the  incorporators 
and  their  successors  under  such  regulations  re- 
garding terms  and  tenure  of  office,  accounta- 
bility, and  expense  as  said  incorporators  and 
successors  shall  prescribe. 


THE  COPYRIGHT  LAW  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.* 


CONSTITUTION,    1787. 
Art.     1,     Sec.     8.    The    Congress    shall    have 

power:     To    promote    the    progress    of 

science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for  limited 
times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive 
right  to  their  respective  writings  and  dis- 
coveries. 

AN     ACT     TO     AMEND     AND     CONSOLIDATE 
THE.  ACTS   RESPECTING   COPYRIGHT. 

MARCH    4,    1909. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica in  Congress  assembled.  That  any  person 
entitled  thereto,  upon  complying  with  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act,  shall  have  the  exclusive 
right: 

(a)  To    print,     reprint,     publish,     copy,     and 
vend  the  copyrighted  work; 

(b)  To    translate    the    copyrighted    work    into 
other  languages  or  dialects,   or  make  any  other 
version    thereof,    if    it    be    a    literary    work;    to 
dramatize   it   if   it   be   a   nondramatic   work;    to 
convert   it    into   a   novel   or   other   nondramatic 
work    if    it    be   a    drama;    to    arrange    or   adapt 
it   if   it   be   a   musical   work;    to   complete,    ex- 
ecute,  and  finish  it  if  it  be  a  model  or  design 
for  a  work  of  art; 

(c)  To   deliver   or   authorize   the   delivery   of 
the  copyrighted  work  in  public  for  profit   if  it 
be  a  lecture,   sermon,    address,   or  similar   pro- 
duction; 

(d)  To  perform  or  represent   the  copyrighted 
work  publicly   if   it  be  a   drama  or,    if  it  be  a 
dramatic    work    and    not    reproduced    in    copies 
for  sale,    to  vend  any   manuscript   or   any   rec- 
ord   whatsoever    thereof;    to    make    or    to    pro- 
cure the  making  of  any  transcription  or  record 
thereof  by  or  from  which,   in  whole  or  in  part, 
it    may    in   any   manner   or   by   any   method    be 
exhibited,      performed,      represented,      produced, 
or   reproduced;   and  to   exhibit,    perform,    repre- 
sent,   produce,    or  reproduce    it    in   any   manner 
or  by  any  method  whatsoever; 

(e)  To    perform    the    copyrighted    work    pub- 
licly  for  profit   if   it  be   a   musical   composition 
and    for   the  purpose   of  public  performance   for 
profit;    and   for   the   purposes   set   forth   in   sub- 
section   (a)    hereof,    to    make    any    arrangement 
or  setting  of  it  or  of  the   melody  of   it   in  any 
system    of    notation    or    any    form    of    record    in 
which    the    thought    of   an    author   may   be   re- 
corded   and    from    which    it    may    be    read    or 
reproduced:     Provided,    That  the  provisions  of 
this  Act,    so  far  as  they  secure  copyright  con- 
trolling   the    parts    of    instruments    serving    to 
reproduce  mechanically  the  musical  work,   shall 
include   only   compositions  published    and   copy- 
righted   after    this    Act    goes    into    effect,     and 
shall  not  include  the  works  of  a  foreign  author 
or    composer    unless    the    foreign    state    or    na- 
tion   of     which    such    author    or    composer     is 
a    citizen    or    subject    grants,    either    by    treaty, 
convention,     agreement,     or     law,     to     citizens 
of     the     United     States     similar     rights:       And 

'Slightly  abridged  for  this  book  by  Munn  & 
Co.,  Patent  Attorneys. 


provided,  further,  and  as  a  condition  of 
extending  the  copyright  control  to  such  me- 
chanical reproductions.  That  whenever  the 
owner  of  a  musical  copyright  has  used  or  per- 
mitted or  knowingly  acquiesced  in  the  use  of 
the  copyrighted  work  upon  the  parts  of  in- 
struments serving  to  reproduce  mechanically 
the  musical  work,  any  other  person  may  make 
similar  use  of  the  copyrighted  work  upon 
the  payment  to  the  copyright  proprietor  of  a 
royalty  of  two  cents  on  each  such  part  manu- 
factured, to  be  paid  by  the  manufacturer 
thereof,  and  the  copyright  proprietor  may  re- 
quire, and  if  so  the  manufacturer  shall  fur- 
nish, a  report  under  oath  on  the  twentieth 
day  of  each  month  on  the  number  of  parts  of 
instruments  manufactured  during  the  previous 
month  serving  to  reproduce  mechanically  said 
musical  work,  and  royalties  shall  be  due  on 
the  parts  manufactured  during  any  month  upon 
the  twentieth  of  the  next  succeeding  month. 
The  payment  of  the  royalty  provided  for  by 
this  section  shall  free  the  articles  or  devices 
for  which  such  royalty  has  been  paid  from 
further  contribution  to  the  copyright  except 
in  case  of  public  performance  for  profit:  And 
provided  further,  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  copyright  owner,  if  he  uses  the  musical 
composition  himself  for  the  manufacture  of 
parts  of  instruments  serving  to  reproduce  me- 
chanically the  musical  work,  or  licenses  others 
to  do  so,  to  file  notice  thereof,  accompanied 
by  a  recording  fee,  in  the  copyright  office,  and 
any  failure  to  file  such  notice  shall  be  a  com- 
plete defense  to  any  suit,  action,  or  proceed- 
ing for  any  infringement  of  such  copyright. 

In  case  of  the  failure  of  such  manufacturer 
to  pay  to  the  copyright  proprietor  within  thirty 
days  after  demand  in  writing  the  full  sum 
of  royalties  due  at  said  rate  at  the  date  of 
such  demand  the  court  may  award  taxable 
costs  to  the  plaintiff  and  a  reasonable  counsel 
fee,  and  the  court  may,  in  its  discretion, 
enter  judgment  therein  for  any  sum  in  addi- 
tion over  the  amount  found  to  be  due  as  roy- 
alty in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  Act, 
not  exceeding  three  times  such  amount. 

The  reproduction  or  rendition  of  a  musical 
composition  by  or  upon  coin-operated  machines 
shall  not  be  deemed  a  public  performance  for 
profit  unless  a  fee  is  charged  for  admission 
to  the  place  where  such  reproductions  or  ren- 
dition occurs. 

Sec.  2.  That  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be 
construed  to  annul  or  limit  the  right  of  the 
author  or  proprietor  of  an  unpublished  work, 
at  common  law  or  in  equity,  to  prevent  the 
copying,  publication,  or  use  of  such  unpub- 
lished work  without  his  consent,  and  to  ob- 
tain damages  therefor. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  copyright  provided  by  the 
Act  shall  protect  all  the  copyrightable  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  work  copyrighted,  and  all 
matter  therein  in  which  copyright  is  already 
subsisting,  but  without  extending  the  duration 
or  scope  of  such  copyright.  The  copyright 
upon  composite  works  or  periodicals  shall  give 
to  the  proprietor  thereof  all  the  rights  in 
respect  thereto  which  he  would  'lave  if  each 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


385 


part  were  individually  copyrighted  under  this 
Act. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  works  for  which  copyright 
may  be  secured  under  this  Act  shall  include 
all  the  writings  of  an  author. 

Sec.  5.  That  the  application  for  registration 
shall  specify  to  which  of  the  following  classes 
the  work  in  which  copyright  is  claimed  be- 
longs: 

(a)  Books,     including    composite    and    cyclo- 
paedic works,    directories,    gazetteers,    and  other 
compilations; 

(b)  Periodicals,    including   newspapers; 

(c)  Lectures,      sermons,     addresses,     prepared 
for    oral    delivery; 

(d)  Dramatic    or    dramatico-musical    composi- 
tions; 

(e)  Musical    compositions; 

(f)  Maps ; 

(g)  Works    of    art;     models    or    designs    for 
works    of    art ; 

(h)     Reproductions  of  a  work   of  art; 

(i)  Drawings  or  plastic  works  of  a  scientific 
or  technical  character; 

(j)     Photographs; 

(k)     Prints    and   pictorial    illustrations: 

Provided,  nevertheless,  That  the  above  speci- 
fications shall  not  be  held  to  limit  the  subject- 
matter  of  copyright  as  defined  in  section  four 
of  this  Act,  nor  shall  any  error  in  classifica- 
tion invalidate  or  impair  the  copyright  protec- 
tion secured  under  this  Act. 

Sec.  6.  That  compilations  or  abridgments, 
adaptations,  arrangements,  dramatizations, 
translations,  or  other  versions  of  works  in  the 
public  domain,  or  of  copyrighted  works  when 
produced  with  the  consent  of  the  proprietor  of 
the  copyright  in  such  works,  or  works  repub- 
lished  with  new  matter,  shall  be  regarded  as 
new  works  subject  to  copyright  under  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act;  but  the  publication  of 
any  such  new  works  shall  not  affect  the  force 
or  validity  of  any  subsisting  copyright  upon 
the  matter  employed  or  any  part  thereof,  or 
be  construed  to  imply  an  exclusive  right  to 
such  use  of  the  original  works,  or  to  secure 
or  extend  copyright  in  such  original  works. 

Sec.  7.  That  no  copyright  shall  subsist  in 
the  original  text  of  any  work  which  is  in  the 
public  domain,  or  in  any  work  which  was  pub- 
lished in  this  country  or  any  foreign  country 
prior  to  the  going  into  effect  of  this  Act  and 
has  not  been  already  copyrighted  in  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  publication  of  the 
United  States  Government,  or  any  reprint,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  thereof:  Provided,  however, 
That  the  publication  or  republication  by  the 
Government,  either  separately  or  in  a  public 
document,  of  any  material  in  which  copyright 
is  subsisting,  shall  not  be  taken  to  cause  any 
abridgment  or  annulment  of  the  copyright  or 
to  authorize  any  use  or  appropriation  of  such 
copyright  material  without  the  consent  of  the 
copyright  proprietor. 

Sec.  8.  That  the  author  or  proprietor  of  any 
work  made  the  subject  of  copyright  by  this 
Act,  or  his  executors,  administrators,  or  as- 
signs, shall  have  copyright  for  such  work 
under  the  conditions  and  for  the  terms  speci- 
fied in  this  Act:  Provided,  however,  That  the 
copyright  secured  by  this  Act  shall  extend  to 
the  work  of  an  author  or  proprietor  who  is  a 
citizen  or  subject  of  a  foreign  state  or  nation, 
only : 

(a)  When  an  alien  author  or  proprietor  shall 
be    domiciled    within    the    United    States    at   the 
time  of  the  first  publication  of  his  work;  or 

(b)  When     the    foreign     state     or     nation     of 
which    such    author    or   proprietor    is    a    citizen 
or  subject  grants,   either  by  treaty,   convention, 


agreement,  or  law,  to  citizens  of  the  United 
States  the  benefit  of  copyright  on  substantially 
the  same  basis  as  to  its  own  citizens,  or  copy- 
right protection  substantially  equal  to  the 
protection  secured  to  such  foreign  author  under 
this  Act  or  by  treaty;  or  when  such  foreign 
state  or  nation  is  a  party  to  an  international 
agreement  which  provides  for  reciprocity  in 
the  granting  of  copyright,  by  the  terms  of 
which  agreement  the  United  States  may,  at 
its  pleasure,  become  a  party  thereto. 

The  existence  of  the  reciprocal  conditions 
aforesaid  shall  be  determined  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  by  proclamation  made 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  purposes  of  this 
Act  may  require. 

Sec.  9.  That  any  person  entitled  thereto  by 
this  Act  may  secure  copyright  for  his  work 
by  publication  thereof  with  the  notice  of 
copyright  required  by  this  Act;  and  such  no- 
tice shall  be  affixed  to  each  copy  thereof  pub- 
lished or  offered  for  sale  in  the  United  States 
by  authority  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  except 
in  the  case  of  books  seeking  ad  interim  pro- 
tection under  section  twenty-one  of  this  Act. 

Sec.  10.  That  such  person  may  obtain  regis- 
tration of  his  claim  to  copyright  by  complying 
with  the  provisions  of  this  Act,  including  the 
deposit  of  copies,  and  upon  such  compliance 
the  register  of  copyrights  shall  issue  to  him 
the  certificate  provided  for  in  section  fifty- 
five  of  this  Act. 

Sec.  11.  That  copyright  may  also  be  had 
of  the  works  of  an  author  of  which  copies  are 
not  reproduced  for  sale,  by  the  deposit,  with 
claim  of  copyright,  of  one  complete  copy  of 
such  work  if  it  be  a  lecture  or  similar  pro- 
duction or  a  dramatic  or  musical  composition; 
of  a  photographic  print  if  the  work  be  a 
photograph;  or  of  a  photograph  or  other  identi- 
fying reproduction  thereof  if  it  be  a  work  of 
art  or  a  plastic  work  or  drawing.  But  the 
privilege  of  registration  of  copyright  secured 
hereunder  shall  not  exempt  the  copyright  pro- 
prietor from  the  deposit  of  copies  under  sec- 
tions twelve  and  thirteen  of  this  Act  where 
the  work  is  later  reproduced  in  copies  for 
sale. 

*  *    * 

Sec.  13.  That  should  the  copies  called  for  by 
this  Act  not  be  promptly  deposited  as  herein 
provided,  the  register  of  copyrights  may  at  any 
time  after  the  publication  of  the  work,  upon 
actual  notice,  require  the  proprietor  of  the 
copyright  to  deposit  them,  and  after  the  said 
demand  shall  have  been  made,  in  default  of 
the  deposit  of  copies  of  the  work  within  three 
months  from  any  part  of  the  United  States, 
except  an  outlying  territorial  possession  of  the 
United  States,  or  within  six  months  from  any 
outlying  territorial  possession  of  the  United 
States,  or  from  any  foreign  country,  the  pro- 
prietor of  the  copyright  shall  be  liable  to  a 
fine  of  one  hundred  dollars  and  to  pay  to  the 
Library  of  Congress  twice  the  amount  of  the 
retail  price  of  the  best  edition  of  the  work, 
and  the  copyright  shall  become  void. 

*  *     * 

Sec.  15.  That  of  the  printed  book  or  periodi- 
cal specified  in  section  five,  subsections  (a) 
and  (b)  of  this  Act.  except  the  original  text 
of  a  book  of  foreign  origin  in  a  language 
or  languages  other  than  English,  the  text  of 
all  copies  accorded  protection  under  this  Act. 
except  as  below  provided,  shall  be  printed 
from  type  set  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  either  by  hand  or  by  the  aid  of  any 
kind  of  typesetting  machine,  or  from  plates 
made  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States 
from  type  set  therein,  or,  if  the  text  be 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


produced  by  lithographic  process,  or  photo- 
engraving process,  then  by  a  process  wholly 
performed  within  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  printing  of  the  text  and  bind- 
ing of  the  said  book  shall  be  performed  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States;  which  re- 
quirements shall  extend  also  to  the  illustra- 
tions within  a  book  consisting  of  printed  text 
and  illustrations  produced  by  lithographic 
process,  or  photo-engraving  process,  and  also 
•  to  separate  lithographs  or  photo-engravings, 
except  where  in  either  case  the  subjects  repre- 
sented are  located  in  a  foreign  country  and 
illustrate  a  scientific  work  or  reproduce  a 
work  of  art;  but  they  shall  not  apply  to  works 
in  raised  characters  for  the  use  of  the  blind, 
or  to  books  of  foreign  origin  in  a  language  or 
languages  other  than  English,  or  to  books 
published  abroad  in  the  English  language  seek- 
ing ad  interim  protection  under  this  Act. 

*     *     * 

Sec.  18.  That  the  notice  of  copyright  re- 
quired by  section  nine  of  this  Act  shall  con- 
sist either  of  the  word  "Copyright"  or  the 
abbreviation  "Copr.",  accompanied  by  the 
name  of  the  copyright  proprietor,  and  if  the 
work  be  a  printed  literary,  musical,  or  dra- 
matic work,  the  notice  shall  include  also  the 
year  in  which  the  copyright  was  secured  by 
publication.  In  the  case,  however,  of  copies 
of  works  specified  in  subsections  (f)  to  (k), 
inclusive,  of  section  five  of  this  Act,  the  notice 
may  consist  of  the  letter  C  inclosed  within  a 
circle,  accompanied  by  the  initials,  mono- 
gram, mark,  or  symbol  of  the  copyright 
proprietor:  Provided,  That  on  some  ac- 
cessible portion  of  such  copies  or  of  the 
margin,  back,  permanent  base,  or  pedestal,  or 
of  the  substance  on  which  such  copies  shall 
be  mounted,  his  name  shall  appear.  But  in 
the  case  of  works  in  which  copyright  is  sub- 
sisting when  this  Act  shall  go  into  effect,  the 
notice  of  copyright  may  be  either  in  one  of 
the  forms  prescribed  herein  or  in  one  of  those 
prescribed  by  the  Act  of  June  eighteenth, 
eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-four. 

Sec.  19.  That  the  notice  of  copyright  shall 
be  applied,  in  the  case  of  a  book  or  other 
printed  publication  upon  its  title-page  or  the 
page  immediately  following,  or  if  a  periodi- 
cal either  upon  the  title-page  or  upon 
the  first  page  of  text  of  each  separate  number 
or  under  the  title  heading,  or  if  a  musical 
work  either  upon  its  title-page  or  the  first 
page  of  music:  Provided,  That  one  notice  of 
copyright  in  each  volume  or  in  each  number 
of  a  newspaper  or  periodical  published  shall 
suffice. 

Sec.  20.  That  where  the  copyright  proprie- 
tor has  sought  to  comply  with  the  provisions 
of  this  Act  with  respect  to  notice,  the  omis- 
sion by  accident  or  mistake  of  the  prescribed 
notice  from  a  particular  copy  or  copies  shall 
not  invalidate  the  copyright  or  prevent  re- 
covery for  infringement  against  any  person 
who,  after  actual  notice  of  the  copyright,  be- 
gins an  undertaking  to  infringe  it,  but  shall 
prevent  the  recovery  of  damages  against  an 
innocent  infringer  who  has  been  misled  by  the 
omission  of  the  notice;  and  in  a  suit  for  in- 
fringement no  permanent  injunction  shall  be 
had  unless  the  copyright  proprietor  shall  re- 
imburse to  the  innocent  infringer  his  reason- 
able outlay  innocently  incurred  if  the  court, 
in  its  discretion,  shall  so  direct. 

Sec.  21.  That  in  the  case  of  a  book  pub- 
lished abroad  in  the  English  language  before 
publication  in  this  country,  the  deposit  in  the 
copyright  office,  not  later  than  thirty  days  after 


its  publication  abroad,  of  one  complete  copy 
of  the  foreign  edition,  with  a  request  for  the 
reservation  of  the  copyright  and  a  statement 
of  the  name  and  nationality  of  the  author  and 
of  the  copyright  proprietor  and  of  the  date 
of  publication  of  the  said  book,  shall  secure 
to  the  author  or  proprietor  an  ad  interim 
copyright,  which  shall  have  all  the  force  and 
effect  given  to  copyright  by  this  Act,  and  shall 
endure  until  the  expiration  of  thirty  days 
after  such  deposit  in  the  copyright  office. 

Sec.  22.  That  whenever  within  the  period  of 
such  ad  interim  protection  an  authorized  edi- 
tion of  such  book  shall  be  published  within 
the  United  States,  in  accordance  with  the 
manufacturing  provisions  specified  in  section 
fifteen  of  this  Act,  and  whenever  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Act  as  to  deposit  of  copies, 
registration,  filing  of  affidavit,  and  the  print- 
ing of  the  copyright  notice  shall  have  been 
duly  complied  with,  the  copyright  shall  be 
extended  to  endure  in  such  book  for  the  full 
term  elsewhere  provided  in  this  Act. 

Sec.  23.  That  the  copyright  secured  by  this 
Act  shall  endure  for  twenty-eight  years  from 
the  date  of  first  publication,  whether  the  copy- 
righted work  bears  the  author's  true  name  or 
is  published  anonymously  or  under  an  as- 
sumed name:  Provided,  That  in  the  case  of 
any  posthumous  work  or  of  any  periodical, 
cyclopaedic,  or  other  composite  work  upon 
which  the  copyright  was  originally  secured 
by  the  proprietor  thereof,  or  of  any  work 
copyrighted  by  a  corporate  body  (other- 
wise than  as  assignee  or  licensee  of  the 
individual  author)  or  by  an  employer  for  whom 
such  work  is  made  for  hire,  the  proprietor  of 
such  copyright  shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal 
and  extension  of  the  copyright  in  such  work 
for  the  further  term  of  twenty-eight  years  when 
application  for  such  renewal  and  extension 
shall  have  been  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  original  term 
of  copyright:  And  provided  further,  That  in 
the  case  of  any  other  copyrighted  work,  in- 
cluding a  contribution  by  an  individual  author 
to  a  periodical  or  to  a  cyclopaedic  or  other 
composite  work  when  such  contribution  has 
been  separately  registered,  the  author  of  such 
work,  if  still  living,  or  the  widow,  widower, 
or  children  of  the  author,  if  the  author  be  not 
living,  or  if  such  author,  widow,  widower,  or 
children  be  not  living,  then  the  author's  execu- 
tors, or  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  his  next  of  kin 
shall  be  entitled  to  a  renewal  and  extension  of 
the  copyright  in  such  work  for  a  further  term 
of  twenty-eight  years  when  application  for 
such  renewal  and  extension  shall  have  been 
made  to  the  copyright  office  and  duly  regis- 
tered therein  within  one  year  prior  to  the  ex- 
piration of  the  original  term  of  copyright: 
And  provided  further,  That  in  default  of  the 
registration  of  such  application  for  renewal 
and  extension,  the  copyright  in  any  work  shall 
determine  at  the  expiration  of  twenty-eight 
years  from  first  publication. 

Sec.  24.  That  the  copyright  subsisting  in  any 
work  at  the  time  when  this  Act  goes  into 
effect  may,  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  pro- 
vided for  under  existing  law,  be  renewed  and 
extended  by  the  author  of  such  work  if  still 
living,  or  the  widow,  widower,  or  children  of 
the  author,  if  the  author  be  not  living,  or 
if  such  author,  widow,  widower,  or  children 
be  not  living,  then  by  the  author's  executors, 
or  in  the  absence  of  a  will,  his  next  of  kin, 
for  a  further  period  such  that  the  entire  term 
shall  be  equal  to  that  secured  by  this  Act, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


387 


including  the  renewal  period:  Provided,  how- 
ever, That  if  the  work  be  a  composite  work 
upon  which  copyright  was  originally  secured 
by  the  proprietor  thereof,  then  such  proprietor 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  renewal 
and  extension  granted  under  this  section:  Pro- 
vided, That  application  for  such  renewal  and 
extension  shall  be  made  to  the  copyright  office 
and  duly  registered  therein  within  one  year 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  the  existing  term. 

Sec.  25.  That  if  any  person  shall  infringe 
the  copyright  in  any  work  protected  under  the 
copyright  laws  of  the  United  States  such  per- 
son shall  be  liable: 

(a)  To    an    injunction    restraining    such    in- 
fringement; 

(b)  To  pay   to  the  copyright  proprietor  such 
damages   as  the  copyright   proprietor  may   have 
suffered    due    to    the    infringement,    as    well    as 
all    the   profits   which    the    infringer   shall    have 
made   from   such    infringement,    and    in   proving 
profits  the   plaintiff   shall   be  required   to  prove 
sales  only  and  the  defendant  shall   be  required 
to  prove  every  element  of  cost  which  he  claims, 
or   in   lieu   of  actual    damages   and   profits  such 
damages    as    to    the    court    shall    appear    to    be 
just,    and    in   assessing  such   damages   the   court 
may,    in    its    discretion,    allow    the    amounts   as 
hereinafter  stated,    but   in  the  case  of  a   news- 
p'aper     reproduction     of     a     copyrighted    photo- 
graph  such   damages  shall   not  exceed   the   sum 
of    two    hundred    dollars    nor    be    less    than    the 
sum    of    fifty    dollars,    and   such    damages    shall 
in  no   other   case   exceed   the  sum  of  five  thou- 
sand  dollars   nor  be   less  than   the  sum   of   two 
hundred    and    fifty    dollars,     and    shall    not    be 
regarded   as   a   penalty: 

First.  In  the  case  of  a  painting,  statue,  or 
sculpture,  ten  dollars  for  every  infringing  copy 
made  or  sold  by  or  found  in  the  possession 
of  the  infringer  or  his  agents  or  employees; 

Second.  In  the  case  of  any  work  enumerated 
in  section  five  of  this  Act,  except  a  painting, 
statue,  or  sculpture,  one  dollar  for  every  in- 
fringing copy  made  or  sold  by  or  found  in 
the  possession  of  the  infringer  or  his  agents 
or  employees; 

Third.  In  the  case  of  a  lecture,  sermon,  or 
address,  fifty  dollars  for  every  infringing  de- 
livery; 

Fourth.  In  the  case  of  a  dramatic  or  dra- 
matico-musical  or  a  choral  or  orchestral  com- 
position, one  hundred  dollars  for  the  first  and 
fifty  dollars  for  every  subsequent  infringing 
performance;  in  the  case  of  other  musical 
compositions,  ten  dollars  for  every  infringing 
performance; 

(c)  To   deliver  up  on  oath,    to  be   impounded 
during   the   pendency   of  the   action,    upon   such 
terms    and    conditions    as    the    court    may    pre- 
scribe,   all   articles   alleged  to   infringe   a   copy- 
right; 

(d)  To  deliver  up  on  oath  for  destruction  all 
the    infringing    copies    or    devices,    as    well    as 
all    plates,     molds,    matrices,      or    other    means 
for  making  such  infringing  copies  as  .the  court 
may    order ; 

(e)  Whenever  the   owner   of   a  musical   copy- 
right   has    used    or    permitted    the    use    of    the 
copyrighted    work    upon    the    parts    of    musical 
instruments   serving   to   reproduce   mechanically 
the    musical    work,     then    in    case    of    infringe- 
ment   of    such    copyright    by    the    unauthorized 
manufacture,     use,     or    sale    of    interchangeable 
parts,    such   as  disks,    rolls,    bands,    or   cylinders 
for    use    in     mechanical     music-producing    ma- 
chines   adapted    to    reproduce    the    copyrighted 
music,    no    criminal    action    shall    be    brought, 
but    in    a    civil    action    an    injunction    may    be 


granted  upon  such  terms  as  the  court  may 
impose,  and  the  plaintiff  shall  be  entitled  to 
recover  in  lieu  of  profits  and  damages  a  roy- 
alty as  provided  in  section  one,  subsection  (e), 
of  this  Act:  Provided  also,  That  whenever 
any  person,  in  the  absence  of  a  license  agree- 
ment, intends  to  use  a  copyrighted  musical 
composition  upon  the  parts  of  instruments 
serving  to  reproduce  mechanically  the  musi- 
cal work,  relying  upon  the  compulsory  license 
provision  of  this  Act,  he  shall  serve  notice  of 
such  intention,  by  registered  mail,  upon  the 
copyright  proprietor  at  his  last  address  dis- 
closed by  the  records  of  the  copyright  office, 
sending  to  the  copyright  office  a  duplicate  of 
such  notice;  and  in  case  of  his  failure  so  to 
do  the  court  may,  in  its  discretion,  in  addi- 
tion to  sums  hereinabove  mentioned,  award 
the  complainant  a  further  sum,  not  to  exceed 
three  times  the  amount  provided  by  section 
one,  subsection  (e),  by  way  of  damages,  and 
not  as  a  penalty,  and  also  a  temporary  in- 
junction until  the  full  award  is  paid. 

Rules   and    regulations    for  practice    and    pro- 
cedure   under    this    section    shall    be    prescribed 
by  the   Supreme  Court  of  the  United   States. 
*    *    * 

Sec.  28.  That  any  person  who  willfully  and 
for  profit  shall  infringe  any  copyright  secured 
by  this  Act,  or  who  shall  knowingly  and  will- 
fully aid  or  abet  such  infringement,  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon 
conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  im- 
prisonment for  not  exceeding  one  year  or  by 
a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars 
nor  more  than  one  thousand  dollars,  or  both, 
in  the  discretion  of  the  court:  Provided,  how- 
ever, That  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  prevent  the  performance  of  re- 
ligious or  secular  works,  such  as  oratorios, 
cantatas,  masses,  or  octavo  choruses  by  public 
schools,  church  choirs,  or  vocal  societies, 
rented,  borrowed,  or  obtained  from  some  pub- 
lic library,  public  school,  church  choir,  school 
choir,  or  vocal  society,  provided  the  perform- 
ance is  given  for  charitable  or  educational 
purposes  and  not  for  profit. 

Sec.  29.  That  any  person  who,  with  fraudu- 
lent intent,  shall  insert  or  impress  any  notice 
of  copyright  required  by  this  Act,  or  words 
of  the  same  purport,  in  or  upon  any  uncopy- 
righted  article,  or  with  fraudulent  intent  shall 
remove  or  alter  the  copyright  notice  upon  any 
article  duly  copyrighted  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor,  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  one  hundred  dollars  and  not  more  than 
one  thousand  dollars.  Any  person  who  shall 
knowingly  issue  or  sell  any  article  bearing  a 
notice  of  United  States  copyright  which  has 
not  been  .copyrighted  in  this  country,  or  who 
shall  knowingly  import  any  article  bearing 
such  notice  or  words  of  the  same  purport, 
which  has  not  been  copyrighted  in  this  coun- 
try, shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  one  hundred 
dollars. 

Sec.  30.  That  the  importation  into  the 
United  States  of  any  article  bearing  a  false 
notice  of  copyright  when  there  is  no  existing 
copyright  thereon  in  the  United  States,  or  of 
any  piratical  copies  of  any  work  copyrighted 
in  the  United  States,  is  prohibited. 

Sec.  31.  That  during  the  existence  of  the 
American  copyright  in  any  book  the  importa- 
tion into  the  United  States  of  any  piratical 
copies  thereof  or  of  any  copies  thereof  (al- 
though authorized  by  the  author  or  proprietor) 
which  have  not  been  produced  in  accordance 
with  the  manufacturing  provisions  specified 
in  section  fifteen  of  this  Act,  or  any  plates 


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of  the  same  not  made  from  type  set  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States,  or  any  copies 
thereof  produced  by  lithographic  or  photo- 
engraving process  not  performed  within  the 
limits  of  the  United  States,  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  section  fifteen  of  this 
Act,  shall  be,  and  is  hereby,  prohibited:  Pro- 
vided, however,  That,  except  as  regards  pirati- 
cal copies,  such  prohibition  shall  not  apply: 

(a)  To    works    in    raised    characters    for    the 
use  of  the   blino. ; 

(b)  To  a  foreign  newspaper  or  magazine,    al- 
though   containing    matter    copyrighted    in    the 
United    States   printed    or   reprinted   by   author- 
ity   of    the    copyright    proprietor,     unless    such 
newspaper  or  magazine   contains  also   copyright 
matter    printed    or    reprinted    without    such    au- 
thorization ; 

(c)  To   the    authorized    edition   of    a   book    in 
a  foreign  language  or  languages   of  which  only 
a     translation     into     English     has     been     copy- 
righted in  this  country. 

(d)  To   any   book   published    abroad   with   the 
authorization    of   the    author    or    copyright    pro- 
prietor when  imported  under  the  circumstances 
stated    in    one    of    the    four    subdivisions    fol- 
lowing,   that    is   to   say: 

First.  When  imported,  not  more  than  one 
copy  at  one  time,  for  individual  use  and  not 
for  sale;  but  such  privilege  of  importation 
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will. 

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*     *     * 

Sec.  46.  That  when  an  assignment  of  the 
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Sec.  63.  That  all  laws  or  parts  of  laws  in 
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hereby  repealed,  but  nothing  in  this  Act  shall 
affect  causes  of  action  for  -infringement  of 
copyright  heretofore  committed  now  pending 
in  courts  of  the  United  States,  or  which 
may  hereafter  be  instituted;  but  such  causes 
shall  be  prosecuted  to  a  conclusion  in  the 
manner  heretofore  provided  by  law. 

Sec.  64.  That  this  Act  shall  go  into  effect 
on  the  first  day  of  July,  nineteen  hundred  and 


EARLY  TYPES  OF  SEWING  MACHINES. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


ARMIES   OF   THE   WORLD. 


INFANTRY. 

The  real  basis  of  the  infantry  or- 
ganization of  all  foreign  armies  is  the 
battalion.  Except  for  England,  the 
typical  battalion  is  composed  of  4 
companies  and  has  a  strength  oh  the 
war  footing  of  some  20  to  25  officers 
and  900  to  1,100  men,  counting  from 
about  900  to  1,000  rifles.  In  England 
the  battalion  numbers  8  companies  and 
counts  about  860  rifles  on  the  war 
footing. 

In  speaking  of  a  foreign  battalion 
it  must,  therefore,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  its  fighting  strength  is  roughly 
equal  to  that  of  two  of  our  battalions. 

CAVALRY. 

The  basis  of  all  foreign  cavalry  or- 
ganization is  the  squadron.  The  foreign 
squadron  numbers  on  a  war  footing 
from  120  to  150  sabers.  Regiments 
contain  from  3  to  6  squadrons. 

It  will  therefore  be  noted  that  in 
speaking  of  a  foreign  squadron  we 
mean  a  force  of  about  one-half  the 
strength  of  the  United  States  squad- 
ron. Similarly,  the  cavalry  regiment 
of  foreign  services  is  about  one-half, 
or  less,  the  strength  of  our  regiments. 

FIELD  ARTILLERY. 

The  battery  is  usually  taken  as  the 
unit  of  field  artillery  organization. 
For  the  purposes  of  comparison  a 
more  correct  unit  is  the  battalion. 

Leaving  Russia  aside,  it  may  be 
said  that  there  are  two  great  systems 
of  field  artillery  organization.  These 
may  be  called,  naming  them  after  their 
great  exponents,  the  French  and  the 
German.  The  essential  differences  be- 
tween these  two  systems  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows  : 

The  French  system  takes  4  guns  as 
the  firing  unit,  the  battery,  and  as- 
signs all  of  the  ammunition  which 
should  be  available  upon  entry  into 
action  to  the  battery ;  batteries  count 


5  officers,  sometimes  4,  and  170  men. 

Under  the  German  system  the  firing 
unit,  battery,  counts  6  guns,  and  only 
so  much  ammunition  as  is  needed  for 
the  immediate  service  of  the  pieces  is 
assigned  to  the  batteries ;  the  re- 
mainder of  the  ammunition  which 
should  be  available  upon  entry  into 
action  being  assembled  in  an  am- 
munition battery  (light  ammunition 
column),  which  forms  an  integral  part 
of  the  battalion. 

In  both  systems  the  number  of  firing 
batteries  in  the  battalion  is  three ;  the 
German  system  having  an  additional 
battery  for  ammunition  gives  that 
system  4  battery  organizations  to  the 
battalion. 

Under  the  German  system  the 
strength  of  firing  batteries  is  about  5 
officers  and  150  men  and  that  of  am- 
munition batteries  is  4  officers  and 
188  men.  The  strength  of  battalion 
staffs  is  not  dependent  upon  the  par- 
ticular system. 

FORTRESS  ARTILLERY. 

In  most  foreign  services  all  artil- 
lery is  on  one  list.  That  branch  of 
artillery  known  as  fortress  artillery 
has  no  counterpart  in  our  service. 
Fortress  artillery  garrisons  the  land 
fortresses  of  the  country  and  fur- 
nishes artillery  of  various  types  to  the 
mobile  troops.  The  amount  of  mobile 
artillery  which  would  be  provided  by 
the  foot  artillery  in  war  is  naturally 
dependent  upon  the  character  of  the 
war,  whether  offensive  or  defensive, 
etc.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to 
say  by  how  much  the  artillery  with 
the  mobile  troops,  as  shown  in  the 
tables,  would  be  augmented  in  war. 

COAST  ARTILLERY. 

The  coast  artillery  shown  for  Ger- 
many does,  not  give  a  correct  idea,  for 
many  of  the  coast  fortifications  of  that 
country  are  garrisoned  by  marines. 


389 


390 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SANITARY  TROOPS. 

While  the  number  of  sanitary  troops 
shown  by  the  tables  is  small  for  for- 
eign armies  as  compared  with  the 
number  maintained  by  the  United 
States,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  war  much  of  the  "bearer  and  first- 
aid  duty"  is  performed  in  foreign  serv- 
ices by  men  drawn  from  and  forming 
part  of  the  line.  Furthermore,  drivers 
for  ambulances  and  for  other  non- 
technical purposes  are  drawn  from  the 
train.  The  necessity  for  maintaining 
a  nucleus  in  peace  for  expansion  in 
war  does  not  therefore  exist  in  the 
same  degree  in  foreign  countries  as  in 
the  United  States.  Similar  remarks 
are,  however,  true  for  services  other 
than  sanitary. 

EXPANSION  ON  MOBILIZATION. 

In  all  foreign  countries  of  any  con- 
sequence large  numbers  of  fully  trained 
reserves  exist.  These  men  are  as- 


signed to  organizations,  and  in  those 
organizations  complete  equipment  of 
every  kind  and  description  is  so  stored 
as  to  facilitate  immediate  issue.  Every 
horse  in  civil  life  has  its  place  as- 
signed and  its  owner  is  warned  as  to 
where  it  is  to  be  turned  in  on  mobili- 
zation;  the  same  is  true  of  vehicles. 
In  the  formation  of  certain  classes  of 
trains  the  Government  simply  directs 
teamsters  with  their  teams,  harness, 
and  wagons  to  report  at  previously 
specified  places.  It  is  thus  simply  a 
matter  of  hours  for  the  great  powers 
to  mobilize. 

Inasmuch  as  the  frontiers  of  possible 
enemies  adjoin  their  own,  and  the 
functioning  of  the  mobilization  of 
those  enemies  is  equally  complete,  all 
nations  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
maintain  their  cavalry  and  horse  ar- 
tillery at  practically  war  strength  and 
station  those  arms  on  the  frontiers  to 
secure  the  few  hours  which  are  neces- 
sary for  mobilization. 


TABLE  SHOWING  PEACE  STRENGTH,  BY  ARMS  OF  THE  SERVICE. 
ONLY  OFFICERS  AND  MEN  WITH  THE  COLORS  ARE  CONSIDERED. 


Country. 

Infan- 
try. 

Cav- 
alry. 

Field 
artil- 
lery. 

Foot 
artil- 
lery. 

Coast 
artil- 
lery. 

Tech- 
nical 
troops. 

Train. 

Sani- 
tary 
troops. 

Total  "' 
peace 
strength.1 

France4..  . 

379,640 

75,510 

76,  419 

4,446 

7,246 

18,  020 

10,  520 

6,123 

634,638 

Germany 

404,  765 

73,368 

69,  735 

24,673 

2,000 

26,  708 

8,038 

6,615 

634,320 

Austria  3.. 

194,  123 

47,541 

33,012 

6,040 

2,100 

10,507 

5,070 

4,307 

327,  580 

Russia 

580,000 

115,000 

94,110 

18,056 

14,152 

37,448 

(?) 

(?) 

1,200,000 

England  4  

151,261 

20,716 

34,649 

628 

14,965 

9,096 

6,772 

5,069 

255,  438 

Italy  

167,000 

24,000 

27,000 

7,000 

5,000 

11,000 

2,500 

3,  729 

288,409 

Mexico 

20  326 

7  318 

1  912 

(°) 

(?) 

657 

215 

(?) 

f    31,000- 

Japan  

149,  402 

14,585 

18,918 

6, 

.89 

16,727 

11,427 

3,484 

\      32,000 
230,000 

UNITED  STATES. 

Regulars  5 

27,  370 

13,  540 

5,456 

0 

19,  993 

3,  449' 

0 

4,117 

81,361 

Organized  militia 

97,035 

4,167 

4.565 

0 

7,256 

2,539 

0 

2,146 

119,660 

Total  

124,405 

17,  707 

10,021 

0 

27,  249 

5,988 

0 

6,263 

201,021 

1  Includes  miscellaneous  organizations,  staffs,  school  detachments,  etc. 

2  Includes  troops  stationed  in  Algiers  and  Tunis  and  such  colonial  troops  as  are  stationed  in  France. 

3  Common  army  only.    For  Landwehr,  see  study  on  Austria. 

4  Regular  army  only.    Indian  army,  colonial  forces,  and  territorial  forces  are  mentioned  in  study  on  Eng- 
land.   Territorial  force  (British  Isles)  numbers  315,408.    Canadian  permanent  force  and  organized  militia 
numbers  67,037. 

5  Based  on  Army  List,  20  November,  1910.    The  Porto  Rican  Regiment  is  counted  as  infantry.    Technical 
troops  include  Engineers  and  Signal  Corps.    8,000  recruits  included  in  total.    5,000  Philippine  Scouts  are 
not  counted. 


ARMIES  OF  THE  MINOR  POWERS. 


The  number  of  men,  peace  and  war  footing, 
of  the  minor  powers,  is  estimated  as  follows: 
Belgium,  a  peace  footing  of  47,000  men;  war 
footing,  188,000;  Bulgaria,  peace  footing, 
57,800;  war  footing,  375,000;  China,  peace 
footing,  240,000  trained  men;  Denmark, 
peace  footing,  12,000;  war.  footing,  66,000; 
India  (British),  peace  footing,  162,000;  war 
footing,  220,000  (native  troops  only);  Greece; 


peace  footing,  20,000;  war  footing,  100,000; 
Holland,  peace  footing,  34,000;  war  footing, 
175,000;  Roumania,  peace  footing,  93,000; 
war  footing,  350,000;  Spain,  peace  footing, 
115,000;  war  footing,  500,000;  Sweden, 
peace  footing,  69,000;  war  footing,  420,000; 
Switzerland,  peace  footing,  21,000;  war 
footing,  270,000;  Turkey,  peace  footing, 
375,000;  war  footing,  1,000,000. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


391 


TABLE  SHOWING  HIGHER  ORGANIZATIONS  EXISTING  IN  TIME  OF  PEACE. 
NO  MILITIA,  RESERVE,  OR  TERRITORIAL  TROOPS  ARE  INCLUDED. 


Country. 

Army 
corps. 

Divisions. 

Cavalry 
divisions. 

Infantry 
brigades. 

Cavalry 
brigades. 

Field- 
artillery 
brigades. 

France  

21 

47 

8 

92 

38 

21 

Qermany 

23 

48 

1 

106 

49 

46 

Austria  ».  .           

16 

33 

5 

58 

19 

16 

Russia                        .  . 

31 

56 

23 

143 

8  46 

61 

England  3 

0 

6 

0 

18 

4 

6 

Italy 

12 

25 

3 

51 

8 

12 

Mexico  

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Japan  

0 

19 

0 

39 

2 

3 

United  States  

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

i  Common  army  only. 

8  Possibly  more. 

3  Figures  are  for  regulars  in  the  British  Isles  only.  In  addition  there  are  14  divisions,  42  infantry  brigades, 
14  field-artillery  brigades,  and  14  mounted  brigades  of  territorial  troops  in  the  British  Isles.  In  India  there 
are  9  divisions,  9  field-artillery  brigades,  and  8  cavalry  brigades. 


ITALY  AUSTRIA  FRANCE  GERMANY 

INFANTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS. 


ARMIES  OF  THE  LEADING  POWERS. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  dual  monarchy  of  Austria-Hungary 
maintains  three  separate  armies  supported  by 
the  Empire,  by  Austria,  and  by  Hungary, 
respectively.  These  armies  are  known  as  the 
common  army,  the  Austrian  (Cisleithane) 
Landwehr,  and  the  Hungarian  Landwehr, 
respectively.  The  two  Landwehr  armies 
differ,  however,  from  the  Landwehr  of  other 
countries  in  that  they  are  maintained  with  the 
colors  in  time  of  peace.  The  common  army 
is  known  as  the  first  line,  and  the  two  Land- 
wehr armies  as  the  second  line. 

In  the  common  army  there  are  16  army 
corps  with  33  divisions.  There  are  15 
divisions  in  the  Landwehr.  There  are  5 


cavalry  divisions  organized  in  peace;  they  are 
attached  to  the  army  corps  and  all  belong  to 
the  common  army.  The  common  army  has 
58  brigades  of  infantry  and  19  brigades  of 
cavalry.  In  the  Landwehr  there  are  30 
brigades  of  infantry  and  probably  6  of  cavalry. 
There  are  16  brigades  of  field  artillery  in  the 
common  army,  organized  in  peace. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  common 
army  and  the  Landwehr  comprises  31,328 
officers,  including  a  certain  number  of  officials 
classed  as  officers,  and  363,919  men.  It  is 
impossible  to  give  any  definite  accurate 
statements  as  to  Austria's  maximum  mobili- 
zation or  even  as  to  her  initial  mobilization. 
A  conservative  estimate,  however,  places  the 


392 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


number  of  fully  trained  men  subject  to  call 
at  about  2,000,000.  Assuming  that  the 
initial  mobilization  would  be  confined  to  rais- 
ing existing  organizations  to  a  war  footing 
we  would  have  the  following  fighting  strength 
of  the  three  armies:  Common  army:  420,300 
infantry  rifles;  1,854  field  guns;  37,800 
cavalry  sabres.  Landwehr:  192,850  infantry 
rifles;  96  field  guns;  15,150  cavalry  sabres. 
Service  is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
19  and  42,  and  is  divided  into  numerous 
categories.  The  most  important  of  these 
are  as  follows:  Common  army,  3  years  with 
the  colors  and  7  years  with  the  first  reserve; 
during  the  latter  period  the  men  are  subject 
to  call  for  three  periods  of  training  of  4  weeks 
each.  Landwehr,  2  years  with  the  colors  and 
10  years  with  the  first  reserve;  during  the 
latter  period  the  men  may  be  called  for  in- 
struction under  varying  and  complex  rules. 

ENGLAND. 

The  military  forces  of  England  fall  under 
several  categories.  The  principal  of  these  are: 
The  regular  forces,  and  the  territorial  forces. 
The  regular  forces  are  again  divided  into 
British  forces — Indian  forces  and  colonial 
forces.  In  addition,  certain  of  the  colonies, 
Canada,  for  example,  maintain  considerable 
forces  of  militia. 


The  British  forces  (regular)  within  the 
British  Islands  are  organized  into  6  divisions 
and  4  cavalry  brigades.  The  territorial  force 
has  14  divisions  (similar  to  those  of  the 
regulars)  and  14  mounted  brigades.  The 
forces  in  India,  including  regular  and  native, 
are  divided  into  two  armies,  containing  a 
total  of  9  divisions  and  8  cavalry  brigades. 
The  division  in  India  is  smaller  than  is 
usually  the  rule  (about  13,000). 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  regular 
army  comprises  255,438  officers  and  men, 
distributed  as  follows:  British  Isles,  134,339 
officers  and  men;  Colonies  (other  than  India), 
45,215  officers  and  men;  India,  75,884  officers 
and  men.  In  addition  there  are  190  officers 
and  1,198  men  employed  with  the  special 
reserves,  of  whom  there  are  86,539.  There  are 
also  138,000  men  in  the  army  reserve,  in 
addition  to  the  special  reserve.  Combining 
the  strength  of  the  forces  with  the  colors  and 
the  trained  reserves,  we  have'  as  the  trained 
force  which  England  is  able  to  mobilize  as  her 
Regular  Establishment  a  total  of  481,365 
officers  and  men.  Service  in  the  regular 
establishment  is  voluntary  and  the  period  of 
enlistment  is  usually  for  12  years,  of  which 
a  certain  portion  is  passed  with  the  'colors  and 
the  remainder  in  the  reserve.  Service  with 
the  colors  is  usually  3,  7  or  8  years,  depending 


TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGES  OF  SEVERAL  ARMS  OF  TOTAL  PEACE  STRENGTH. 


*•                Country. 

Infan- 
try. 

Caval- 
ry- 

Field 
artil- 
lery. 

Foot 
artil- 
lery. 

Coast 
artil- 
lery. 

Tech- 
nical 
troops. 

Train. 

Sani- 
tary 
troops. 

Miscel- 
laneous. 

France       ......         .  . 

Pcrct. 

59  77 

Perct. 
11  89 

Perct. 

12  05 

Perct. 
0  70 

Perct. 
1  14 

Perct. 
2  83 

Perct. 
1  65 

Perct. 
0  96 

Per  ct. 
9  01 

Germany 

63  81 

11  56 

10  99 

3  88 

33 

4  21 

1  26 

1  04 

2  02 

Austria 

59  34 

14  51 

10  07 

1  84 

64 

3  20 

1  54 

1  31 

7  55 

Russia 

48  33 

9  58 

7  84 

1  50 

1  17 

3  12 

(') 

(1\ 

28  46 

England 

59  21 

8  10 

13  56 

24 

5  85 

3  56 

2  65 

1  98 

4  35 

Italy  

57.90 

8.32 

9.36 

2.42 

1.73 

3.81 

.86 

1.29 

14  31 

Mexico  

63.50 

22.86 

5.97 

(?) 

(?) 

2.05 

37 

(?) 

5  25 

Japan  

«L  95 

6.34 

8.22 

'      2 

a 

7.27 

4  96 

1  51 

3  76 

UNITED  STATES. 

Regulars 

33  64 

16  64 

6  66 

o 

24  57 

4  23 

o 

5  06 

9  20 

Organized  Militia 

81  09 

3  48 

3  81 

o 

6  06 

2  12 

o 

1  79 

1  65 

Total  

61.70 

8.80 

5.07 

o 

13.55 

2.97 

0 

3.11 

4  80 

ENGLAND  JAPAN  ITALY  AUSTRIA  FRANCE  GERMANY 

CAVALRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS, 


RUSSIA 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


393 


on  the  arm  of  the  service  and  other  condi- 
tions. 

There  is  also  the  territorial  force,  which 
however,  does  not  serve  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  British  Isles,  except  by  its  own  consent. 
The  total  of  this  territorial  force  is  about 
315.408. 

All  the  colonies  maintain  bodies  of  native 
troops.  India  has  a  native  force  of  some 
162,000  men.  The  Canadian  forces  are 
divided  into  the  permanent  and  active  militia; 
the  combined  peace  strength  of  these  two 
forces  as  authorized  by  law  being  62,037  for 
the  active  militia  and  5,000  for  the  permanent 
force.  Actually,  the  numbers  are  somewhat 
below  these  figures  as  follows:  Infantry, 
43,162  officers  and  men;  field  artillery,  3,719; 
garrison  artillery,  2,993;  cavalry,  8,567,  a 
total  of  58,441  officers  and  men.  In  addition 
there  are  in  Canada  reserves,  under  various 
names,  to  the  number  of  39,346.  The 
Canadian  forces  ate  probably  about  as  well 
trained  as  the  Organized  Militia  of  the 
United  States. 


FRANCE. 

The  French  -Arms'  proper  is  known  as  the 
Metropolitan  Army  and  is  divided  between 
France  and  Algiers.  There  are  20  army 
corps  organized  in  peace.  In  addition  there 
is  9116  colonial  army  corps.  There  are  47 
divisions  and  92  infantry  brigades;  21  field 
artillery  brigades  are  distributed  among  the 
21  corps.  There  are  also  8  cavalry  divisions 
organized  in  peace,  or  a  total  of  38  cavalry 
brigades. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  French 
Army,  exclusive  of  colonial  troops  but  in- 
cluding gendarmes  and  "republican  guards," 
comprises  29,209  officers  and  577,303  men. 
Of  these  26,368  officers  and  507,764  men  are 
stationed  in  France.  There  are  in  addition, 
2,083  officers  and  26,043  men  of  the  colonial 
army  stationed  in  France.  This  brings  the 
total  force  stationed  in  France  up  to  28,451 
officers  and  533,807  men.  The  grand  total 
of  the  Metropolitan  Army  and  the  colonial 


(Continued  on  page  396.) 


TABLE  SHOWING  FIGHTING  STRENGTH  OF  THREE  ARMS  ON  MOBILIZATION. 

EXISTING  ORGANIZATIONS  ONLY  CONSIDERED. 


I 


Fully 

Country. 

Infantry 
rifles. 

Cavalry 
sabers. 

Field  guns. 

Sabers  per 
thousand 
infantry 
bayonets. 

Field-guns 
per  thou- 
sand in- 
fantry bay- 
onets.1 

trained 
reserves 
available 
for  passing 
from  peace 
to  war  foot- 

ing. 

France  *  

618,450 

66.750 

2,936 

107.93 

4.74 

2,300,000 

Germany  .... 

633,000 

76.500 

3,866 

120.85 

6.10 

4,000,000 

Austria  *    

420  300 

37.800 

1.854 

89  93 

4.41 

1,600,000 

Russia  * 

973  152 

111  825 

4,432 

114  91 

4.55 

3,800,000 

England5 

135  020 

15  000 

1  170 

111  09 

8.66 

215,000 

Italy 

300  000 

20  880 

1  470 

69  99 

4.90 

1,250,000 

Mexico  • 

53  760 

14  016 

176 

260  71 

3  27 

None 

Japan  ' 

928  000 

14  550 

954 

63  81 

4  18 

1  000  000 

UNITED  STATES. 

Regulars8  

39,600 

15,225 

144 

384.  46 

3.63 

None. 

Organized  Militia  9 

167,000 

5,800 

200 

34.73 

1.19 

None. 

Total10  

206  600 

21  025 

344 

101.  76 

L66 

None. 

»  No  deductions  made  for  horse  guns. 

2  For  all  existing  units,  for  mobilization  in  France,  see  separate  study. 

8  Common  army  only.    Figures  are  approximate.    (See  study.) 

<  The  peculiar  situation  of  Russia  makes  it  impossible  for  her  to  assemble  her  total  force  upon  any  one 
theater  of  war. 

5  Regulars  only.    For  territorial  forces,  extra  reserves,  etc. ,  see  study. 

8  Total  strength  in  ranks  considered.  The  deductions  which  should  be  made  for  npncombatants  are  not 
accurately  known.  Laws  for  compulsory  service  exist  and  riTight  be  put  into  effect  in  war. 

7  Japan  forms  a  very  large  number  of  new  organizations  which  are  not  considered  here.    Neither  are  the 
special  troops  in  Formosa  and  elsewhere  considered.    The-foot  artillery  mobilizes  an  additional  number 
of  heavy  field  guns,  possibly  1  gun  per  thousand  rifles. 

8  Porto  Rican  Regiment  and  Philippine  Scouts  are  excluded  from  this  table. 

»  The  infantry  in  the  Organized  Militia  is  obtained.by  reducing  all  incomplete  regiments  to  the  standard 
organizations.  Separate  companies  and  cadet  corps,  etc. ,  have  not  been  considered. 

The  Organized  Militia  has  no  complete  regiments  of  Cavalry.  The  figures  are  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  number  of  troops  by  the  troop  fighting  strength. 

All  batteries  of  the  Organized  Militia  are  included,  although  6  batteries  (24  guns)  have  not  yet  reached 
the  stage  where  it  is  deemed  expedient  to  issue  modern  material.  Only  a  few  batteries  are  organized  into 
complete  battalions  and  there  are  no  regiments. 

10  This  assumes  that  organizations  can  be  raised  to  the  war  strength.  As  a  matter  of  fact  trained  men 
are  not  available  for  this  purpose,  and  if  they  were  clothing  and  equipments  are  not  available  for  passing 
to  the  war  strength. 


394 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PEACE 


Men 

f-                                                379,640 

FRANCE                 ^ 

7  5,5  1  0 
7  6.4  1  9 

\-                                          404765 

GFRMANY                  ^T 

7  3.3  6  8 
6  9.7  3  5 

194.123 

|                                    J_ 

AUSTRIA               E?' 

4  7.5  4  1 
33.0  12 

H                SflOOOO 

RUSSIA                  -^r* 

1  1  5,0  0  0 
94.1  10 

151.261 
20,716 
34,649 

167,000 
2  4,0  0  0 
27.000 

20,326 
7.318 
1.912 

149,402 
1  4,5  8  5 
1  8,9  1  8 

Regulars            Militia                     Total 
27.370            97.035             124.405 
13.540              4.167               17,707 
5.456              4,565               10.021 

27.370 
1  3.5  4  0 
5,456 

97.035 
A  167 
4.565 

ENGLAND             W~ 

r               j- 

ITALY                    W 
MEXICO                F 
JAPAN                  ff 

UNITED  STATES     W 

n- 
UNITED  STATES     f 

(Regular*) 

UNITED  STATES     F" 

(Militia) 

The  relative  rank  between  the  officers  of 
the  United  States  army  and  navy  is  as  follows: 
General  with  Admiral;  Lieutenant-General 
with  Vice-Admiral;  Major-General  with  Rear- 
Admiral;  Brigadier-General  with  Commodore; 
Colonel  with  Captain;  Lieutenant-Colonel 
with  Commander;  Major  with  Lieutenant- 
Commander;  Captain  with  Lieutenant;  First 
Lieutenant  with  Lieutenant  (junior  grade); 
Second  Lieutenant  with  Ensign. 


At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1911,  the  number  of  sea  coast  guns  in  the 
United  States  mounted,  ready  for  armament 
and  under  construction,  were  as  follows.  Guns 
mounted:  376  12-inch  mortars;  105  12-inch 
guns,  including  2  guns  on  hydraulic  lifts;  133 
10-inch  guns;  65  8-inch  guns;  503  rapid  fire 
guns,  one  mounted  temporarily.  Ready  for 
Armament:  2  12-inch  guns  and  13  rapid  fire 
guns. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


395 


WAR 


Fully  TraineJ   Reserves    available    for  Passing  from    Peace  "to  War  footing 


2.300.000 


4.000,000 


1,600,000 


3.800.000 


D 


315.000 


1,250,000 


NONE 


NONE 


NONE 


NONE 


LEGEND    « 


Field  Artillen 


GUN  SALUTES. 


President  of  the  United  States,  President  of 
a  Foreign  Republic,  Member  of  Royal  Family 
and  Ex-President  of  the  United  States,  21 
guns;  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  and 
Ambassador  of  United  States  (in  waters  of 
country  to  which  he  is  accredited),  19  guns; 
Sacretary  of  the  Navy,  Cabinet  Officer,  Chief 
Jrstice,  Governor-General  of  U.  S.  Islands, 
Governor  of  State,  Territory,  or  U.  S.  Islands, 
President  pro  tempore  of  Senate,  Speaker  of 


House  of  Representatives,  Committee  of 
Congress,  Admiral  of  the  Navy  and  General, 
17  guns;  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Envoy  Extraordinary,  Vice-Admiral  and 
Lieutenant-General,  15  guns;  Minister 
Resident,  or  Diplomatic  Representative, 
Rear-Admiral  and  Maior-General,  United 
States  Army,  13  guns;  Charge  d'Affaires  and 
Commodore,  11  guns;  Consul-General,  9  guns; 
Consul,  7  guns;  Vice-Consul,  5  guns. 


396 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


(Continued  from  page  393.) 
troops  stationed  in  France  is  31,292  officers 
and  603,364  men. 

The  organization  of  the  maximum  mobiliza- 
tion of  France  cannot  be  given  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy  but  it  is  estimated  that  the  sum 
total  of  all  trained  men  which  she  is  able  to 
mobilize  amounts  to  about  3,000,000  men. 
The  fighting  strength  of  the  three  arms  on 
initial  mobilization  would  be  about  518,000 
infantry  rifles,  59,250  cavalry  sabres  and 
2,944  field  guns.  This  estimate  is  a  minimum 
Besides  the  above,  there  are  about  49,500 
colonial  troops.  About  14,500  of  these  are 
Europeans  and  the  remainder  natives.  There 
are  also  about  3,723  Europeans  and  8,254 
natives  in  the  forces  at  Madagascar. 

Service  with  the  Metropolitan  Army  is 
compulsory  between  the  ages  of  20  and  45. 
After  serving  with  the  colors  for  two  years 
(all  arms)  the  men  pass  into  the  reserve  of 
the  active  army,  in  which  they  serve  for  11 
years,  during  which  they  are  subject  to  two 
periods  of  instruction,  one  for  23  days,  the 
other  for  17  days.  From  the  reserve  pf  the 
active  army  the  men  pass  to  the  "territorial 
army,"  in  which  they  serve  for  6  years, 
subject  to  one  period  of  7  days'  instruction. 
The  final  service  is  with  the  "reserve  of  the 
territorial  army";  this  service  is  for  6  years; 
the  men  receive  no  training  but  are  subject 
to  muster. 

GERMANY. 

The  German  Army  as  now  organized  in 
peace  consists  of  23  army  corps  and  1  cavalry 
division,  besides  certain  special  troops, 
schools,  recruiting  stations,  etc.  While  the 
cavalry  divisions  which  would  mobilize  in 
war  are  not  all  formed  in  peace,  there  exist 
certain  staffs  for  such  divisions  and  they  are 
assembled  for  instruction  from  time  to  time. 
The  total  peace  strength  amounts  to  622,- 
320  officers  and  men.  To  these  should  be 
added  from  10  to  12  thousand  "Einjahrig- 
freiwilligers."  These  men  serve  for  one  year 
defraying  their  own  expenses.  The  sum 
total  of  trained  men  which  Germany  is  able 
to  mobilize  amounts  to  about  4,610,000.  The 
estimated  fighting  strength  of  her  initial 
mobilization  is  as  follows:  962,000  infantry 
rifles;  79,200  cavalry  sabres;  5,226  field  guns. 
No  German  troops  of  the  army  proper  serve 
outside  the  home  country  in  time  of  peace. 
An  estimate  of  the  number  of  colonial  troops 
places  the  number  at  10,000  officers  and  men. 
Service  in  the  German  army  is  compulsory 
between  the  ages  of  17  and  45  and  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  categories.  Service  with  the 
colors  is  three  years  with  the  cavalry  and 
horse  artillery  and  two  years  for  other  arms. 
After  serving  with  the  colors,  the  men  pass 
into  the  reserve,  in  which  they  serve  4  years 
and  6  months  or  5  years  and  6  months  ac- 
cording to  the  arm  of  the  service.  During 
this  service  the  men  of  the  reserve  may  be 
called  out  for  two  periods  of  training  of  8 
weeks  each.  In  practice  the  majority  of  the 
reserve  is  seldom  held  longer  than  28  days 
for  each  period.  From  the  reserve  the  men 
pass  into  various  other  categories.  Germany 
has  more  men  annually  arriving  at  the  age 
of  military  service  than  she  needs  for  duty 
with  the  colors.  Somewhat  over  one  million 
men  annually  present  themselves,  of  whom 
a  little  more  than  250,000  are  actually  drafted 
for  duty  with  the  colors. 


ITALY.    ' 

The  Italian  military  system  is  complicated 
and  is  composed  of  the  regular  army,  the 
mobile  militia,  and  the  territorial  militia 
The  regular  army  as  reorganized  in  1910 
comprises  12  army  corps,  25  divisions,  and  3 
cavalry  divisions  in  time  of  peace.  Com- 
manders and  staffs  for  four  armies  exist  in 
time  of  peace. 

The  total  peace  strength  of  the  reeular 
army  in  1909-1910  was  13,942  officers  and 
274,467  men,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  more  than 
250,000  men  were  actually  with  the  colors  at 
any  one  time.  On  paper  the  number  of  men 
Italy  would  be  able  to  mobilize  amounts  to 


ENGLAND 


U.S. 
ARTILLERY  OF  PRINCIPAL  NATIONS, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


39? 


about  3,500,000  men.  A  conservative 
estimate  would  seem  to  be  about  1,500,000 
fully  trained  men.  The  complex  system  and 
the  custom  of  giving  indefinite  leave  to  un- 
trained men  render  it  difficult  to  estimate 
Italy's  strength  accurately  with  respect  to 
the  number  of  fully  trained  men.  The 
fighting  strength  of  the  three  arms  on  initial 
mobilization  would  be:  Infantry  rifles, 
300,000;  cavalry  sabres,  20,880;  field  guns 
(with  probably  an  additional  162  heavy  field 
guns  manned  by  fortress  artillery)  1,470. 
In  addition,  Italy  maintains  in  her  African 
possessions  132  officers  and  4,530  trained  men; 
of  the  latter  6GO  are  Italians  and  the  remainder 
natives. 

Service  is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
20  and  39.  Service  with  the  colors  is  nomi- 
nally for  3  years,  but  as  the  budget  is  seldom 
sufficient  many  men  are  released  with  one  or 
two  years'  training.  These  pass  from  the 
colors  to  a  form  of  leave  status  in  which  they 
serve  to  complete  a  total  period  in  the  regular 
army  of  8  or  9  years.  They  then  pass  into  the 
mobile  militia,  from  whence  they  g9  into  the 
territorial  militia.  The  men  are  subject  to  the 
call  for  instruction  as  follows:  30  days  per 
year  for  the  leave  status  and  mobile  militia; 
30  days  in  4  years  for  the  territorial  militia. 

MEXICO. 

There  is  no  organization  higher  than  the 
regiment  in  time  of  peace.  The  total  peace 
strength  is  between  31,000  and  32,000. 
Mexico's  war  strength,  aside  from  new  or- 
ganizations, may  be  reckoned  at  about  100,- 
000  officers  and  men.  In  theory,  service  is 
compulsory.  Actually,  it  is  not,  except, 
perhaps,  for  some  of  the  lower  and  criminal 

JAPAN. 

The  rapid  progress  of  Japan  as  a  military 
nation,  the  secrecy  maintained  by  her  con- 
cerning reserves,  territorial  organizations, 
etc.,  as  well  as  the  system  of  training  Japanese 
school  children  in  the  rudiments  of  drill  and 
military  discipline,  makes  it  extremely 
difficult  to  make  an  accurate  inventory  of  the 
Japanese  military  resources. 


The  division  is  the  highest  permanent 
organization  in  time  of  peace.  There  are, 
however,  11  generals  and  22  lieutenant- 
generals,  besides  other  officers,  available  for 
the  command  and  staff  of  such  armies  as  may 
be  formed  in  war.  There  are  19  divisions 
organized  in  peace.  There  are  39  brigades, 
4  cavalry  brigades  and  3  field  artillery 
brigades.  In  addition  there  is  one  infantry 
brigade  in  Korea. 

The  peace  strength  of  Japan  is  variously 

j  estimated  and  it  is  certain  that  it  is  at  least 
230,000  men.  The  fighting  strength  of  the 

!  three  arms  follows:  Infantry  rifles,  228,000; 
cavalry  sabres,  14,550;  field  guns  (with 

1  possibly  228  heavy  field  guns  in  addition) 
954.  There  are  at  least  1,000,000  fully 
trained  reserves  subject  to  call  on  mobiliza- 
tion. 

RUSSIA. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  an  entirely  satis- 
factory resume  of  the  Russian  Army  due  to 
the  vast  extent  of  Russia's  territory,  the 
internal  condition  of  the  nation,  and  the 
character  of  the  countries  adjoining  her  which 
make  it  necessary  for  her  to  maintain  what 
amounts  to  three  separate  armies,  namely, 
the  Army  of  Europe  and  the  Caucasus;  the 
Army  of  Central  Asia;  the  Army  of  Siberia 
and  Eastern  Asia.  Then  the  troops  are 
divided  up  into  numerous  categories,  some  of 
which  are  most  unusual  and  about  which 
there  is  little  information  that  can  be  de- 
pended upon.  For  example,  we  find  "active 
troops,"  "reserve  troops,"  "2d  reserve 
troops,"  and  "fortress  troops." 

There  are  31  army  corps,  with  56  divisions 

i    organized  in  peace,  and  23  cavalry  divisions. 

|    The  total  peace  strength  amounts  to  about 

!    1,200,000     officers     and     men.     The     total 

I  number  of  trained  men  subject  to  call 
amounts  to  about  5,000,000.  It  is  estimated 
that  Russia  could  mobilize  2,000,000  fully 

j    trained  men  upon  her  European  frontiers. 
Military    service    in    Russia   is   obligatory. 

I  Passing  from  service  with  the  colors  the  men 
pass  into  various  reserves  but  on  account  of 
their  great  variety  no  further  statements  can 
be  given  in  a  brief  form. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY. 


The  United  States  Army  consists,  ordinarily, 
of  the  Regular  Army  but  whenever  the  United 
States  is  invaded  or  is  in  danger  of  invasion 
from  any  foreign  nation,  or  of  rebellion 
against  the  authority  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  or  the  President  is  unable 
with  the  regular  forces  at  his  command  to 
execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  he  may  call 
into  the  military  service  of  the  United  States, 
all  or  any  part  of  the  Organized  Militia  of 
the  various  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
In  war,  or  when  war  is  imminent,  the  Army 
of  the  United  States,  after  the  Organized 
Militia  has  been  called  into  service,  may  be 
further  augmented  by  the  employment  of 
volunteers. 

Under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
Feb.  14,  1908,  the  system  of  military  control 
in  the  Army  was  reorganized.  This  act 
abolished  the  separate  office  of  commanding 
general  of  the  army  and  created  the  General 
Staff  Corps,  which  under  the  direction  of  the 
Chief  of  Staff,  is  charged  with  the  following 


duties:  To  investigate  and  report  on  all 
questions  affecting  the  efficiency  of  the 
Army  and  its  state  of  preparation  for  military 
operations;  to  prepare  projects  for  maneuvers; 
revises  estimates  for  appropriations  for  the 
support  of  the  Army  and  advises  as  to  the 
disbursement  of  such  appropriations;  exer- 
cises supervision  over  inspections,  military 
education  and  instruction,  etc.  and  to  per- 
form such  other  military  duties  not  otherwise 
assigned  by  law,  as  may  from  time  to  time  be 
prescribed  by  the  President. 

On  May  26,  1911,  a  general  order  of  the 
War  Department  was  issued  by  which  the 
office  of  Chief  of  Staff  was  divided  into  four 
sections.  1.  The  Mobile  Army.  2.  The  Coast 
Artillery  Division.  3.  The  Division  of 
Militia  Affairs.  4.  The  Army  War  College. 

The  command  of  the  Army  rests  with 
the  constitutional  commander-in-chief,  the 
President,  who  may  place  all  or  part  of  the 
Army  under  commands  subordinate  to  his 
general  command.  We  have  had  but  four 


398 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


generals — Washington,  Grant,  Sherman  and 
Sheridan.  A  General  is  supposed  to  com- 
mand an  army.  An  army  is  a  large  and 
organized  body  of  soldiers,  generally  com- 
posed of  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery, 
completely  armed  and  provided  with  necessary 
stores,  etc.,  and  the  entire  force  is  under  the 
direction  of  one  general.  The  subdivision 
of  the  United  States  Army  follows.  An 
"army"  is  divided  into  two  or  more  field 
armies,  or  corps,  commanded  by  a  Lieutenant- 
General.  A  "corps"  is  the  largest  tactical 
unit  of  a  large  army  and  is  really  a  small 
army  complete  in  itself  hi  that  it  is  usually 
organized  with  separate  staff,  infantry, 
cavalry  and  artillery  regiments  as  well  as 
auxiliary  services.  A  "corps"  is  also  any 
body  or  department  of  an  army  which  is  not 
detached  but  has  its  own  organization  and 
head,  as  the  "Corps  of  Engineers,"  the 
"Signal  Corps,"  etc.  A  corps  is  composed  of 
two  or  more  divisions,  each  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  Major-General.  Each  "division" 
is  composed  of  three  brigades  of  infantry,  a 
regiment  of  cavalry  and  a  brigade  (two 
regiments)  of  field  artillery.  The  division 
is  the  great  administrative  and  tactical  unit 
and  forms  the  basis  of  army  organization. 
A  "brigade"  consists  of  three  regiments  of 
infantry  and  is  commanded  by  a  Brigadier- 
General.  A  cavalry  brigade  consists  of  two 
or  more  cavalry  regiments.  When  acting 
independently,  a  regiment  of  horse  artillery 
is  attached  to  a  cavalry  brigade.  A  "regi- 
ment" which  is  both  administrative  and 
tactical  is  commanded  by  a  Colonel  and  is 
divided  into  12  companies.  (The  regiment 
at  Porto  Rico  is  composed  of  but  8  companies.) 
A  regiment  of  cavalry  is  composed  of  12  troops 
and  a  regiment  of  field  artillery  of  6  batteries. 
Two  or  more  companies  form  a  "battalion" 
commanded  by  a  Major.  The  battalion  is 
a  tactical  unit  only.  A  "company,"  which 
is  commanded  by  a  Captain,  is  both  ad- 
ministrative and  tactical.  Under  the  present 
law  the  number  of  enlisted  men  in  a  company, 
troop,  etc.,  varies  with  the  station,  as  follows: 
Philippine  Islands,  infantry  150  men,  cavalry 
100  men;  Hawaii  and  Panama  Canal  Zone, 
infantry  72  men,  cavalry  70  men;  all  com- 


panies not  stationed  as  above,  infantry  65 
men,  cavalry  65  men.  There  are  133  men  in 
a  battery  of  light  and  mountain  artillery  and 
150  men  in  a  battery  of  horse  artillery.  Each 
company  of  Coast  Artillery  consists  of  104 
enlisted  men  and  each  company  of  engineers 
of  159  men. 

The  Regular  Army  is  officered:  1.  By 
Graduates  of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy.  2.  By  promotion  of  meritorious 
enlisted  men  of  the  army  whose  fitness  for 
advancement  is  determined  by  a  com- 
petitive examination.  3.  By  the  appoint- 
ment of  civilians  selected  from  the  best  cadet 
schools  of  the  country 

The  pay  of  officers  in  active  service  of  the 
United  States  Army  is  as  follows:  Lieutenant- 
General,  $11,000;  Major-General,  $8,000; 
Brigadier-General,  $6,000;  Colonel,  $4,000; 
Lieutenant-Colonel,  $3,500;  Major,  $3,000; 
Captain,  $2,400;  First  Lieutenant,  $2,000; 
Second  Lieutenant,  $1,700.  Officers  below 
the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  receive  ten  per 
cent,  on  the  yearly  pay  of  the  grade  for  each 
term  of  five  years'  service,  not  to  exceed  40 
per  cent,  in  all.  Thus  the  maximum  pay  of 
the  Colonel  is  $5,000;  Lieutenant-Colonel, 
$4,500,  etc.  Further,  any  officer  below  the 
rank  of  major  required  to  be  mounted  receives 
$150  per  annum  additional  if  he  provides  one 
suitable  mount  at  his  own  expense,  and  $200 
if  he  provides  two .  mounts.  Furthermore, 
all  officers  serving  outside  of  the  United  States 
except  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii,  receive  ten 
per  cent,  increase  in  pay  while  so  serving. 
The  monthly  pay  of  a  private  in  artillery, 
cavalry,  infantry  and  signal  corps  is  $15  for 
the  first  enlistment,  $18  for  the  second  en- 
listment, etc.,  up  to  $25  for  the  seventh  en- 
listment. 

The  active  strength  of  the  army  on  Decem- 
ber 1,  1911,  including  the  Philippine  Scouts 
was  4,847  officers  and  77,523  enlisted  men, 
a  total  of  82,370.  This  total  of  82,370  was 
made  up  as  follows:  Infantry  (31  regiments) 
1,655  officers  and  27,583  enlisted  men; 
cavalry  (15  regiments)  816  officers  and  13,286 
enlisted  men;  field  artillery  (6  regiments)  261 
officers  and  5,416  enlisted  men;  coast 
artillery  corps  (170  companies)  740  officers 


LOADING      A      DISAPPEARING      GUN. 

WHEN  IT  IS  IN  THE  DEPRESSED 

POSITION. 


FIRING     A     12 -INCH     DISAPPEARING 

GUN  AT  ONE  OF  OUR  COAST 

BATTERIES. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


399 


and  18,471  enlisted  men;  corps  of  engineers 
(3  battalions)  200  officers  and  1,942  enlisted 
men;  signal  corps,  46  officers  and  1,212  en- 
listed men;  7,904  enlisted  men  not  detached 
to  regiments;  staff  corps,  Quartermaster's, 
Medical,  Pay,  Subsistence  and  Ordnance 
Departments,  Military  Academy,  Bureau  of 
Insular  Affairs  and  Indian  Scouts,  1,129 
officers  and  1,709  enlisted  men.  In  addition 
to  the  above  there  were  3,500  enlisted  men  in 
the  Hospital  Corps  (not  counted  as  enlisted 
men  by  law)  and  628  cadets  of  the  Military 
Academy  (entered  under  law,  see  Military 
Academy),  making  a  grand  total  of  86,498 
officers  and  men.  There  were  on  the 
retired  list  1,013  officers  and  3,317  en- 
listed men. 

The  term  of  enlistment  in  the  regular 
service  is  three  years.  Any  male  citizen  of 
the  United  States  between  the  ages  of  21  and 
35  may  be  enlisted.  Minors  between  the  ages 
of  18  and  21  may  be  enlisted  only  with  the 
consent  of  parents  or  guardians.  All  ap- 
plicants must  be  able  to  read  and  write 
English,  must  be  able-bodied,  free  from 
disease  and  of  good  character  and  temperate 
habits. 

Under  the  Act  of  Congress  of  January  31, 
1903,  amended  May  27,  1908,  the  militia  con- 
sists of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
United  States  who  is  more  than  eighteen  and 
less  than  forty-five  years  of  age,  and  is  divided 
into  two  classes — the  organized  militia  or 
National  Guard,  and  the  remainder  to  be 
known  as  the  reserve  militia.  It  is  entirely 
optional  whether  eligible  citizens  join  the 
National  Guard,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  this 
body  of  reserves  is  recruited  from  the  best 
and  most  patriotic  element  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States.  Congress  makes  an 
appropriation  each  year  for  the  support  of 
the  militia  in  the  various  States,  and  the 
States  also  contribute,  hold  and  build 
armories,  as  the  regiments  are  really  intended 
to  defend  their  own  State  primarily,  although 
in  time  of  war  they  furnish  an  excellently 
drilled  body  of  volunteers.  In  nearly  every 
city  of  any  great  size  there  is  one  or  more 
armories,  and  in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns 


there  are  separate  companies  which  have 
armories  or  drill  halls.  The  militia  in  each 
state  is  divided  into  brigades,  regiments, 
battalions  and  companies.  Under  the  act 
of  Congress  above  named  the  President  of 
the  United  States  has  the  power  to  call  upon 
any  of  the  military  organizations  of  the  States 
for  national  defense  and  when  so  called  each 
man  must  yield  prompt  obedience  to  the 
order  to  escape  trial  by  court-martial.  The 
Organized  Militia  is,  in  short,  subject  to  be 
ordered  at  any  time  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States  as  a  re-enforcement  of  the 
regular  army  and  when  so  ordered  are  subject 
to  the  same  rules  and  regulations  as  the 
regulars  and  receive  the  same  pay,  during 
service,  as  the  regular  army  troops. 

The  strength  of  the  organized  militia, 
according  to  the  latest  report  is  9,172  officers 
and  108,816  enlisted  men,  as  follows:  General 
officers  and  General  Staff  2,051;  engineers, 
1,141  officers  and  men;  cavalry,  4.226  officers 
and  men;  field  artillery,  4,453 ;  coast  artillery, 
7,100  officers  and  men;  infantry,  95,356 
officers  and  men;  hospital  corps,  2,281 
officers  and  men;  signal  corps,  1,380  officers 
and  men;  grand  aggregate,  117,988  officers 
and  men. 

The  officers  of  higher  grades  are  appointed 
by  the  Governor  but  the  other  officers,  from 
Colonel  down,  are  generally  selected  by 
ballot  by  the  troops  themselves. 

The  term  of  enlistment  varies  in  different 
States  from  one  to  five  years  but  in  most 
States  it  is  three  years.  In  addition  the  term 
of  re-enlistment  also  varies;  some  States 
provide  for  a  certain  term  for  the  first  enlist- 
ment and  a  smaller  term  of  enlistment  in 
subsequent  enlistments. 

The  total  number  of  males  of  militia  age  in 
the  United  States  in  1910  was  20,473,684. 
The  officers  of  all  the  volunteer  forces  which 
may  be  organized  under  the  authority  of 
Congress  are  selected  from  the  following 
classes  of  persons:  1.  Those  who  have 
served  in  the  Regular  Army.  2.  Those  who 
have  served  in  any  volunteer  forces  of  the 
Organized  Militia.  3.  Those  who  have  at- 
tended a  military  school  or  college. 


CIVIL  WAR  STATISTICS. 


The  total  number  of  enlistments  in  the 
army,  navy  and  marine  corps,  during  the 
Civil  War,  totaled  2,778,304  as  follows: 
White  troops  of  army,  2,493,366;  sailors  and 
marines,  105,963;  negro  troops,  178,975. 
Many  men  enlisted  two  or  three  times  and  are 
counted  that  number  of  times  in  the  above 
rating.  New  York  had  404,805  white  troops, 
4,125  negro  troops  and  39,920  sailors  and 
marines;  Pennsylvania  had  315,017  whites, 
8,612  negroes  and  14,307  sailors  and  marines; 
Ohio  had  304,814  whites.  5,092  negroes  and 
3,274  sailors  and  marines;  Illinois  had 
255,057  whites,  1,811  negroes  and  2,224  sailors 
and  marines;  Massachusetts  had  122,781 


whites,  3,966  negroes  and  19,983  sailors  and 
marines.  Kentucky  had  the  greatest  number 
of  negro  troops,  23,703. 

During  the  Civil  War  there  were  4,142 
officers  and  62,916  enlisted  men  killed  in 
action;  2,223  officers  .and  40,789  enlisted 
men  who  died  of  wounds  received  in  action; 
2,795  officers  and  221,791  enlisted  men 
died  of  disease;  106  officers  and  4,838  en- 
listed men  drowned  ;  other  known  causes 
290  officers  and  7,472  enlisted  men;  causes 
not  stated,  28  officers  and  12,093  enlisted 
men,  making  a  grand  total  of  9,584  officers 
and  349.944  enlisted  men  killed  during  the 
Civil  War. 


At  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1911,  there  were  154  garrisoned  posts  in 
continental  United  States,  Alaska,  Hawaii 
Islands  and  Porto  Rico.  United  States:  91 
forts,  27  sub-posts  of  forts,  11  barracks,  5 
arsenals,  2  military  prisons  (Alcatraz,  Cal. 


and  Ft.  Leavenworth,  Kans.),  3  general 
hospitals  and  the  Springfield  Armory,  and  1 
barrack.  There  were  also  5  forts  in  Alaska: 
the  Henry  Barracks  and  the  post  at  San 
Juan,  Porto  Rico;  and  the  post  at  Panama 
Canal  Zone. 


400 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,   1912,    oy  muiia  &  Co.,   Inc. 

THE  SINEWS  OF;  WAR. 

nits7h£aypSUrati0ntV°f  the  Amerlcan  Army  compared  with  a  locomotive  and  one  of  the  70000 
units  that  consume  this  enormous  quantity  of  food.  Only  one  of  the  meats  or  fish  shown  enter 
into  the  calculation,  the  rest  represent  the  variety  from  which  the  soldier  can  make  hi^  choice 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


401 


THE  UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACADEMY. 


Appointments:  Each  congressional  district 
and  Territory— the  District  of  Columbia  and 
also  Porto  Rico— is  entitled  to  have  one  cadet 
at  the  academy.  Each  State  is  also  entitled 
to  have  two  cadets  from  the  State  at  large, 
and  40  are  allowed  from  the  United  States  at 
large  The  law,  however,  provides  that  for 
six  years,  from  July  1,  1910,  whenever  any 
cadet  shall  have  finished  three  years  of  his 
course  at  the  academy  his  successor  may  be 
admitted.  The  appointment  from  a  con- 
gressional district  is  made  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Representative  in  Congress 
from  that  district,  and  those  from  a  state  at 
large  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
Senators  of  the  State.  Similarly  the  ap- 
pointment from  a  Territory  is  made  upon 
recommendation  of  the  Delegate  in  Congress 
and  that  from  the  District  of  Columbia  upon 
the  recommendation  of  the  Commissioners  of 
the  District.  Each  person  appointed  must 
be  an  actual  resident  of  the  State,  District, 
or  Territory  from  which  the  appointment  is 
made.  The  appointments  from  the  United 
States  at  large  are  made  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  Appointments  are  re- 
quired by  law  to  be  made  one  year  in  advance 
of  the  date  of  admission,  except  in  cases 
where  by  reason  of  death  or  other  cause,  a 
vacancy'occurs  which  cannot  be  provided  for 
by  ^ch  appointment  in  advance.  .These 
vacancies  are  filled  in  time  for  the  next  ex- 


amination. Two  alternates  are  usually 
named  for  each  candidate  nominated  and 
the  alternate  making  the  highest  average  is 
entitled  to  admission  in  case  of  the  failure  of 
the  candidate. 

Examinations:  Examinations  are  held  on 
the  last  Tuesday  in  April  of  each  year  before 
a  board  of  army  officers  to  be  convened  at 
such  places  as  the  War  Department  may 
designate.  Candidates  must  appear  for  the 
physical  and  mental  examination  before 
such  board. 

No  candidate  is  admitted  who  is  under  17 
or  over  22  years  of  age  or  less  than  5'  4  in 
height  at  the  age  of  17,  5'  5"  at  the  age  of 
18  and  upward,  or  who  is  deformed,  or 
afflicted  with  any  disease  or  infirmity  which 
would  render  him  unfit  for  military  service. 

Pay:  The  pay  of  a  cadet  is  $600  per  year 
and  one  ration  per  day,  the  total  being 
$709.50.  No  cadet  is  permitted  to  receive 
money  or  any  other  supplies  from  home  with- 
out the  sanction  of  the  superintendent. 

After  graduation  a  cadet  may  be  promoted 
and  commissioned  to  the  grade  of  second 
lieutenant  in  any  arm  or  corps  of  the  Army 
in  which  there  may  be  a  vacancy  and  if  there 
is  no  vacancy  he  may  be  commissioned  as  an 
additional  second  lieutenant,  with  the  nominal 
pay  of  a  second  lieutenant,  until  a  vacancy 
occurs. 


THE  NEW  ARMY  GUN  FOR 
AIR-CRAFT. 


RANGE  FINDING 
TOWER. 


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i  .•• 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


403 


THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE. 


The  Monroe  Doctrine  was  formulated  by 
President  Monroe  in  1823,  in  agreement  with 
Great  Britain  and  in  opposition  to  the  designs 
of  the  Holy  Alliance,  which  contemplated  the 
partition  of  South  America  among  the 
European  Powers.  President  Monroe  said: 

"In  the  discussions  to  which  this  interest 
has  given  rise,  and  in  the  arrangements  by 
which  they  may  terminate,  the  occasion  has 
been  judged  proper  for  asserting  as  a  principle 
in  which  the  rights  and  interests  of  the  United 
States  are  involved,  that  the  American  con- 
tinents, by  the  free  and  independent  condi- 
tion which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain, 
are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as  sub- 
jects for  future  colonization  by  European 
Powers.  *  *  *  We  owe  it,  therefore,  to 


candor  and  to  the  amicable  relations  existing 
between  the  United  States  and  those  powers 
to  declare  that  we  should  consider  any  at- 
tempt on  their  part  to  extend  their  system 
to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  danger- 
ous to  our  peace  and  safety.  With  the 
existing  colonies  or  dependencies  of  any 
European  Power  we  have  not  interfered  and 
shall  not  interfere.  But  with  the  govern- 
ments who  have  declared  their  independence 
and  maintain  it,  and  whose  independence  we 
have  on  great  consideration  and  on  just 
principles  acknowledged,  we  could  not  view 
any  interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppress- 
ing them  or  controlling  in  any  other  manner 
their  destiny,  by  any  European  power,  in  any 
other  light  than  as  the  manifestation  of  an  un- 
friendly disposition  toward_the  United  States. 


THE  MORTAR  ON  ITS  CARRIAGE  HAULED  BY  AN  AUTOMOBILE. 
THE  LATTER  CARRIES  THE  AMMUNITION. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR. 


The  Secretary  of  War  is  the  head  of  the 
^yar  Department  and  exercises  personal  super- 
vision of  all  business  relating  to  the  military 
service.  He  performs  such  duties  as  are  re- 
quired of  him  by  law  or  may  be  enjoined  upon 
him  by  the  President,  and  directs  the  manage- 
ment of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions  and  officers 
embraced  in  the  department.  Has  super- 
vision of  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
;it  West  Point  and  of  military  education  in  the 
Army. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  General  Staff 
Corps  are  given  under  the  United  States 
Army,  page  397. 

DIVISION  OF  MILITIA  AFFAIRS. 

The  Division  of  Militia  Affairs  is  vested  with 
the  transaction  of  business  pertaining  to  the 
organized  and  unorganized  militia  of  the 
United  States,  its  jurisdiction  embracing  all 
administrative  duties  involving  the  arma- 
ment, equipment,  discipline,  training,  educa- 
tion and  organization  of  the  militia. 

MILITARY  BUREAUS. 

The  Adjutant  General  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  recording,  authenticating,  and  com- 
municating to  troops  and  individuals  in  the 


military  service  all  orders,  instructions,  and 
regulations  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War; 
of  managing  the  recruiting  service;  pension 
and  other  business  connected  with  the 
Volunteer  Armies. 

The  Inspector-General  inspects  all  military 
commands  and  stations,  schools,  fortifications, 
arsenals,  armories,  etc.,  under  charge  of.  or 
carried  on  by  officers  of  the  Army. 

The  Quartermaster-General  provides  trans- 
portation for  the  Army;  also  clothing  and 
equipage,  horses,  mules,  etc.,  for  the  Army 
and  militia;  pays  guides,  spies  and  inter- 
preters; is  in  charge  of  national  cemeteries. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  is  charged  with 
duties  relating  to  the  construction  and  repair 
of  fortifications,  works  of  defense,  military 
roads  and  bridges,  etc. 

The  Ordnance  Department  provides, 
preserves,  distributes,  and  accounts  for  every 
description  of  artillery,  small  arms  and  all  the 
munitions  of  war  which  may  be  required  for 
the  fortresses  of  the  country,  the  armies  in  the 
field,  and  the  whole  body  of  militia. 

The  Chief  Signal  Corps  Officer  is  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  all  military  signal 
duties,  including  telegraph  and  telephone 
apparatus  and  the  necessary  meteorological 
instruments  for  use  on  target  ranges  and  other 
military  uses,  and  all  other  duties  pertaining 
to  military  signaling,  including  aeroplanes. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  MEDALS  OF  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY. 


MEDALS  OF  HONOR. 

The  Medal  of  Honor  for  the  Navy  (No.  2), 
which  was  made  available  by  the  Act  of 
Congress,  approved  December  21,  1861,  is 
bes.towed  upon  such  petty  officers,  seamen, 
landsmen  and  marines  as  should  distinguish 
themselves  by  their  gallantry  in  action  or 
other  seamanlike  qualities,  during  war.  It 
consists  of  a  bronze  five^-pointed  star,  the 
points  terminating  in  trefoil  with  a  wreath  of 
oak  and  laurel  contained  in  each  ray.  In  the 
center,  within  a  circle  of  thirty-four  stars, 
America  is  represented  as  Minerva  vanquish- 
ing Discord.  The  star  is  mounted  on  an 
anchor  and  suspended  from  a  silk  ribbon  of 
red  and  white  stripes,  arranged  vertically 
below  a  field  of  blue. 

The  Medal  of  Honor  f9r  the  Army  (No.  9) 
is  made  in  silver,  heavily  electro-plated  in 
gold.  It  consists  of  a  five-pointed  star  and  in 
the  center  appears  the  head  of  Minerva.  Sur- 
rounding this  central  feature,  arranged  in  cir- 
cular form,  are  the  words  "United  States  of 
America,"  representing  nationality.  The 
medal  is  suspended  by  a  light  blue  watered- 
silk  ribbon  spangled  with  thirteen  white 
stars  representing  the  original  States,  and  is 
attached  to  an  eagle  clasp  supported  on  a 
horizontal  bar,  upon  which  appears  the 
word  "Valor." 

GOOD  CONDUCT  MEDALS. 

There  are  many  men  in  the  Naval  Service, 
although  they  may  never  have  attracted  suf- 
ficient attention  to  warrant  the  Medal  of 
Honor,  who  are  well  worthy  of  recognition  by 
virtue  of  their  long  and  faithful  service;  for 
these  thoroughly  efficient  sailors  there  is  also 
a  reward  known  as  the  Good  Conduct  Medal. 
The  first  issue  of  this  Medal  was  in  1870  (No. 
23).  This  was  recalled  in  1888,  and  the 
present  style  adopted  (No.  18).  In  the  center 
of  the  new  Medal  is  an  old  warship  with  the 
word  "Constitution"  beneath.  This  is  sus- 
pended by  a  red  ribbon. 

In  1910  a.Medal  similar  to  that  of  the  Navy 
was  adopted  by  the  Marine  Corps  for  the  re- 
ward of  Good  Conduct  in  the  service  (No.  17), 
except  that  there  was  a  slight  change  made  in 
the  central  figure  and  a  change  in  the  wording 
to  suit  this  corps. 

BADGES  FOR  PROFICIENCY  IN  SMALL 
ARMS  PRACTICE. 

For  proficiency  in  the  annual  practice  with 
rifles  and  revolvers  the  Army  and  Marine 
Corps  award  a  similar  set  of  distinguishing 
•badges.  In  rifle  practice  the  first  badge  is 
that  of  Marksman  (No.  15),  which  requires  the 
qualifying  of  the  participant  with  60  per  cent., 
for  slow,  rapid  and  skirmish  fire  at  200,  300, 
500  and  600  yards.  The  Sharpshooter's 
Badge  (No.  13)  is  presented  to  those  who 
qualify  with  a  similar  percentage  at  800  and 
1,000  yards  (slow  fire)  and  rapid  fire  at  500 
yards.  For  the  Expert  Rifleman's  Badge 
(No.  14)  the  candidate  must  secure  68  per 
cent,  at  slow,  timed  and  skirmish  fire  at  200, 
300,  600  and  1,000  yards. 

In  the  Navy  the  grades  are  corresponding, 
although  shorter,  and  include  revolver  prac- 
tice as  well.  The  Navy  issues  but  one  Medal 
(No.  16),  the  Sharpshooter's  Medal,  to  which 
bars  are  attached  for  further  distinction. 


SPECIAL  LEGENDS. 

The  Certificate  of  Merit  Badge  (No.  11); 
issued  to  officers  and  men  of  the  Army  for 
meritorious  service.  The  ribbon  is  composed 
of  two  bands  of  red,  white  and  blue,  separated 
by  a  narrow  \\hite  stripe. 

The  Philippine  Congressional  Medal  (No.  5) ; 
issued  to  volunteer  officers  and  men  who 
served  beyond  their  enlistment  with  the 
Army  in  the  Philippines.  The  ribbon  is  com- 
posed of  a  broad  band  of  blue  with  a  narrow 
white  stripe  separating  it  from  narrow  stripes 
of  red,  white  and  blue  on  either  edge. 

The  Civil  War  Campaign  Badge  (No.  3); 
issued  to  officers  and  men  for  service  in  the 
United  States  Army  in  the  Civil  War.  The 
ribbon  is  composed  of  two  bands  of  red,  white 
and  blue;  the  red  on  the  outside  and  the  blue 
stripes  separated  by  a  narrow  stripe  of  red. 
(No.  10),  issued  to  those  of  the  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps  who  served  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  ribbon  is  blue  and  gray. 

The  Indian  W  ars  Campaign  Badge  (No.  7) ; 
issued  to  those  who  served  in  the  Army  in 
the  campaigns  against  the  Indians.  The  rib- 
bon is  bright  red  with  a  darker  stripe  of  red 
on  either  edge. 

The  Spanish -American  War  Campaign 
Badge  (No.  6);  issued  to  those  who  served  in 
the  Army  in  the  Spanish  War,  in  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico  or  the  Philippines.  The  ribbon  is  com- 
posed of  a  broad  band  of  yellow,  between  two 
bands  of  red,  with  a  narrow  border  of  blue  on 
either  edge.  (No.  12),  issued  to  officers  and 
men  of  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps  who  served 
in  Cuban,  Porto  Rican  or  Philippine  \Vaters 
during  the  Spanish  War.  The  ribbon  is  yel- 
low with  two  stripes  of  red. 

The  Philippine  Insurrection  Campaign 
Badge  (No.  19);  issued  for  duty  with  the 
Army  in  the  Philippines  and  for  service  with 
the  several  expeditions  against  the  natives. 
The  ribbon  is  composed  of  a  broad  blue  band 
between  two  bands  of  red  with  a  narrow  stripe 
of  blue  on  either  edge. 

The  China  Relief  Expedition  Badge  (No. 
25) ;  issued  for  service  ashore  in  China  with  the 
Peking  Relief  Expedition.  The  ribbon  is  a 
broad  band  of  yellow  edged  with  blue.  (No.21), 
issued  to  those  who  served  in  the  Navy  and 
Marine  Corps  in  Chinese  Waters  or  ashore  dur- 
ing the  Boxer  Uprising.  The  ribbon  is  yellow 
with  a  narrow  black  band  near  each  edge. 

The  Dewey  Congressional  Medal  (No.  1); 
issued  to  members  of  the  Navy  or  Marine 
Corps  who  served  with  the  Asiatic  Squadron 
at  Manila.  The  ribbon  is  composed  of  a  yel- 
low band  with  a  blue  band  on  either  side. 

The  West  Indies  Campaign  Medal  (No.  4) ; 
issued  for  service  during  the  West  Indies 
Campaign  in  the  Navy  and  Marine  Corps. 
The  ribbon  is  composed  of  three  bands,  the 
central  one  blue  and  the  outside  ones  red. 
(No.  8),  issued  for  specially  meritorious  serv- 
ice during  the  West  Indies  Campaign  other 
than  in  battle,  to  officers  and  men  of  the  Navy 
and  Marine  Corps.  The  ribbon  is  red. 

The  Philippine  Campaign  Badge  (No.  24); 
issued  to  members  of  the  Navy  and  Marine 
Corps  who  served  in  that  campaign.  The  rib- 
bon is  red  with  a  yellow  band  in  the  center. 

The  Cuban  Pacification  Badge  (No.  22);  is- 
sued to  officers  of  the  Navy  and  Marine 
Hospital  Corps  who  served  in  Cuba.  The  rib- 
bon is  similar  to  that  of  the  Army  for  this 
campaign  (No.  20);  olive  drab,  with  red 
white  and  blue  borders. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


407 


PASSPORTS. 


Passports  are  required  for  entrance  into 
Russia,  Turkey  and  the  Balkan  countries, 
and  must  be  visaed  by  diplomatic  or  consular 
representatives  of  those  countries.  There  are 
no  such  representatives  of  the  Balkan  States 
in  the  United  States  and  passports  for  those 
countries  should  be  visaed  by  their  diplomatic 
or  consular  representatives  elsewhere.  Pass- 
ports may  be  required  in  other  countries  of 
persons  making  a  prolonged  stay,  especially 
if  they  reside  in  boarding  houses  or  rented 
apartments,  but  they  are  often  valuable  in 
the  securing  of  registered  mail,  admissions  to 
certain  galleries,  etc.,  which  are  normally 
closed  to  the  public.  Passports  are  issued  by 
the  Secretary  of  State.  An  American  abroad 
mav  make  his  application  before  an  American 
diplomatic  or  consular  officer,  who  will  for- 
ward it  to  the  department.  The  fee  for  a  pass- 
port is  §1.00.  This  amount  in  currency  or 
postal  order  should  accompany  each  applica- 
tion made  by  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
The  orders  should  be  made  payable  to  the 
Disbursing  Clerk  of  the  Department  of  State.  ' 
Drafts  or  checks  are  not  accepted.  A  person 
who  is  entitled  to  receive  a  passport,  if  in 
the  United  States  at  the  time,  must  make  a 
written  application  in  affidavit  form  to  the 
Secretary  of  State.  Application  must  be  made 
by  the  person  to  whom  the  passport  is  to  be 
issued,  and  signed  by  him,  as  one  person  can- 
not apply  for  a  passport  for  another.  The 
affidavit  must  be  attested  by  an  officer  author- 
ized to  administer  oaths,  and  an  official  seal 
must  be  affixed,  or  his  official  character  must 
be  authenticated  by  a  certificate  of  the  proper 
legal  officer.  The  applicant  must  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  Government  of  the  United 
States.  The  9ath  is  on  the  application  blank. 
The  application  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
description  of  the  applicant.  Full  data  for 
these  questions  are  provided  on  the  blank. 
There  are  a  number  of  different  forms.  There 
is  one  for  a  native  citizen,  one  for  the  natural- 
ized citizen,  and  one  for  a  person  claiming 
citizenship  through  the  naturalization  of  hus- 
band or  parent.  In  asking  for  a  blank  it  should 
be  specified  which  form  is  desired.  A  woman's 
application  must  state  whether  she  is  married 
or  not,  and  a  married  woman  must  state 
whether  her  husband  is  a  native  or  a  natural- 
ized citizen.  A  passport  expires  two  years 
from  the  date  of  issue,  but  it  may  be  extended 
for  two  years  by  a  diplomatic  or  consular  offi- 
cer of  the  United  States,  if  presented  when  it 
is  about  to  expire.  Applications  for  passports 
from  naturalized  citizens  must  be  accompanied 
by  a  certificate  of  naturalization. 

When  the  applicant  is  accompanied  by  his 
wife,  minor  children  and  a  servant,  to  be  en- 
titled to  receive  the  passport  it  is  sufficient  to 
state  the  fact,  giving  the  respective  ages  of 
the  children  and  the  allegiance  of  the  servant, 
then  one  passport  will  suffice  for  all.  For  any 
other  person  in  the  party  a  separate  passport 
will  be  required.  The  woman's  passport  may 
include  her  minor  children  and  servant  under 
the  above-named  conditions.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  term  "servant"  does 
not  include  a  governess,  tutor,  pupil,  com- 
panion or  person  holding  like  relations  to  the 
applicant  for  passport.  Professional  or  other 
titles  will  not  be  inserted  in  the  passports. 
This  information  is  obtained  from  the  circular 


entitled,  "Rules  Governing  the  Granting  and 
Issuing  of  Passports  in  the  United  States." 
which  will  be  sent  with  the  blank  on  applica- 
tion. It  takes  only  a  few  days  to  obtain  a 
passport.  The  intervention  of  those  who  make 
a  business  of  securing  passports  is  entirely 
unnecessary.  The  blank  is  very  simple  and 
only  requires  the  filling  out  of  the  important 
details,  such  as  the  description  of  the  applicant, 
the  taking  of  the  oath  of  allegiance  before  a 


WORDING  OF  PASSPORT. 
Good  only  for  two  years  from  date. 

(Coat  of  Arms). 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

Department  of  State. 

To  all  to  whom  these  presents  shall  come. 
Greeting:  I,  the  undersigned,  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States  of  America,  hereby 
request  all  whom  it  may  concern  to  permit 

a  Citizen  of  the  United  States  1111_ 1_ 

Safely... 

and  freely  to  pass  and  in  case  of  need  to  give 
all  lawful  Aid  and  Protection. 

Given  under  my  hand  and  the 

Seal    of    the    Department    of 

(SEAL     of         State,  at  the  City  of  Washing- 

the  Depart-         ton,  the day  of 

ment        of         in  the  year  1910, 

State.)  and  of  the  Independence  of 

the    United    States    the    one 
hundred  and  thirty-fourth. 

(Signature  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  State.) 

Description, 

Age Years 

Stature Feet Inches  Eng. 

Forehead 

Eyes 

Nose 

Mouth 

Chin 

Hair 

Complexion 

Face 

Signature  of  the  Bearer. 


No 

Note. — The  Department  of  State  has  re- 
fused to  grant  permission  to  reproduce  a  real 
Passport,  hence  this  rather  insufficient  sub- 
stitute. 


notary  public  or  other  officer  who  is  entitled 
to  tase  similar  oaths,  and  the  application 
must  be  signed  by  a  credible  witness.  Some 
concerns  make  a  business  of  obtaining  pass- 
ports at  a  fee  of  from  S2.00  to  S5.00,  but  with 
the  instructions  given  in  this  book  and  the 
rules  given  in  the  circular  sent,  their  services 
are  entirely  unnecessary.  Information  revised 
by  officials  of  the  Department  of  State  on 
ay  13,  1912. 


bv 
Ms 


408 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  NOBEL  PRIZES. 


"  The  Nobel  Foundation  is  based  upon  the  last 
will  and  testament  of  Dr.  Alfred  Bernhard 
Nobel,  engineer  and  inventor  of  dynamite, 
dated  December  27,  1895,  the  stipulations  of 
which,  respecting  this  fund,  are  as  follows: 

"  The  rest  of  my  fortune,  that  is,  the  capital 
realized  by  my  executors,  is  to  constitute  a 
fund,  the  interest  of  which  is  to  be  dis- 
tributed annually  as  a  prize  to  those  who  have 
in  the  course  of  the  previous  year  rendered  the 
greatest  services  to  humanity.  The  amount 
is  to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts,  one  of 
which  is  to  be  awarded  to  the  person  who  has 
made  the  most  important  discovery  in  the 
domain  of  physical  science;  another  to  the 
one  who  has  made  the  most  valuable  dis- 
covery in  chemistry  or  brought  about  the 
greatest  improvement;  the  third  to  the  author 
of  the  most  important  discovery  hi  the  field 
of  physiology  or  medicine;  the  fourth  to  the 
one  who  has  produced  the  most  remarkable 
literary  work  of  an  idealistic  tendency,  and 
finally  the  fifth  to  the  person  who  has  done  the 
best  or  the  most  in  the  cause  of  the  fraternity 
of  nations,  for  the  suppression  or  the  reduction 
of  standing  armies  as  well  as  for  the  forma- 
tion and  propagation  of  peace  congresses. 
The  prizes  will  be  awarded  for  physics  and 
chemistry  by  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Sciences;  for  works  in  physiology  and 
medicine  by  the  Caroline  Institute  01  Stock- 
holm; for  literature  by  the  Stockholm 
Academy,  and  finally  for  the  service  in  the 


cause  of  peace  by  a  committee  of  five  mem- 
bers of  the  Norwegian  Storthing.  It  is  my 
express  desire  that  the  benefits  91  the  founda- 
tion are  to  be  open  to  all  nationalities  and 
sexes  and  that  the  prize  be  awarded  to  the 
one  most  worthy,  whether  Scandinavian  or 
not." 

Each  prize  amounts  to  about  $40,000,  and 
the  corporation  designates  a  "Comite  Nobel" 
composed  of  three  or  five  members  for  each 
section,  with  headquarters  at  Christiana, 
Norway. 

As  expressed  in  the  will  no  consideration  is 
paid  to  the  nationality  of  the  candidate,  but 
it  is  essential  that  every  candidate  shall  be 
proposed  in  writing  by  some  qualified  repre- 
sentative of  science,  literature,  etc.,  in  the  chief 
countries  of  the  civilized  world,  such  pro- 
posals to  reach  the  Committee  before  the 
firstof  February  in  each  year,  the  awards  being 
made  on  the  following  10th  of  December,  the 
anniversary  of  Mr.  Nobel's  death. 

The  first  distribution  of  prizes  took  place  in 
1901  and  including  the  awards  of  1911  only 
two  prizes  have  been  awarded  to  Americans; 
1906,  Prof.  A.  A.  Michelson,  Physics;  1906, 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  Peace.  The  following 
awards  were  made  in  1911:  Physics,  Prof. 
William  Wein,  German;  Chemistry,  Mme. 
Marie  S.  Curie,  French;  Medicine,  Allvar 
Gullstrand,  Swede;  Literature,  Maurice 
Maeterlinck,  Belgian;  Peace,  Prof.  T.  C.  M. 
Asser,  Dutch,  and  Alfred  Fried,  Austrian. 


THE  HALL  OF  FAME. 

"The  Hall  of  Fame  for  Great  Americans"  is  the  name  of  an  open  colonnade  attached  to 
the  Library  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  on  University  Heights  in  New 
York  city,  Borough  of  the  Bronx,  in  which  are  inscribed  on  bronze  tablets  the  names  of 
famous  American  men  and  women.  Nominations  for  the  honor  are  made  by  the  public  and 
are  submitted  to  a  committee  of  100  eminent  citizens.  In  the  case  of  men  fifty -one  votes 
are  required  and  in  the  case  of  women  forty-seven.  The  first  balloting  took  place  in 
October,  1900,  when  the  following  were  chosen: 
George  Washington. 
Abraham  Lincoln. 
Daniel  Webster. 
Benjamin  Franklin. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant. 
John  Marshall. 
Thomas  Jefferson. 
Ralph  W.  Emerson. 
H.  W.  Longfellow. 


Joseph    Story. 
John  Adams. 
Washington   Irving. 
Jonathan    Edwards. 
Samuel  F.   B.    Morse. 
David  G.    Farragut. 
Henry   Clay. 
Nathaniel    Hawthorne. 
George    Peabody. 
Robert   E.    Lee. 
Peter  Cooper. 
Eli   Whitney. 
John  J.    Audubon. 


William   E.    Channing. 
Gilbert   Stuart. 
Asa  Gray. 

Chosen  in  1905. 
John   Quincy   Adams. 
James  Russell  Lowell. 
William  T.    Sherman. 
James    Madison. 
John    G.    Whittier. 
Alexander   Hamilton. 
Louis  Agassi z. 
John   Paul  Jones. 
Mary    Lyon. 


Emma  Willard. 

Maria  Mitchell. 
Chosen    in    1910. 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

Roger   Williams. 

James  Fenimore  Cooper. 

Phillips  Brooks. 

Robert  Fulton.  Robert   E.  .Lee.  Alexander   Hamilton.         William   Cullen   Bryant. 

Horace    Mann.  Peter  Cooper.  Louis  Agassiz.  Frances   E,    Willard. 

Henry  W.    Beecher.  Eli   Whitney.  John   Paul  Jones.  Andrew  Jackson. 

James  Kent.  John  J.    Audubon.  Mary    Lyon.  George  Bancroft. 

John  Lothrop  Motley. 

SALARIES  OF  OFFICIALS  OF  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Executive:  President,  $75,000;  Vice-President,  $12,000;  Cabinet  Officers,  $12,000; 
Assistant  Secretaries,  $5,000,  except  Assistant  Secretary  of  Navy,  $4,500.  Treasury  Depart- 
ment: Treasurer  of  United  States,  $8,000;  Comptroller  of  Treasury,  $6,000;  Commissioner  of 
Internal  Revenue,  $6,000;  War  Department:  Chief  of  Staff,  $8,"000;  Adjutant  General,  $8,000; 
Inspector,  Judge  Advocate,  Quartermaster,  Commissary,  Surgeon  and  Paymaster-Generals, 
$6,000;  Navy  Department:  President  General  Navy  Board,  $13,500;  President  Naval  Retir- 
ing Board,  $8,000;  Post-Office  Department:  Assistant  Postmaster  Generals,  $5,000;  Interior 
Department:  Commissioner  of  Education,  Land  Office,  Pensions,  Indian  Affairs  and  Patents, 
$5,000;  Department  of  Justice:  Assistant  Attorney  Generals,  $5,000.  Department  Agricul- 
ture: Chief,  Weather  Bureau,  $6,000;  Chief  Forest  Service,  $5,000;  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor:  Commissioner  Corporations,  Labor,  Light-House  Bureau  and  General  Immigra- 
tion, $5,000;  Director  of  Census,  $7,000;  Commissioner  Fisheries,  $6,000.  The  members  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  receive  $10,000. 

The  Legislative:   Senators  and  Representatives  in  Congress  receive  $7,500. 

The  Judiciary:  The  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States  receives  $15,000;  Associate  Jus- 
tices, $14,500. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


NAVIES  OF   THE   WORLD. 


ShM*to*«««) 


LETTER  FROM  PRESIDENT  TAFT,  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF 

OF  THE  'UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 


THE  NEW  "EYES"  OF  THE  MAN  BEHIND  THE  MAN  BEHIND  THE  GUN. 

Aeronautics  has  developed  in  such  a  remarkable  manner  in  the  last  few  years  that  it  is 
impossible  to  surmise  when  or  where  progress  will  be  arrested.  At  the  present  time  the  aero- 
plane can  be  used  to  extend  the  range  of  vision  of  the  fleet,  but  when  operating  beyond  the 
sight  of  its  base,  parent  ship,  or  landmarks,  it  is  hampered  for  scouting  purposes  by  lack  of 
navigational  facilities  for  the  determination  of  course  and  position.  It  is  very  probable  that 
these  will  come,  and  with  them  also  come  a  vast  increase  in  the  value  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  naval 
scout.  As  a  station  from  which  to  observe  and  correct  the  fall  of  shot  the  aeroplane  will  be 
of  service,  particularly  where  long  range,  indirect,  high-angle  firing  is  used  as  in  case  of  a  bom- 
bardment. Here,  however,  the  question  of  communication  is  seriously  involved,  as  much 
depends  on  the  prompt  and  accurate  transmission  of  information.  Steady  progress  is  being 
made  in  the  development  of  wireless  which  gives  promise  of  meeting  all  the  requirements  of 
the  situation,  and  which  will  insure  the  efficiency  of  the  aeroplane  for  the  purposes  of  spotting, 
as  above  outlined.  The  hydrseroplane,  which  is  an  American  development,  and  which  may  be 
launched  from  a  vessel,  and  alight  in  the  water  alongside  on  the  return  from  a  trip  aloft,  further 
increases  the  possibilitv  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  naval  adjunct. — Thomas  T.  Craven,  Lieutenant 
Commander,  U.  S.  N.  Director  of  Target  Practice  and  Engineering  Competitions.  (Page  414.) 

409 


410 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SEA  STRENGTH. 

SHIPS. 
TABLE  I.— VESSELS  BUILT. 


Battle- 
ships. 
Drea  d- 
nought 
type    (a) 

Battle- 
ships. 

(b) 

Battle- 
Cruisers 

1C) 

Ar- 
mor- 
ed 
Cr's. 

Cruis- 
ers. 
id> 

Destroy- 
ers. 

Torpedo 
Boats. 

Subma- 
rines. 

Coast 
Defense 

Vessels 
(e) 

England  
Germany  
United  States  .  .  . 
France  

14 
8 
7 
0 
1 

41 
21 
25 
20 
13 

5 
3 
0 
0 

o 

34 
9 
11 
22 
13 

(k)72 
36 
18 
10 
12 

(k)151 
112 
39 
72 
56 

49 
9 
20 
157 
38 

68 
15 
20 
66 
12 

0 
5 
4 
2 
2 

Russia  
Italy  .  .  . 

0 

o 

9 

8 

0 

o 

6 
g 

9 
4 

94 
23 

14 
36 

31 

g 

2 

o 

Austria  

0 

6 

0 

3 

4 

12 

37 

6 

6 

TABLE  II.— VESSELS  BUILDING  OR  AUTHORIZED. 


Battle- 
ships. 
Dread- 
nought 
type. 

Battle- 
ships. 

Armor- 
ed 
Cruis'ra. 
Invinci- 
ble 
type. 

Armor- 
ed 
Cruisers 

Cruis- 
ers. 

Destroy- 
ers. 

Tor- 
pedo 
Boats 

Subma- 
rines. 

England(f)  
(  Jermany(g)  

11 

9 

0 

0 

(k)6 
3 

0 
() 

(k)19 

7 

(k)50 
20 

0 
0 

(k)22 
(i)17 

United  States  
France 

5 

7 

0 

o 

0 
() 

0 
0 

1 
0 

11 
12 

0 

o 

19 
23 

Japan  (h)  

2 

0 

4 

0 

3 

2 

o 

5 

Russia  
Italy 

7 
8 

0 

o 

4 
0 

0 

o 

0 
3 

13 
18 

0 
39 

8 
H 

Austria  

4 

0 

0 

o 

3 

6 

12 

6 

(a)  Battleships  having  a  main  battery  of  all  big  guns  (11  inches  or  more  in  caliber). 

(b)  Battleships,  1st  class,  are  those  of  (about)  10,000  tons  or  more  displacement. 

(c)  Armored  cruisers  having  guns  of  largest  caliber  in  main  battery  and  capable  of  taking 
their  place  in  line  of  battle  with  the  battleships.     They  have  an  increase  of  speed  at  the  expense 
of  carrying  fewer  guns  in  main  battery,  and  a  decrease  in  armor  protection;   now  called  battle 
cruisers. 

(d)  Includes  all  unarmored  cruising  vessels  above  1,500  tons  displacement. 

(e)  Includes  smaller  battleships  and  monitors.     No  more  vessels  of  this  class  are  being 
proposed  or  built  by  the  great  powers. 

(f)  England  has  no  continuing  shipbuilding  policy,  but  usually  lays  down  each  year  5  armored 
ships  with  a  proportional  number  of  smaller  vessels. 

(g)  Germany  has  a  continuing  shipbuilding  program,  governed  by  a  fleet  law  authorized  by 
the  Reichstag.     For  1912  there  are  authorized  1  battleship,  1  armored  cruiser,  2  cruisers,  12 
destroyers.     Eventual  strength  to  consist  of  41  battleships,  20  armored  cruisers,  40  cruisers, 
144  destroyers. 

(h)  $78,837,591  authorized  to  be  expended  from  1911  to  1917  for  the  construction  of  war 
vessels. 

(i)  $3,570,000  authorized  for  experiments  and  further  construction, 
(k)  Includes  vessels  of  colonies. 

NOTE: — Vessels  undergoing  trials  are  considered  as  completed. 

The  following  vessels  are  not  included  in  the  tables: 

Those  over  twenty  years  old  unless  they  have  been  reconstructed  and  rearmed  within  5  years; 
torpedo  craft  over  15  years  old. 

Transports,  colliers,  repair  ships,  converted  merchant  vessels,  or  any  other  auxiliaries. 

Vessels  of  less  than  1,500  tons,  except  torpedo  craft.     Torpedo  craft  of  less  than  50  tons. 

Table  II  includes  vessels  authorized  but  not  yet  laid  down,  as  well  as  those  actually  under 
construction. 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ENLISTMENT 

The  term  of  enlistment  of  all  enlisted  men  in  the  Navy  is  four  years,  except  for  minors  under 
eighteen,  who  enlist  with  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardian.  Minors  over  the  age  of  eighteen 
may  be  enlisted  without  the  consent  of  parents  or  guardian,  but  must  furnish  written  statement 
as  to  their  age.  Every  person  must  pass  the  physical  examination  prescribed  in  the  medical 
instructions.  Only  American  citizens  of  good  character  who  may  reasonably  be  expected  to 
remain  in  the  service  are  enlisted,  and  every  applicant  must  be  able  to  read  and  write  English 
and  must  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  No  person  under  the  age  of  seventeen  can  be  enlisted. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


411 


PERSONNEL. 
TABLE  III. 


RANK. 

England. 

France. 

Germany. 

.  Japan. 

United 
States. 

Admirals  of  the  fleet 

3 

2 

1 

*1 

Admirals  

12 

4 

7 

Vice  admirals 

22 

15 

13 

17 

55 

30 

21 

45 

(fV27 

Captains  and  commanders  
Other  line  officers  
Midshipmen  at  sea  

634 
2,320 
540 

340 
1,547 
60 

321 
1,708 
398 

292 
1,818 
154 

211 
1,522 

Engineer  officers  
Medical  officers  
Pay  officers  

912 
593 
685 

505 
(b)413 
216 

487 
304 
242 

683 
(e)368 
341 

3i2 

200 

Chaplains  

139 

23 

Warrant  officers  

2,528 
106  704 

(c)2,387 
54  734 

2,644 
54  338 

1,520 
49  043 

683 
47  847 

Marine  officers  

420 

*109 

319 

Enlisted  men  (marines) 

(a)  19  880 

(d)6  070 

Q  ^06 

Total  

135,027 

60,247 

66,542 

*  47,289 

60,651 

*  The  Admiral  of  the  Navy. 

(a)  Includes  3,100  men  of  the  Coast  Guard. 

(b)  Includes  pharmacists  and  apothecaries. 

(c)  Includes  adjutants,  premier  maltres,  and  maitres  of  all  branches. 

(d)  Marine  infantry  and  seaman  artillery. 

(e)  Includes  pharmaceutical  officers. 

(f)  The  United  States  now  has,  temporarily,  as  extra  numbers,  due  to  promotion  for  war 
service,  and  to  officers  restricted  by  law  to  engineering  duty  only  on  shore,  9  flag  officers,  25 
captains,  4  commanders,  10  lieutenant  commanders,  and  1  lieutenant. 


RELATIVE  ORDER  OF  WAR  SHIP  TONNAGE. 

PRESENT  ORDER  (TONNAGE  COMPLETED). 

As  WOULD  BE  THE  CASE  WERE  VESSELS  BUILD- 
ING Now  COMPLETED. 

Nation. 

Tonnage. 

Nation. 

Tonnage. 

Great  Britain                    -  

1,888,414 
787,799 
758,499 
619,512 
438,067 
294,580 
196,227 
158,420 

Great  Britain  

2,469,678 
1,146,238 
914,744 
804,211 
617,083 
469,380 
353,961 
260,719 

Germany  

United  States 

United  States  

France  -- 

Japan 

Russia. 

Italv 

Italv 

Austria     

Austria  

A  PRESENT  DAY  MODIFIED  WHITEHEAD  TORPEDO.      (Pnge  424.) 


412 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  COMMAND  OF  THE  SEA. 
BY  ALFRED  T.  MAHAN 

Rear  Admiral,  U.  S.  N.  (Retired). 


The  existing  contest  between  Italy 
and  Turkey,  confined  as  it  is  to  the  sea 
and  to  the  possession  of  Tripoli,  has  a 
double  interest.  It  illustrates  on  the 
one  hand  the  gradual,  yet  perpetual, 
process  by  which  a  higher  civilization 
impinges  upon  a  lower ;  that  is,  upon 
one  that  is  lower  in  virile  efficiency, 
however  in  some  instances  it  may  have 
been  higher  in  acquired  material  com- 
fort, or  even  in  literary  and  artistic 
achievement.  This  tendency  can  neither 
be  regulated  by  law,  nor  brought  to 
the  bar  of  law,  without  injury  to  the 
progress  of  the  world  toward  better 
universal  conditions,  to  which  end  it 
is  essential  that  the  efficient  supplant 
the  inefficient.  On  the  other  hand  this 
collision  illustrates  the  importance  of 
the  command  of  the  sea.  This  also, 
it  should  be  noted,  has  been  incidental 
and  determinative  in  the  progress  of 
the  world.  Through  having  this  com- 
mand, Italy  thus  far  has  been  able  to 
localize  the  land  fighting  in  Tripoli, 
and  probably  can  continue  to  do  so ; 
to  the  great  relief  of  her  own  re- 
sources, and  that  of  a  watching  and 
anxious  Europe. 

It  is  to  this  second  consideration 
that  I  am  here  limited  by  my  sub- 
ject— "The  Importance  of  the  Com- 
mand of  the  Sea" — with  a  somewhat 
special  reference  to  that  importance  as 
touching  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  in  her  turn,  after  hav- 
ing achieved  national  efficiency,  by  the 
quenching  of  internal  discord  in  a  bit- 
ter and  bloody  contest,  has  found  her- 
self compelled  inevitably  into  the  same 
path  of  seeming  aggression  upon  less 
efficient  social  and  political  communi- 
ties ;  to  bear  her  part  of  "the  white 
man's  burden,"  as  it  has  been  styled. 
For  in  essence  this  process  is  not  one 
of  aggrandizement,  but  of  responsibil- 
ity ;  responsibility  not  to  law,  which 
always  lags  behind  conditions,  but  to 
moral  obligation  entailed  by  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  the  moment  of 
action. 

This  moral  side  of  the  question  is 
not  irrelevant  to  the  military  one  of 
the  importance  of  commanding  the 


sea  ;  for  granting  the  end — the  moral 
obligation — the  means,  if  not  them- 
selves immoral,  follow  as  a  matter  of 
course.  Of  such  means,  command  of 
the  sea  is  one.  Napoleon  said  that 
morale  dominates  war ;  and  it  is  cor- 
respondingly true  that  a  sense  of  right 
powerfully  reinforces  the  stability  of 
national  attitude  and  the  steadfast- 
ness of  national  purpose.  If  we  have 
been  right,  morally,  step  by  step,  in 
the  forward  march  of  the  past  few 
years,  we  are  morally  bound  to  sus- 
tain the  position  attained,  by  meas- 
ures which  will  provide  the  necessary 
means.  Of  these  an  adequate  navy  is 
among  the  first ;  probably,  in  our  case, 
the  chief  of  all. 

Here,  as  always,  it  is  necessary  to 
recur  to  experience — to  the  past — in 
order  to  comprehend  the  present  and 
to  project  the  future.  Why  do  Eng- 
lish innate  political  conceptions  of 
popular  representative  government,  of 
the  balance  of  law  and  liberty,  prevail 
in  North  America  from  the  Arctic 
Circle  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific?  Because 
the  command  of  the  sea  at  the  decisive 
era  belonged  to  Great  Britain.  In 
India  and  Egypt,  administrative  effi- 
ciency has  taken  the  place  of  a  welter 
of  tyranny,  feudal  struggle,  and  blood- 
shed, achieving  thereby  the  compara- 
tive welfare  of  the  once  harried  popu- 
lations. What  underlies  this  adminis- 
trative efficiency?  The  British  navy, 
assuring  in  the  first  instance  British 
control  instead  of  French  and  there- 
after communication  with  the  home 
country,  whence  the  local  power  with- 
out which  administration  everywhere 
is  futile.  What,  at  the  moment  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  was  proclaimed,  in- 
sured beyond  peradventure  the  immu- 
nity from  foreign  oppression  of  the 
Spanish-American  colonies  in  their 
struggle  for  independence?  The  com- 
mand of  the  sea  by  Great  Britain, 
backed  by  the  feeble  navy  but  impos- 
ing strategic  situation  of  the  United 
States,  with  her  swarm  of  potential 
commerce-destroyers,  which  a  decade 


Copyright  1911,  Munn    &    Co.,    Inc. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


413 


before  had  harassed  the  trade  of  even 
the  mistress  of  the  seas. 

Less  conspicuously,  but  no  less 
truly,  to  what  do  Algiers  and  Tunis, 
and  to  what  eventually  will  Morocco, 
owe  redemption  from  conditions  bare- 
ly, if  at  all,  above  the  barbarous? 
To  the  command  of  the  sea  by  the 
nation  which  already  has  restored  the 
former  two,  to  be  fruitful  members 
of  the  world  community.  That  South 
Africa  is  now  a  united  commonwealth, 
instead  of  two  opposing  communities, 
such  as  the  North  and  South  of  our 
own  country  might  have  been,  is  due 
to  the  same  cause ;  a  local  preponder- 
ance of  force  insured  by  sea  power. 
It  may  safely  be  claimed  that  to  the 
navy  of  the  United  States  chiefly 
is  owing  the  present  Union,  instead  of 
the  existence  of  two  rival  nations 
vying,  or  trying  to  vie,  with  each 
other  in  military  preparations,  like 
the  nations  of  Europe.  The  four 
years'  struggle  of  the  Confederate 
States  might  not  have  ended  in  ex- 
haustion, had  it  not  been  for  the  block- 
ade, which  shut  in  their  cotton  and 
shut  out  their  supplies. 

Contrast  this  impressive  exhibit, 
where  the  command  of  the  sea  has 
been  operative,  with  the  history  and 
achievement  of  those  great  States 
which  have  not  possessed  it.  Con- 
trast Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  for 
Austria,  Alsace  and  Lorraine  for  Ger- 
many, with  the  expansion  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  with  that 
which  Spain  once  possessed  ;  now  lost 
through  an  inefficiency,  one  of  the  first 
symptoms  of  which  was  the  decay  of 
her  navy.  The  magnificent  efficiency 
of  the  present  German  Empire  strives 
now,  against  almost  hopeless  disad- 
vantage, for  the  opportunity  to  exer- 
cise that  efficiency  outside  its  Euro- 
pean limits.  Opportunity  was  lost 
through  the  absence  of  naval  force  in 
the  past  centuries,  when  the  maritime 
countries  were  occupying,  and,  in  ac- 
cordance with  their  respective  political 
aptitudes,  were  determining  the  future 
of  immense  tracts  of  the  world.  Much 
time  must  elapse  before  we  shall  know 
the  inside  history  of  the  still  unar- 
ranged  dispute  with  France  about 
Morocco ;  but  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  consciousness  of  the 
British  navy  at  the  back  of  France 
has  been  one  of  the  large  factors  in 
the  negotiations.  At  least  it  is  ap- 


parent that  bitterness  against  Great 
Britain  has  been  even  more  marked 
than  against  France. 

The  lesson  for  the  United  States  is 
plain.  In  the  strategic  position  be- 
fore mentioned,  in  remoteness  from 
Europe,  in  the  rivalries  of  European 
nations,  we  still  have  a  local  and  in- 
ternational advantage  for  preponder- 
ance in  American  waters;  but  it  is 
not  so  great  as  to  confer  certainty 
without  reasonable  provision  for  in- 
suring command  of  the  sea.  In  the 
Pacific,  which  is  equally  our  coast 
line,  and  to  which  the  future  mostly 
looks,  we  have  no  similar  advantage. 
Much  as  I  dislike  and  reject  the 
phrase  "supremacy  in  the  Pacific,"  it 
is  true  that  we  there  have  duties 
which  in  case  of  disputes  will  require 
the  presence  of  naval  force  adequate 
to  command.  Duty  to  the  mutual 
support  of  our  two  chief  coasts  dic- 
tates full  control  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  which  from  the  military  stand- 
point is  the  key  to  any  broadly 
planned  system  of  preparation  for  na- 
tional defense. 

But  obligation  is  no  less  on  ac- 
count of  the  Philippine  Islands.  Hav- 
ing assumed  control  of  these  under 
imperative  circumstances,  we  are 
bound  in  honor  to  support  an  under- 
taking, our  fitness  for  which  is  at- 
tested by  results.  To  them  we  are 
responsible  for  the  maintenance  of 
conditions  under  which  material  pros- 
perity can  advance,  and  their  dissimi- 
lar and  discordant  inhabitants  reach  a 
homogeneous  civilization  and  political 
development  which  will  enable  them  to 
govern  themselves.  To  Cuba,  though 
independent,  we  owe  by  specific  guar- 
antees of  maintenance  of  a  like  in- 
ternal security.  These  national  and 
international  functions  can  be  dis- 
charged, certainly  only  by  command 
of  the  sea.  The  Pacific,  the  Atlantic, 
and  the  Caribbean,  with  the  great 
controlling  stations,  Porto  Rico,  Guan- 
tanamo,  the  Canal  Zone,  and  Hawaii, 
depend  upon  this  command,  the  expo- 
nent of  which  is  the  navy,  and  in  which 
ships  and  stations  are  interdependent 
factors.  To  place  the  conclusion  con- 
cretely and  succinctly,  the  question  of 
command  of  the  sea  is  one  of  annual 
increase  of  the  navy.  This  question 
is  not  "naval,"  in  the  restricted  sense 
of  the  word.  It  is  one  of  national 
policy,  national  security,  and  national 
obligation. 


414 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


415 


SHIPS     DATA,   U.   S.   NAVAL  VESSELS. 


Type. 

Fit  for  service, 
including  those 
under  repair. 

Under  con- 
struction. 

Authorized. 

Unfit  for  sea 
service. 

Total. 

lum- 
ber. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Num- 
ber. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Num- 
ber. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

lum- 
ber. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Num- 
ber. 

Displace- 
ment. 

First-class  battleships  

29 
10 
5 
4 
6 

Tons. 
406,  H6 

140,080 
46,465 
12,900 
26,104 

6 

Tons. 
149,650 

2 

Tons. 
55,000 

Tons. 

37 
10 
5 
t 

6 
17 
2 
3 
8 
1 
4 
S 
2 
1 
2 
9 
50 
31 
39 
3 
6 
C 
46 
4 
18 
2C, 
6 
I 
1 

8 
2 
10 
4 

Tont. 
610,796 

140,080 
46,465 
12,900 
26,104 
67,574 
4,144 
11,250 
»8,677 
(>) 
«4,155 
8,190 
3,600 
346 
2,416 
2,439 
34,048 
5,111 
Ml,  480 
3,056 
9,705 
11,970 
»17,953 
•24,959 
10,106 
•2G3.461 
»6,771 
4,083 
3,380 

44,384 
9,000 
42.198 
'5,105 

Single-turret  monitors  
Double-turret  monitors  

Protected  cruisers  

17 
2 
3 

7 

67,574 
4,144 
11,250 
8,677 

Scout  cruisers  
Gunboats                 

1 
1 
1 

<») 
0) 
<»> 

Light-draft  gunboats  

3 
S 
2 
1 
2 
9 
33 
31 
18 
3 
3 
4 

4,155 
8,190 
3,600 
•    346 
2,416 
2,439 
19,099 
5,111 
3,748 
3,05« 
5,5C5 
o,620 

Gunboats  under  500  tons.  . 
Torpedo-boat  destroyers.. 
Steel  torpedo  boats 

9 

6,678 

8 

8,271 

Submarine  torpedo  boats.  . 
Iron  steam  vessels  

17 

7,732 

4 

(») 

Wooden  steam  vessels  
Wooden  sailing  vessels  

3 

2 

4,140 
6,.350 

Tugs                      

44 
4 

*15,713 
24,  %9 

2 

2,240 

Auxiliary  cruisers  

18 
20 
5 
1 

1 

8 
2 
5 
3 

10,106 
«loO,4G2 
C,771 
4,083 
3,380 

44,384 
9,000 
23,408 
'4,003 

Colliers 

2 

38,735 

4 

1 

7f.,264 
(') 

Submarine  tenders  

Repair  ship 

Transports    and    supply 
ships 

Hospital  ships 

Receiving  ships  
Prison  ships* 

:::::::: 

5 
1 

18,790 
1,100 

j 

Total  

312 

1,082,  "56 

34 

202.  795 

24 

141,77.i 

11 

30,380 

382 

1,457,900 

«  Excepting  the  4  authorized. 
'-  Excepting  Lwusr. 


1  Not  designed. 
*  Excepting  the  1  authorized. 
1  Contracts  not  signed. 
Note.— The  second-class  battleship  San  Marcos  was  stricken  from  the  Navy  List  Oct.  11, 1911. 


•  Excepting  Tustin. 
7  Excepting  Southery. 


Correct    to    July,    1911. 


416 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SHIPS     DATA,  XT.  S.  NAVAL,  VESSELS. 


Type. 

Fit  for  service,  including  those  under  repair. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Number. 

Is 

^g 

5s 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

|| 

I 

fc 

h 

t§ 

1 

* 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

fa 

j2  a 
U§ 

2s 

First-class  battleships.  . 
Second-class  battleship. 
Armored  cruisers 

16 
1 
4 
3 
1 
4 
6 
19 
3 

Tons. 
198,250 

6,315 
54,720 
27,065 
2,183 
12,900 
26,  104 
76,070 
6,216 

22 
1 
6 
5 
1 
4 
6 
19 
3 

Tons. 
292,  146 

6,315 
83,720 
46,465 
2,183 
12,900 
26,  104 
76,070 
6,216 

25 
1 

9 

6 
1 

.4 
6 
It 

3 
2 
9 
3 
S 
1 
2 
1 
2 

12 
16 
19 

1 

12 
3 
5 
5 

41 
4 

22 
15 
2 

Tons. 
334,  146 

6,315 
125,580 
46,465 
2,183 
12,900 
26,  104 
76,070 
6,216 
7,500 
11,564 
4,155 
8,190 
1,175 
3,  COO 
346 
2,416 

3,095 
6,695 
5,737 
31 

1,719 
3,056 
8,840 
5,895 
13,606 
24,  959 
11,750 
274,854 
807 

25 
1 
10 
'5 
1 
4 
6 
18 
3 
3 
9 
3 
8 
1 
2 
1 
2 

12 
16 
33 
1 

12 
3 
5 
5 
42 
4 
21 
15 
2 
1 
1 

Tons. 
334,  146 

6,315 

140,080 
46,465 
2,183 
12,900 
26,  104 
71,987 
6,216 
11,250 
11,564 
4,155 
8,190 
1,175 
3,600 
346 
2,416 

3,095 
6,695 
5,299 
31 

1,719 
3,056 
8,840 
5,895 
14,361 
24,959 
11,453 
2  74,  854 
807 
4,083 
3,380 

29 
1 
10 
5 

Tons. 
406,146 

6,315 

140,080 
46,465 

29 

Tons. 
406,  146 

10 
5 

140,080 
46,465 

Firstrclass  cruisers  
Armored  ram  .  . 

Single-  turret  monitors.  . 
Double-turret  mon  i  tors  . 
Protected  cruisers  

4 
6 
18 
3 
3 
8 
3 
8 

12,900 
26,  104 
71,987 
6,216 
11,250 
10,387' 
4,155 
8,190 

4 
6 
17 
2 
3 
7 
3 
8 

12,900 
26,  104 
67,574 
4,144 
11,250 
8,677 
4,155 
8,190 

Unprotected  cruisers  .  .  . 
Scout  cruisers  

Oiinboats 

9 
3 

8 
1 

11,564 
4,155 
8,190 
1,175 

9 
3 
8 
1 
2 
1 
2 

13 
16 
35 
1 

8 
4 
5 
8 
40 
5 
23 
15 
1 

11,564 
4,155 
8,190 
1,175 
3,600 
346 
2,416 

3,265 
6,  695 
5,737 
31 

935 
3,600 
8,840 
10,045 
12,  703 
28,339 
11,872 
274,854 
357 

Light-draft  gunboats.  .  . 
Composite  gunboats  
Training  ship,  sheathed  . 
Training  ships,  steel  .  . 

2 
1 
2 

12 
21 
33 
1 

18 
3 
3 
5 
43 
4 
19 
20 
4 
1 
1 

3,600 
346 
2,416 

3,095 
10,  195 
5,299 
31 

3,485 
3,056 
5,565 
5,895 
»  15,013 
24,959 
10,421 
»  135,  4  17 
4,702 
4,083 
3.380 

2 

2 

9 
33 
31 

3,600 
346 
2,416 

2,439 
19,099 
5,111 

Training  brigantine  .  .  .  '. 
Special  class  

1 

2 

15 

16 
35 

1 

8 
5 
5 
8 
41 
5 
23 
15 

346 
2,416 

3,603 
6,695 
5,737 
31 

935 
5,861 
8,840 
10,045 
13,060 
28,339 
11,881 
*  74,  854 

Gunboats    under    500 
tons 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 
Steel  torpedo  boats  
Wooden  torpedo  boats. 

Submarine    torpedo 
boats   .                  .  . 

18 
3 
3 
4 
44 
4 
18 
20 
5 
1 
1 

3,748 
3,056 
5,565 
5,620 
>  15,713 
24,959 
.  10,  106 
«  150,  462 
6,771 
4,083 
3,380 

Iron  steam,  vessels  . 

Wooden  steam  vessels.. 
Wooden  sailing  vessels. 
Tugs 

Auxiliary  cruisers 

Converted  yachts  ... 

Colliers  

Submarine  tenders  

Mine-laying  ship  . 

Repair  ship... 

1 

3,380 

Excepting  Locust. 


1  Excepting  Justin. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


417 


SHIPS'  DATA,   U.   S.    NAVAL  VESSELS. 


Type. 

Fit  for  service,  including  those  under  repair. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1 

fc 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

& 

&| 

A 

NumbeY. 

!•" 

II 

a- 

1 
£ 

j. 

ft 
Q 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Transports  and  supply 
ships       

11 
j 

4 
2 

Tons. 
53,247 

3,300 
18,  995 
14,850 

10 
1 
5 

a 

Tons. 
50,571 

3,300 
21,250 
14,850 

9 
1 
5 

9 

292 

Tons. 
50,084 

3,300 
21..250 
M,850 

8 
2 
4 
3 

292 

Tons. 
44,384 

9,000 
18,995 
i  7,  105 

8 
2 
4 
3 

Tons. 
44,384 

9,000 
18,995 
24,005 

8 
2 
5 
3 

Tons. 
44,384 

9,000 
23,408 
24,005 

Hospital  ships 

Receiving  ships  
Prison  ships  

Total 

276 

CS7,  942 

285  830.816 

1 

918,833 

937,103 

308 

1,067,537 

! 

312  |  1,082,956 

Under  construction. 


Type. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

tl 

oe 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

Displace- 
ment. 

Number. 

oJ  *-* 

First-class  battleships.. 
Armored  cruisers 

9 

6 

Tons. 
135,896 

85  300 

5 
4 

Tons. 
74..000 

56  360 

4 

1 

Tons. 
72,000 

14  500 

G 

Tons. 
115,650 

4 

Tons. 
95,650 

6 

Tons. 
149,650 

First-class  cruisers 

2 

19  400 

Scout  cruisers  ..      .     . 

3 

11  250 

3 

11  250 

1 

3  750 

Training  ships,  steel 

2 

3  600 

Torpedo-boat  destroyers 

5 

3,500 

?0 

14,630 

15 

11,130 

q 

6,678 

Submarine    torpedo 
boats  

4 

784 

4 

784 

7 

2,103 

16 

5,890 

10 

4,124 

17 

7,732 

Tugs  

? 

1,510 

? 

1,510 

1 

755 

Colliers  

? 

25,  170 

2 

25,  170 

6 

78  220 

9 

38  735 

2 

38  735 

Total    ... 

26 

2jt5  290 

•>o 

169  074 

22 

122  533 

49 

215  145 

31 

149  639 

34 

202  795 

Includes  Southery. 


Excepting  Southery.',' 


NEW  14-INCH  GUN  USED  FOR  ARMOR  ATTACK. 


418 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


419 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Illustrated  London  News." 

THE   CONNING   TOWER  SECTION   OF   A   "SUPER-DREADNOUGHT." 


420 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


421 


mxK?*>!K 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Illustrated  London  News." 

THE  BOILER-ROOM  SECTION  OF  A  "SUPER- DREADNOUGHT." 

Note  the  Water-Tube  Boilers. 


422 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


423 


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424 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


425 


Copyright  1911,   Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 

GRAPHIC   COMPARISON    OF   THE    RELATIVE    STRENGTH    OF   THE 

WORLD'S  NAVIES. 

The  greater  gun  power  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  as  compared  with  that  of  Germany  is  due  to  our 
p  re-Dreadnought  ships  carrying  heavier  guns  in  the  main  batteries.  Future  sea-fights  will  be 
fought  with  Dreadnoughts.  At  the  present  rate  of  construction,  Germany,  in  1917,  will  possess 
twice  as  many  Dreadnoughts  as  the  United  States. 

LIST  OF  SHIPS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 

CRUISERS,  FIRST  CLASS. 


Brooklyn  o  
Chariest  on  o  
Milwaukee  

9,215 
9,700 
9,700 

3,368 

400  6 
424  0 
424  0 

64    8 
66    0 
66    0 

26  6 
24  10 
24  10 

21.91 
22.04 
22.22 

H 

14 
U 

13 

a 

««1,350 

<*  1.776 
d  1,704 

July  92 
June  00 
...do  

Navv  vard,  Philadelphia. 
Navv  yard,  Puget  Sound. 

Saratogao  

8,150 

2,838 

3SO  6 

64  10 

26  4 

21.00 

H 

13 

11.075 

Sept.  88 

Asiatic  Fleet. 

St.  Louis  

9,700 

424  0 

66    0 

24  10 

22.13 

14 

22 

<*1,757 

June  00 

Training    Station,     San 

Francisco. 

o  Fitted  as  flagship. 


d  To  6  inches  below  beams. 
e  Subject  to  possible  change. 


The  "Neptune,"  one  of  the  largest  colliers  in  the  world,  has  been  accepted  by  the 
Government  and  put  into  commission.  High-speed  marine  turbines  will  be  installed  as  soon 
us  they  ure  ready. 


426 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


CRUISERS,  SECOND  CLASS. 


D 

intension 

IS. 

1 

j 

^? 

Name. 

Dls- 

place- 

Net 
tonnage 
for 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 
aft  at 

? 

f. 

! 

8« 

Date 
author- 

ment. 

Suez 

on 

on 

de- 

5 

"***  6 

~ 

&c 

ized 

Canal. 

L.  W 

L.W. 

signed 

0 

P 

o*^ 

L. 

L. 

full 

I 

| 

S 

—  e 

o 

s 

5" 

Baltimore  
Chicago  o  

Tom. 
4,413 
4  500 

Tons. 
1,706 
6  1  560 

Ft.  in. 
327    6 
325    0 

Ft.  in. 

48    7J 
48    24 

Ft.  in. 
24    5 

Knots. 
20.10 

Ton*. 
1,079 

Aug.    86 

Columbia  

7  350 

2  536 

411    7 

58    2 

Minneapolis  o  
Newark  o  

7,350 
4,083 

2)537 
61,438 

411    7 
311    5 

58    2 
49    2 

24    6 
22    4 

23.07 
d9.00 

n 
u 

12 
I 

d  1,400 

Mar.    91 
Mar.    85 

Olyinpiao  

5,865 

61,896 

340    0 

53    0} 

25    0 

21.69 

14 

-I 

dl,000 

Sept.  88 

CRUISERS,  THIRD  CLASS. 


Albany  

3,430 

61,121 

346  0 

43    9 

19  1 

20.52 

1(1 

S 

821 

Birmingham  
Boston  
Chattanooga  
Chester  

3,750 
3,000 
3,200 
3,750 

Vi,"280" 

420  0 
277  5 
292  0 
420  0 

47    1 
42    2 
44    0 
47    1 

18  9 
20  10 
17  0 
18  9 

24.33 
15.60 
16.65 
26.52 

2 
t 

10 
? 

*a 

6 
8 
ffl 

1,400 
d428 
<*732 
1,375 

Apr.  04 
Mar.  83 
Mar.  99 
Apr.  04 

Cincinnati  

3,183 

0934 

300  0 

42    0 

19  6 

19.91 

11 

a 

<*575 

Sept.  88 

Cleveland  
Denver  
DcsMoines  
Galveston  
Marblehead  
New  Orleans  
Raleigh  .  . 

3,200 
3,200 
3,200 
3,200 
2,072 
3,430 
3  183 

"i"566" 

"V626" 

61,130 
6934 

292  0 
292  0 
292  0 
292  0 
257  0 
346  0 
300  0 

44    0 
44    0 
44    0 
44    0 
37    0 
43    9 
42    0 

17  0 
17  0 
17  0 
17  0 
16  3 
19  1 
19  6 

16.45 
16.75 
16.65 
16.41 
18.44 
<20.00 
21  12 

0000000- 

8 
1 

S 

8 
4 
1 

g 

d675 
d675 
d-00 
d724 
d346 
<*750 
<*575 

Mar.  99 
Mar.  99 
Mar.  99 
Mar.  99 
Sept  88 

Sept  88 

Salem  

3,750 
3  200 

"1*554" 

420  0 

292  0 

47    1 
44    0 

18  9 
17  0 

25.92 
16  58 

2 
10 

•t 

s 

1,400 
710 

Apr.  04 
Mar  99 

TORPEDO-BOAT   DESTROYERS. 


Ammen  

742 

289    0 

26    14 

30.48 

ra 

•i 

Mar.    09 

Bainbridge  
Barry..  

420 
420 

229 
229 

245    0 
245    0 

23    1 
23    1 

9    4 
9    4 

28.45 
28.13 

r2 

(,••> 

7 
7 

dlti9 
d.169 

May    98 
May    98 

Burrows  

742 

289    0 

26    H 

30.67 

ft 

I 

May    08 

Chauncey  
Dale 

420 
4°0 

229 
229 

245    0 
245    0 

23    I5 
23    1 

9    4 
9    2 

28.64 
28  00 

3-2 

i  •> 

7 
7 

d!69 
dl74 

May    98 
May    98 

Decatur  
Drayton  
Flusser  
Hopkins  
Hull  

420 
742 
700 
408- 
408 

229 

245    0 
289    0 
289    0 
238    9 
238    9 

23    1 
26    1J 
26    0 
23    1J 
23    if 

9    2 
9    6 
10    0 
10    5 
10    3 

28.10 
30.83 
30.41 
29.02 
28  04 

02 
ft 

tt 

93 

n^> 

7 
5 
5 
8 

s 

<J174 
A70.500 
303 
143 
143 

May    98 
May    08 
May    07 
May    98 
Mav    98 

Lamson  
Lawrence  
Macdonough  

700 
400 
400 

742 

:::::::: 

289    0 
2<0    7 
240    7 

289    0 

26    0 
22    2J 
22    2} 

26    1 

10    7 
9    5 
•9    5 

• 

28.61 
28.41 
28.03 

30.22 

•73 
S'2 

ra 
n 

5 

7 

7 

f 

284 
dlOS 
dl08 

A73,583 

June    06 
May    98 
M&y    98 

May    08 

•McCall  

742 

289    0 

26    1 

30.66 

ft 

"> 

May    08 

742 

289    0 

26    1 

30  45 

I  3 

5 

A70  074 

May    09 

Patterson  

742 

289    0 

26    1 

29  69 

ft 

1 

A  71,  457 

Mar.    09 

Paulding  

rSfe::::: 

742 
420 
742 
420 

"V229" 
"6*229" 

289    0 
245    0 
289    0 
245    0 

2&    1 
23    1 
26    1J 
23    1 

9    6 
8  11 
10    1 
8  11 

32.80 
28.91 
29.76 
28.32 

fj 

ra 
n 

f' 

5 
7 

5 
7 

A70,  580 
168 
A73,815 
dl68 

May    08 
May    98 
May    08 
May    98 

Prcble 

420 

6229 

245    0 

23    1 

8  11 

28  03 

f% 

7 

d!68 

May    98 

Preston.. 

700 

289    0 

26    0 

10  11 

29.18 

ft 

5 

d271 

June    06 

S2:::::::E:: 

700 
742 



289    0 

26    0 
26    14 

10    0 
10  11 

31.82 
29.60 

33 
ft 

5 

<i 

<*303 
A70,  074 

Mar.    07 

May    08 

Smith  

Sterett.  . 

700 
742 



289    0 
289    0 

26    0 
26    H 

10    7 
10    1 

28.35 
30.37 

<73 

n 

5 
«i 

d286 
ft73,  815 

June    00 
May    08 

Stewart 

420 

245    6 

*>3    1 

9    2 

29  69 

g  2 

7 

<J172 

May    98 

Terry...  . 

742 

289    0 

26    1J 

10  11 

30.24 

ft 

| 

A70,074 

May    08 

Trippe  

•Truxtun 

742 
433 

248    0 

26    IJ 
22    3i 

9  16 

30.89 
29.58 

/3 

f  ° 

5 
8 

*70,5SO 
0173 

Mar.    09 
May    98 

"Walke 

742 

289    0 

26    14 

29.78 

ft 

g 

*67  817 

Mar     09 

\Varrington  

»!:::::::•: 

742 
433 
433 

!"""""'" 

289    0 
248    0 
248    0 

26    li 
22    34 
22    3J 

"Yio" 

9  10 

30.12 

28.24 
29.86 

/3 

n 

ni 

5 

8 

S 

A73.583 
d!73 
<»173 

May    08 
May    98 
May    98 

o  Fitted  as  a  flag  ship. 

l>  Subject  to  possible  change. ' 

c  Estimated. 

rf  Capacity  to  G"  below  beams. 


e  Two  torpedo  tubes. 

/  Twin  18-inch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes  (long). 

g  Eighteen-inch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes  (long). 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


427 


UPPER  DECK 


Courtesy  of  "  The  Illustrated  London  News." 

THE  ENGINE  SECTION  OF  A  TURBINE  DRIVEN  "  SUPER-DREADNOUGHT." 


428 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MONITORS. 


Dimensions. 

1 

1 

if 

Name. 

Dis- 
place- 

Net 
tonnage 
for 

Length 

Beam 

Draft 
aft  at 

i 

I. 

I 

Ii 
II 

Date 
author- 

ment. 

Suez 

on 

on 

de- 

£ 

o 

9 

ra 

ized. 

Canal. 

L.  ' 

L.  W. 
L. 

signed 

i 

I 

S 

•3*2 

load. 

1 

3 

a 

§  5 

Torn. 

Tons. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Knots. 

Tons. 

Amphitrite  
Cheyenne...  ^  — 

3,990 
3,225 

259    3 
252    0 

55    4 
50    0 

14    8. 
13    3 

10.50 
11.80 

6 
1 

2 
3 

ft  271 

Aug.  86 
May   98 

Miantonomoh  — 

3,990 

260    3 

55    4 

15    0 

10.50 

4 

2 

6250 

Aug.  86 

Monadnock  

3,990 

a  988 

258    6 

55    5 

14    8 

11.63 

(3 

5 

6386 

Aug.  86 

Monterey 

4,084 
3,225 

256    0 
252    0 

59    OJ 
50    0 

15    4 
13    3 

13.60 
12.03 

4 
I 

3 

6206 
6344 

Mar.  87 
May  98 

Ozark  

Puritan  
Tallahassee  

6,060, 
3,225 

290    3 
252    0 

60    1} 
50    0 

18    3 
13    3 

12.40 
12.40 

10 

(i 

1 

3 

6306 
6355 

Aug.  86 
May  98 

Terror  

3,990 

258    8 

55    6 

14    8 

10.50 

g 

2 

6276 

Aug.  86 

Tonopah 

3,225 

252    0 

50    0 

13    3 

13.04 

0 

3 

6338 

May  98 

TORPEDO  BOATS. 


D 

mensioi 

IS. 

1 

1 

*J 

SB 

Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
tonnage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Length 
on 
L.  W. 
L. 

Beam 
ex- 
treme. 

Mean 
d-aft. 

Speed  (trial). 

y 

"3 
O 

~T 

\ 

3 
O 

Coal  capacity  ' 
ers  (maxima 

Date 
author- 
ized. 

Bagley  

Tons. 
175 

Tons. 
68 

Ft.  in. 

157    0 

Ft.  in. 
17    7J 

Ft.  in. 
4    11 

JTnoM. 
29.15 

Ii 

( 

Tons. 
43 

May  '98 

Bailey  

280 
175 

""68 

205    0 
157    0 

19    3 
17    74 

6    10 
11 

30.20 
29.04 

ii 

da 

4 

99 
43 

Mar.  97 
May  98 

Biddle 

175 

68 

157    0 

17    74 

11 

28:57 

1 

43 

May  98 

Blakely...,  

196 

175     1 

17    9 

11 

25.58 

d  3 

72 

May  98 

Craven  

146 

147    0 

16    44 

7 

30.00 

»! 

4 

/32 

June  96 

Gushing 

105 

*138    9 

14    3 

10 

22.50 

36 

Aug   88 

Dahlgren 

146 

14*7    0 

16    44 

4      7 

30.00 

ii 

4 

/32 

June  96 

Davis  

154 

146    0 

15    4 

5    10 

23.41 

is 

40 

June  96 

De  Long..  
Dupont  

196 
165 
120 

175    1 
175    0 
149    7 

17    9 
17    8J 
15    6 

5    11 
4      8 
4     9 

25.52 
28.58 
22.62 

3 
4 
4 

72 
76 
36 

May  98 
Mar.  95 
June  90 

279 

a  160 

213    6 

20    8 

6     0 

30.13 

ro 

4 

95 

June  96 

Foote  
Fox  

142 
154 

160    0 
146    0 

16    1 
15    4 

5      0 
5    10 

24.53 

23.13 

"2 

3 

i 

44 
40 

July  94 
June  96 

Goldsborough  
Gwin 

255 

46 

198    0 
99    6 

20    7 
12    6 

6    10 
3     3 

27.40 

20  88 

*2 

4 
1 

89 
9 

Mar.  97 
June  96 

McKee       .  . 

65 

99    3 

12    9 

4      3 

19.82 

f'J 

o 

June  96 

65 

99    3 

12    9 

4      3 

20  11 

co 

/15 

June  96 

Manly 

30 

60    8 

9    5 

2    11 

17  00 

Morris  

105 

138    3 

15    6 

4      1 

24.00 

d  r{ 

i 

26 

June  96 

Porter  

1C5 

175    0 

17    8\ 

4      8 

28.63 

<n 

70 

Mar.  95 

Rodgers  
Rowan  

142 
210 



100    0 
170    0 

10    1 
17    0 

5      0 
5    11 

24.49 
27.07 

", 

3 
4 

44 

63 

July  94 
Mar.  95 

«  Subject  to  possible  change. 

6  Capacity  to  6  inches  below  beams. 

c  Also  00,810  gallons  fuel  oil. 


d  Eighteen-lnch  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes  Gong). 
«  Eighteeo-incli  Wbjtebead  torpedo  tubes. 
/Estimated, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


429 


TORPEDO  BOATS— Continued. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
tonnage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed  (trial). 

Guns  of  4  inches  and  [1 
over.  11 

1  Guns  tinder  4  inches. 

Coal  capacity  bunk- 
ers (maximum)  . 

Date 
author- 
ized. 

Length 
on 
L.W. 
L. 

Beam 
ex- 
treme. 

Mean 
draft. 

Shubrick 

Tons. 
200 

150 
200 

340 

46 
200 

165 
165 

Tons. 
104 

""ioi" 

Ft.  in. 
175    0 

149    4 
.175    0 

225    0 

99    6 
175    0 

175    0 
175    0 

Ft.  in. 
17    6 

17    6 
17    6 

22    0 

12    6 
17    6 

17    6 
17    7J 

Ft.  in. 
5     2 

5    10 
5      2 

6      6 

3      3 
5      2 

4      8 
4      8 

Knots. 
26.07 

617.50 
25.79 

25.33 

21.15 
24.88 

24.94 
25.99 

«3 

3 

Tons. 
82 

37 
79 

95 

8 
85 

73 
66 

May   98 

Stockton 

«3 
a2 

o2 
a3 

a3 
o3 

3 
4 

1 
3 

3 
3 

May  98 
Mar.  97 

Stringham     .  . 

Talbot 

Thornton 

104 

103 

May  98 

...do... 
...do.... 

Tingey 

Wilkes 

Table  of  Submarines  built  will  be  found  on  page  586. 
TENDERS  TO  TORPEDO  VESSELS. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net  ton- 
nage for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed 
(trial). 

Guns  of  4  inches  and  1 
over.  "1 

! 

tp 

O 

Coal  capacity  bunk- 
ers (maximum). 

Length 
on 
L.  W.  L. 

Beam 
ex- 
treme. 

Mean 
draft. 

Alert  e  . 

Tons. 
1,110 
1,177 

*% 

&6,100 
1,900 
3,085 
1,175 

Tons. 
c713 
c398 
c3,074 

Ft.  in. 
177    4 
204    0 
391    6 
137    0 
310    6 
216    0 
245    0 
175    0 

Ft.  in. 
32    0 
32    U 
48    3 
26    0 
39    0 
37    0 
33    6 
37    0 

Ft.  in. 
13      0 
12      0 
19    11 
9      6 
24      0 
16      6 
15    10 
16      6 

Knots. 
10.60 
16.03 
6  14.  50 
10.00 
10.00 

6 

4 

Tons. 
197 
210 
1,075 
108 
300 
168 
200 

Castine 

Dixie.  .  . 

12 

Iris 

c  1,923 

Mohican 

4 

Pompey.  . 

10.50 
09 

Severn 

c865 

o  Eighteen-inch.  Whitehead  torpedo  tubes,  long,   c  Subject  to  possible  change,    e  Fitting  out. 
6  Estimated.  rf  No  propulsive  machinery. 


PAY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 

The  yearly  pay  of  commissioned  officers  of  the  United  States  Navy  is  as  follows:  Admiral, 
$13,500;  Rear-Admirals,  first  nine,  $8,000;  Rear-Admirals,  second  nine,  or  Commodores,  $6,000; 
Captains,  $4,000;  Commanders,  $3,500;  Lieutenant  Commanders,  $3,000;  Lieutenants, 
82,400;  Lieutenants  (junior  grade)  $2,000;  Ensigns,  $1,700;  Midshipmen  (at  Naval  Academy) 
S600;  Midshipmen  (after  Grad.),  $1,400.  All  officers  below  the  rank  of  Rear-Admiral  are 
entitled  to  10  per  cent,  increase  upon  the  full  yearly  pay  of  their  grades  for  each  and  every 
period  of  five  years'  service  as  "longevity  pay"  provided  that  the  total  amount  of  such  increase 
shall  not  exceed  40  per  cent,  upon  the  full  yearly  pay  of  their  grade.  All  officers  receive  10 
per  cent,  additional  for  sea  duty,  or  shore  duty  beyond  continental  limits  of  the  United  States, 
except  Porto  Rico  and  Hawaii. 


430 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


GUNBOATS. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net  ton- 
nage for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed. 

1  Guns  of  4  inches  and  II 
over.  II 

I  Guns  under  4  inches. 

1  II 

Coal  ca- 
pacity 
bun- 
kers. 

Length 
on 
L.W.L. 

Beam. 

Draft 
aft  at 
de- 
signed 
fire 
load. 

Alvarado.      •  . 

Tons. 
100 
1,010 
243 
1,710 

1,486 
1,130 

1,085 
620 
1,392 
1,030 
1,030 
1.177 
990 

1,371 
1,010 

1,085 
243 
170 
890 
1,010 
350 
1,261 

243 

100 
1,010 
370 
990 
1,392 
1,710 

Tons. 

Ft.  in. 
110    0 
168    0 
115    3 
230    0 

240    0 
210    0 

174    0 
157  11 
250    9 
192  10 
192  10 
204    0 
174    0 

220    0 
168    0 

174    0 
115    3 

94  10 
181    4 
168    0 
137    9 
177    4 

115    3 
110    0 
168    0 
148    0 
174    0 
250    9 
230    0 

Ft.  in. 
15    6 
36    0 
17  10 
36    0 

32    0 
32    0 

35    0 
26    0 
39    8 
30    H 
30    H 
32    H 
34    0 

38    H 
36    0 

35    0 
17  10 
17    3 
31    0 
36    0 
22    9 
32    0 

17  10 
15    6 
36    0 
23    0 
34    0 
39    8 
36    0 

Ft.  in. 
5  10 
12    9 
7    6 
16    3 

17    0 
15    8 

13    4 
12    0 
10    0 
12    0 
12    0 
13    7 
12  10 

12    7 
12    9 

13    4 
7    6 
7    6 
12  10 
12    9 
9    3 

Knots. 
69.00 
13.17 
6  10.  00 
16.80 

15.50 
12.20 

12.90 
Ml.  00 
15.50 
13.08 
11.23 
15.46 
13.02 

16.30 
12.29 

12.85 
b  10.  00 
68.00 
11.40 
10.  64 
611.00 
10.00 

6  10.  50 
68.00 
12.71 
611.00 
12.88 
15.08 
16.14 

"4" 

2 
2 

6 
4 
8 
2 
4 
8 
6 

8 
6 

"4" 
6 

c4 
6 
6 
4 

5 
clO 

6 

'c4 
c8 
c6 
4 
6 

6 

6 
6 
3 
4 
6 
4 

T0ns. 
16 
230 
33 
354 

265 
204 

246 
94 
300 
159 
159 
261 
229 

363 
224' 

d236 
33 

20 
193 
226 

78 
178 

33 
16 
243 
65 
d250 
300 
341 

Annapolis 

o560 

Callao 

Concord  

0481 

o447 
o366 

568 

Dolphin 

Don  Juan  de  Aus- 
tria. 
Dubuque.  .      .     . 

Elcano  

Helena 

0921 
o314 
o314 
o398 
o532 

0756 
o560 

568 

IsladeCuba  
Isla  de  Luzon  
Machias  
Marietta..  

Nashville  
Newport  

Paducah  

Pana*y    " 

Petrel 

362 
0560 

Princeton  

Quiros 

Ranger 

Samar 

7    6 
5  10 
12    9 
9    0 
'12  10 
10    0 
16    3 

"& 

"e 

8 
6 

6 
3 

6 
6 
6 
4 

8 

Sandoval 

Vicksburg  

o560 

Villalobos  
Wheeling  

518 
o921 

0482 

Wilmington  

Yorktown 

TRANSPORTS. 


Name- 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
tonnage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed. 

Guus,  4  -inch  1 
and  over. 

•*f 

9 

a£ 
3fi 

f 

o 

6 
2 

15 
12 

"2" 

Coal  ca- 
pacity 
bun- 
kers 
(maxi- 
mum). 

Carrying 
capacity. 

Length 
on 
L.W.L. 

Beam. 

Mean 
draft. 

Officers. 

•o 

"a  Q 

Buffalo 

Tons 
6,000 

Tons. 

Ft.  in. 
C391    6 
212    6 

c391    6 
326    0 
e391  10 
/240    0 

Ft.  in. 
48    3 
29    9 

48    3 
41    0 
48    4 
033    0 

Ft.  in. 
19    5 
11    0 

20    9 
17    2 
20    1 
17    3 

Knots. 
614.5 
10.5 

614.5 
612.0 
614.5 
616.0 

6 

Tons. 
1,375 
240 

1,300 
1,139 
1,175 
371 

29 
15 

23 
25 
29 

800 
200 

750 
600 
750 

General  Alava...  . 
Prairie 

1,115 

6,620 

Rainbow.  
Yankee 

4,360 
6,225 
2,069 

o2,254 

Yosemite  

a  Subject  to  possible  change. 

6  Estimated. 

c  Added  temporarily,  two  3-pounders,  R,  F. 

<*  Capacity  to  bottom  of  beams. 


e  Fore  side  of  stem  to  center  rudder  stock. 
/  Between  perpendiculars. 
9  Moulded. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


431 


'7*  WOSK1N6  CHAMBER 
fsK3P          (REVOLVES  WITH  r.ne  curia 

IK 


Courtesy    of    "The    Illustrated   London  News." 

THE  GUN  SECTION  OF  A  "SUPER-DREADXOUGHT." 


432 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUPPLY  SHIPS. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
tonnage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed. 

11 

CO   — 

fl-^ 
3 
O 

Coal  ca- 
pacity 
bun- 
kers 
(maxi- 
mum). 

Cargo 
capac- 
ity. 

Length 
on 
L.W.L. 

Beam. 

Mean 
draft. 

Celtic  

Tons. 
8,000 
6,000 
8  325 

Tons. 

Ft.  in. 
369    8 
334    4 
353    p 
342    7 

Ft.  in. 
44    7 
43    0 
4fr   1 
43    4 

Ft.  in. 
24  1 
21  9 
25  4 
19  5 

Knots. 
a  10.  5 
13.25 
12.5 
9.66 

2 
2 
1 
10 

Tons. 
739 
957 
,  917 
1,029 

Tom. 

Culgoa  

2,483 

Supply 

4,325 

^2,692 

HOSPITAL  SHIPS. 


• 

Capacity 

Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
tonnage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed. 

at 

It 
ll 

fl 

Coal  ca- 
pacity 
bun- 
kers 
(maxi- 
mum). 

for 
patients. 

Length 
on 

Beam. 

Mean 
draft. 

i 

j 

O 

o 

-5 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Ft.  in. 

Knots. 

Tons. 

Relief  

3,300 

299    2 

46    0 

15  10 

a  15.0 

607 

15 

200 

Solace  

5,700 

361    2 

44    0 

22    0 

olS.O 

.... 

1,000 

9 

234 

FUEL  SHIPS. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment. 

Net 
ton- 
nage 
for 
Suez 
Canal. 

Dimensions. 

Speed. 

Capacity. 

Length 
over  all. 

Beam. 

Mean 
draft, 
loaded. 

1 

•J3 

60 
3 

b 

| 
« 

1 

O 

Abarenda.  .       .  .       ... 

Tons. 
6,705 
9,250 
6,181 
6,159 
6,600 
5,920 
19,360 
4,000 
11,230 

Tons. 
2,133 
3,320 

Ft.  in. 
325    6 
387    6 
343    3 
332    0 
332    6 
322    1 
542    0 
274    1 
403    0 
287    6 
273  11 
403    0 
300    0 
542    0 
320    0 
465    9 
297.  1 

284    0 
465    9 
403    0 

Ft.  in. 
42    Oi 
46    6 
43    0 
42    2 
41    6 
43  11 
c65    0 
39    3 
c53    0 
39    0 
39    2J 
c53    0 
39    0 
c65    0 
41    0 
60    1 
40    0 

37    0 
60    1 
c53    0 

Ft.  in. 
22  10 
24    8 
23    0 
20  11 
23    1 
19    7 
27    8 
17    7 
24    8 
19    8 
17    7 
24    8 
21    3 
27    7 
22    0 
26    0 
22    1 

22    6 
26    0 
24    8 

Knots. 
aO.OO 
a  10.  00 
a  8.  75 
a  10.  00 
a  10.  00 
alO.OO 
14.61 
9.00 
12.87 
9.1)8 
8.5 
12.65 
10.5 
12.93 
a9.00 
alG.OO 
11.00 

11.00 
a  16.  00 
12.82 

9.5 
11 
10 

ii 
"io"' 

"io.'g" 

9.5 

'ii'" 
11 

T0ns. 
813 
500 
800 
6S5 
547 

m 

2,233 
480 
818 
167 
200 
•S18 
400 
2,000 
300 
1,576 
0386 

469 
<7l,G4S 
818 

Tons. 
3,400 
5,000 
4,200 
(<*) 
4,000 
3,156 
elO,457 
2,.300 
8,128 
2,900 
2,200 
8,128 
2,900 
«10,500 
3,500 
6,410 
2,400 

2,672 
6,134 
8,128 

Ajax  
Alexander  

Arethusa 

Brutus 

J>  2,314 
2,072 
7,055 

'  "3,"  962" 

Caesar 

Cyclops  

Hannibal  
Hector 

Justin 

Leonidas  
Mars    ..  . 

4,023 
11,230 
4,950 

"3,"  962' 

Nanshan  

Neptune  

19,531 

Nero  

6,360 
12,585 
/6,220 

/5,663 

62,204 
4,350 

Prometheus 

Saturn 

Sterling  

Vestal 

12,585 
11,230 

Vulcan.. 

.3,902 

a  Estimated. 

&  Subject  to  possible  change. 

c  Moulded. 


d  1,085,000  gallons  fuel  oil. 
*  Also  375,000  gallons  fuel  oil. 


/Approximate. 

0  Capacity  to  bottom  of  beams. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


433 


LIST   OF   SHIPS   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES   NAVY. 
UNDER  CONSTRUCTION. 


Name. 

Dis- 
place- 
ment 

(tons). 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.  H.  P. 

Propul- 
sion. 

Guns 
(main 
bat- 
tery). 

Place  where  building. 

Arkansas  

26,000 

26,000 
27,000 
27,000 
a27,500 

027,500 

742 
742 

742 
742 

Battleship  
do 

S. 

S. 
S. 
S. 
8. 

S. 

S. 
S. 

S. 

S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 

S. 

S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 
S. 

28,000 

28,000 
32,000 
32,000 
024,800 

124,800 

12,000 
12,000 

12,000 

12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 

16,000 

16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
16,000 
o7,200 

4  screws 

4  screws 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 

T.  S. 

3  screws 
3  screws 

T.  S. 

3  screws 
3  screws 
3  screws 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 

T.  S. 

T.  S. 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 
T.  S. 

33 

33 

31 
31 

31 

31 

5 
5 

5 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

5 

5 
5 
5 
5 

New    York    Ship    Building    Co., 
Camden,  N.  J. 
Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 
Navy  yard,  New  York. 
Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 
Fore   River   Ship   Building    Co., 
Quincv,  Mass. 
New   York    Ship   Building  Co., 
Camden,  N.  J. 
Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 
New    York    Ship    Building  Co., 
Camden,  N.  J. 
Fore   River    Ship   Building  Co., 
Quincv,  Mass. 
Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 
Bath  Iron  Works,  Bath,  Me. 
Do 
Do. 
Do. 
New    York    Ship    Building  Co., 
Camden,  N.  J. 
Fore   River    Ship   Building   Co., 
Quincy,  Mass. 
Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Navy  yard,  Mare  Island. 
Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 
Do. 
Maryland    Steel    Co.,    Sparrows 
P6int,  Md. 
Do. 
Contract  not  yet  awarded. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Fore   River   Ship   Building   Co., 
Quincy,  Mass. 
Do. 
Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 
Do. 
Seattle  Construction^  Dry  Dock  Co. 
Do. 
Lake  Torpedo  Boat  Co.,  Bridge- 
port, Conn. 
Newport  News  Ship  Building  Co. 
Lake  Torpedo  Boat  Co.,  Bridge- 
port, Conn. 
Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 
Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 
Do. 
SeattleConstructJonA  DryDockCo. 
Fore   River   Ship    Building   Co., 
Quincy,  Mass. 
Do. 
Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 
Seat  tleConst  ruction  &  DryDockCo. 
Fore   River  Ship   Building  Co., 
Quincy,  Mass. 
Do. 
Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 

New   York    Ship    Building   Co., 
Camden,  N.  J. 
Do. 

Wyoming  
New  York  
Texas  
Nuvada  

Oklahoma  

Fanning  
Jarvis  

Henley  
Bealc 

do  
do  
do  

do  

do  
do  
....do... 

Jouett  

742 
742 

do  
...  do  

1,010 

....do... 

Cummings  

1,010 
1,073 

do  
do  

Duncan  
Avlwin  

1,014 
1,036 

do  

....do... 

Parker 

1  036 

do  .. 

Bcnham 

1,036 

....do... 

Balch  

1,036 

do  

Jupiter 

19,360 
19,000 

Collier  . 

Proteus  . 

do... 

Ncreus 

19  000 

do 

S. 

Orion 

19,  132 
19,  132 

do  

do 

a. 
s. 

Gunboat  
do... 

S. 

Sacramento  

do 

Niagara.. 

Submarine  tender 

E-i                  

Submarine 

E-2... 

....do... 

F-l 

do 

F-2  

...  do  . 

F-3... 

....do... 

F-4 

do 

G-l 

...  do 

G-2 

do 

CM... 

do 

G-4.. 

do 

H-l... 

....do... 

H-2  

do  

H-3... 

do 

K-l  

....do  

K-2.... 

do 

K-3  

...  do     . 

K-4 

do 

K-5  

do 

m 

K-6... 

do 

K-7 

do 

K-8  

do 

Sonoma  
Ontario  

1,120 
1,120 

Tug  

s. 

"1,800 

do  

s. 

a  1  goo 

This  table  is  of  January  1,  1912;  changes  are  constantly  occurring.  Thus  the  "Arkansas" 
was  turned  over  to  the  Navy  Department  on  August  29,  1912.  The  "Jouett"  made  33.7 
knots  and  is  the  fastest  boat  in  the  Navy. 


434 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


UNITED  STATES 

The  United  States  Marine  Corps,  serving 
generally  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 
of  War,  is  an  independent  branch  of  the 
military  service  of  the  United  States.  The 
corps  may  be  detached  by  order  of  the  Presi- 
dent for  service  with  the  army  but  its  prin- 
cipal duties  are  in  connection  with  the  navy 
as  follows:  To  garrison  the  different  navy 
yards  and  naval  stations,  both  within  and 
beyond  the  continental  limits  of  the  United 
States;  to  furnish  the  first  line  of  mobile 
defense  of  naval  bases  and  naval  stations 
beyond  the  continental  limits  of  the  United 
States;  to  man  such  naval  defenses,  and  to 
aid  in  manning,  if  necessary,  such  other 
defenses  as  may  be  erected  for  the  defense  of 
naval  bases  and  naval  stations  beyond  the 
continental  limits  of  the  United  States;  to 
garrison  the  Isthmian  Canal  Zone,  Panama; 
to  furnish  such  garrisons  and  expeditionary 
forces  for  duties  oeyond  the  seas  as  may  be 
necessary  in  time  of  peace;  to  serve  on  board 


MARINE  CORPS. 

all  battleships  and  armored  cruisers  of  the 
navy,  and  such  other  vessels  as  may  be 
directed,  hi  detachments  of  not  less  than  8 
per  cent,  of  the  strength  of  the  enlisted  men 
of  the  navy  on  said  vessels;  in  case  of  dis- 
turbances in  foreign  countries  marines  are 
landed  to  protect  American  interests. 

The  authorized  strength  of  the  Marine  Corps 
is  333  officers  and  9,521  enlisted  men.  On 
June  30,  1911,  there  were  330  officers  and 
9,454  enlisted  men  in  the  service.  The  term 
of  enlistment  in  the  Marine  Corps  is  four 
years  and  applicants  must  be  19  years  of  age 
and  not  over  35.  Minors  must  have  consent 
of  parents  or  guardian.  Apprentices  to 
learn  the  drum  and  trumpet  are  enlisted 
between  the  ages  of  15  and  17  with  the  con- 
sent of  parents  or  guardian  but  they  serve 
only  during  minority.  All  recruits  must  be 
able-bodied  and  of  good  character  and  after 
acceptance  are  sent  to  a  recruit  depot  for 
instruction  for  three  months. 


SUBMARINE  HELMET  FOR  THE  ESCAPE  OF  IMPRISONED  SAILORS  IN  SUB- 
MARINES WHICH  CANNOT  RISE  OR  WHICH  HAVE  BEEN  "HOLED." 
NOTE  THE  AIR  TRAP. 


SUBMARINE 

The  important  submarine  disasters  which 
have  resulted  in  the  loss  of  life  are: 

1904,  March  13 — British  submarine  "Al" 
sunk  by  collision  off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  Eng- 
land. 11  men  killed. 

1904,  June  2 — Russian  submarine  "Delfin" 
sank  at  her  moorings  in  the  Neva.     21  men 
drowned. 

1905,  February  10 — British  submarine"A5" 
blew  up  in  Queenstown  harbor.     4  men  killed 
and  7  seriously  injured. 

1905,  June  8— British  submarine  "A8" 
sank  in  Plymouth  Sound.  15  men  killed. 

1905,  July  6 — French  submarine   "Fafar- 
det"  filled  with  water  at  Bizerte,  Tunis,  and 
could  not  rise.     12  men  drowned. 

1906,  October      17 — French      submarine 
"Lutin"  sank  off  Bizerta  after  an  explosion. 
15  men  killed. 

1909,  April  26— Explosion  aboard  the 
Italian  submersible  Foca  in  the  Bay  of  Naples. 
8  men  killed. 


DISASTERS. 

1909,  June  13 — Russian  submersible  "Kam- 
bala"  rammed  by  warship  off  Sebastopol.      15 
men  killed. 

1910,  May    26 — French    submarine    "  Plu- 
viose"  struck  by  steamship.      28  men  killed. 

1910 — Japanese  submersible  "No.  6"  dived 
and  could  not  get  to  the  surface  again.  15 
men  killed 

1910,  August  6 — British  submarine  "Al" 
again  suffered  by  an  explosion  whch  mortally 
injured  7  men. 

1911,  January     18 — German    submersible 
"U3"  struck  on  the  bottom  of  the  harbor  of 
Kiel.     27   men   shot   to   the   surface   in   suits 
made  for  the  purpose.     Only  3  men  killed. 

1912,  February  2 — British  submersible  "A3" 
struck   by   ship  off   Isle  of  Wight.      14   men 
killed. 

1912,  June  8 — French  submarine  "Vende- 
miare"  run  down  by  battleship  St.  Louis  and 
sunk.  23  men^  killed. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


435 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY. 


NOMINATION. 


The  students  of  the  Naval  Academy  are 
styled  midshipmen.  Two  midshipmen  are 
allowed  for  each  Senator,  Representative,  and 
Delegate  in  Congress,  two  for  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  five  each  year  from  the  United 
States  at  large.  The  appointments  from  the 
District  of  Columbia  and  five  each  year  at 
large  are  made  by  the  President.  One  mid- 
shipman is  allowed  from  Porto  Rico,  who 
must  be  a  native  of  that  island.  The  appoint- 
ment is  made  by  the  President,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  governor  of  Porto 
Rico.  After  June  30,  1913,  each  Senator, 
Representative,  and  Delegate  in  Congress  will 
be  allowed  to  appoint  but  one  midshipman 
instead  of  two. 

The  course  for  midshipmen  is  six  years — 
four  years  at  the  academy,  when  the  suc- 
ceeding appointment  is  made,  and  two  years 
at  sea,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  the 
examination  for  final  graduation  takes  place. 

Midshipmen  who  pass  the  examination  for 
final  graduation  are  appointed  to  fill  vacancies 


in  the  lower  grade  of  the  line  of  the  Navy; 
and  occasionally  to  fill  vacancies  in  the 
Marine  Corps  and  in  certain  of  the  staff  corps 
of  the  Navy. 

Candidates  allowed  for  congressional 
districts,  for  Territories,  and  for  the  District 
of  Columbia  must  bet  actual  residents  of  the 
districts  or  Territories,  respectively,  from 
which  they  are  nominated.  All  candidates 
must  at  tne  time  of  their  examination  for 
admission,  be  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and 
twenty  years.  A  candidate  is  eligible  for 
appointment  on  the  day  he  becomes  sixteen 
and  is  ineligible  on  the  day  he  becomes 
twenty  years  of  age. 

Candidates  are  required  to  be  of  good  moral 
character,  physically  sound,  well  formed,  and 
of  robust  constitution.  Attention  will  also 
be  paid  to  the  stature  of  the  candidate,  and 
no  one  manifestly  under  size  for  his  age  will 
be  received  at  the  academy. 

Full  information  in  pamphlet  form  can  be 
obtained  by  addressing  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  Washington,  D.  C. 


FORWARD  TURRET  OF  THE  U.  S.  BATTLESHIP  "MINNESOTA." 

Above  the  12-inch  guns  is  the  Morris  tube  and  mechanism   used  in   training  gun-pointers. 
;NAVY  AND  NAVAL  MILITIA. 


At  present  there  are  23  States  and  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  supporting  Naval  Militia 
organizations  aggregating  a  force  of  602  of- 
ficers and  6,592  men,  a  total  of  7,194  militia- 
men, organized  under  the  laws  of  the  various 
States  bordering  upon  the  seas  and  upon  the 

COST  OF  SHIPS  OF  THE 
The  total  cost  of  maintaining  ships  in  com- 
mission during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30. 
1911  was  $45,919,254.  The  average  cost  of 
ships  of  the  Navy,  taking  as  a  basis  the  cost 
of  ships  completed  to  June  30,  1909,  is  as  fol- 
lows: Battleships,  $6,096,928;  armoured 
cruisers,  $5,566,468;  protected  cruisers,  $2,- 
434,927.  The  cost  of  a  battleship  varies  from 
4  to  7  ^  million  dollars ;  of  an  armoured  cruiser 


Great  Lakes.  The  actual  strength  of  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  Navy,  on  June  30,  1911,  was 
3,099  officers  and  46,759  enlisted  men,  a  total 
of  49,858.  In  the  Marine  Corps  on  June  30, 
1911  there  were  330  officers  and  9,454  men,  a 
total  of  9,784  men. 

UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 
from  4  to  6  million  dollars,  and  of  a  protected 
cruiser  from  1  }£  to  4  million  dollars.  The  cost 
of  the  Battleships  "New  York"  and  "Florida" 
exclusive  of  armor  and  armament,  authorized 
by  the  naval  appropriation  act  approved  July 
24,  1910,  was  $6,400,000  each.  The  total  cost 
of  all  the  vessels  of  the  Navy  built  and  build- 
ing under  appropriations  made  to  June  30, 
1909,  was  $367,273,408. 


436 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Courtesy  of  "The  Illustrated  London  News." 


THE  STERN  SECTION  OF  A  "SUPER-DREADNOUGHT." 

Longitudin*1  above — Transverse  below. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


AVIATION.* 

BY  DB.  A.  F.  ZAHM. 


EVOLUTION  OF  AIR  CRAFT. 


The  science  of  aerial  locomotion 
divides  naturally  into  four  parts— two 
relating  to  aerostation,  or  the  science 
of  buoyant  air  ships;  two  relating  to 
aviation,  or  the  science  of  flying  ma- 
chines. Each  of  these  main  branches 
may  in  turn  be .  subdivided  into  two 
payts,  one  relating  to  power  craft,  the 
other  to .  passive  or  motorless  craft. 
Thus  iii  aerostation  we  have  power- 
driven  or  dirigible- balloons,  and  we 
have  free  balloons  which,  being  devoid 
of  motive  power,  drift  helplessly  with 
the  wind  :  while  in  aviation  We  have 
the  various  types  of  power-driven  fly- 
ing machines  and  the  various  forms  of 
passive  gliding  or  soaring  machines, 
which  travel  through  the  air  by  the 
force  of  gravity,  or  by  virtue  of  pre- 


viously acquired  momentum,  or  by  the 
aid  of  favorable  wind  currents.  These 
four  branches  all  have  their  votaries, 
all  have  their  specialized  types  of  aerial 
vehicles ;  all  save  one  form  the  basis 
of  special  and  rapidly  growing  indus- 
tries, involving,  certainly  in  the  case 
of  power  craft,  millions  of  dollars  of 
capital.  The  least  successful  of  the 
four  types  of  air  craft  is  the  soaring 
or  gliding  machine,  because  it  has  not 
yet  received  adequate  attention;  but 
when  fully  developed  it  may  become 
of  considerable  importance  among  the 
various  kinds  of  aerial  locomotion. 
We  shall  consider  briefly  the  growth 
and  present  status  of  these  various 
popular  and  captivating  modes  of 
travel. 


GROWTH  OF  PASSIVE   BALLOONS. 


The  invention  of  the  passive  balloon 
is  usually  accredited  to  those  two 
French  brothers,  Joseph  and  Stephen 
Montgolfier,  who  in  June,  1783,  first 
launched  publicly  a  large  paper  bag 
inflated  with  hot  air.  But  in  truth 
they  have  to  share  the  honor  with 
several  others.  Prof.  Charles,  that 
same  summer,  constructed  and  pub- 
licly launched  the  first  hydrogen  bal- 
loon ;  Cavallo,  in  England,  a  year  pre- 
viously, made  hydrogen  soap  bubbles 
which  rose  beautifully  in  the  air ;  and 
Dr.  Black,  half  a  decade  earlier,  pro- 
posed to  make  a  thin  light  vessel  rise 
in  the  air  by  inflating  it  with  hydro- 
gen, a  gas  then  recently  discovered 
by  Cavendish.  The  use  of  coal  gas 
for  inflation,  constituting  an  important 
advance,  though  not  an  invention,  was 
made  in  1821  by  George  Green,  of 
England. 

The  chief  constructional  features 
and  navigation  appliances  of  the  prac- 
tical gas  balloon  were  devised  or  in- 
troduced by  Prof.  Charles  and  Mr. 
Green.  Charles  first  covered  the  gas 

*  Copyright  1912,  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


bag  with  a  net  from  which  the  car 
or  basket  was  hung  by  means  of  sus- 
pension ropes  attached  to  a  concentra- 
tion ring  at  the  bottom  of  the  net. 
He  invented  the  balloon  valve  and 
used  it,  together  with  sand  ballast,  to 
regulate  his  elevation.  He  also  intro- 
duced the  balloon  anchor  to  arrest  the 
balloon  on  reaching  earth,  the  barom- 
eter for  showing  the  altitude,  dissolved 
rubber  varnish  to  render  the  envelope 
impermeable.  Green  gave  the  balloon 
its  modern  net  with  small  suspension 
ring,  and  first  used  the  drag  rope, 
trailing  down  from  the  basket  along 
the  earth's  surface,  to  maintain  an 
even  altitude.  After  these  two  pio- 
neers came  John  Wise,  ,of  America, 
who  first  used  the  ripping  panel,  a 
ribbon  covering  a  vertical  seam  in  the 
upper  half  of  the  envelope  in  such  a 
way  that,  on  landing,  it  can  be  quickly 
jerked  off,  to  allow  the  bag  to  collapse 
on  the  ground  instantly. 

Some  very  large  passive  balloons 
have  been  made  for  amusement  or 
scientific  exploration,  but  these  could 


437 


438 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FLIGHT  OF  DIRIGIBLE  ACROSS  COUNTRY 


easily  be  surpassed  in  size.  The 
largest  hot  air  balloon,  La  Flesselle, 
launched  at  Lyons  In  1784,  measured 
100  feet  in  diameter  by  130  feet  high. 
Comparable  with  this  in  size  was  the 
hydrogen  balloon,  The  Prussia,  of 
300,000  cubic  feet  volume,  with  which 
Prof.  Berson  and  Dr.  Siiring  rose  to 
the  highest  elevation  yet  attained  by 
man — 35,600  feet,  or  nearly  seven 
miles.  The  largest  hydrogen  balloon, 
cubing  450,000  feet  and  carrying  forty 
passengers  at  once,  was  used  by  Gif- 
i'ard  to  give  sightseers  a  view  of  Paris 
at  the  Exposition  of  1878. 

The  longest  voyage  in  a  spherical 
balloon  yet  recorded  is  that  of  Emile 
Dubonnet  and  P.  Dupont.  Sailing 
from  La  Motte-Brenil,  France,  Jan.  7, 
1912,  they  landed  next  day  at  Soko- 


lowska,  Russia,  after  a  continuous 
journey  of  1954  kilometers,  or  121 G 
miles.  The  previous  world's  record 
was  held  by  Count  de  la  Vaulx. 
Starting  from  Vincennes,  France, 
in  October,  1900,  he  landed  at 
Korosticheff,  Russia,  having  traversed 
1,193  miles  in  35%  hours.  A  close 
second  to  this  record  was  made  by  A. 
R.  Hawley  in  his  spherical  balloon 
America,  aided  by  Augustus  Post,  in 
the  Gordon  Bennett  International 
Balloon  Race  of  1910.  Sailing  from 
St.  Louis,  October  17,  they  drifted 
1,173  miles  from  their  starting  point, 
and  landed  in  a  great  forest  at  Peri- 
bonka  River,  North  Lake  Chilogoma, 
Canada,  where  they  were  lost  for  sev- 
eral days. 


GROWTH  OF  POWER  BALLOONS. 

In  the  year  succeeding  the  invention  I  for  Prof.  Charles,  and  had  first  made 
of  the  passive  balloon  the  Robert  rubber  varnish,  devised  and  built  the 
brothers,  who  had  been  constructors,  first  elongated  dirigible,  This  was  a. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


439 


melon-shaped  silk  bag,  52  feet  long  by 
32  feet  in  diameter,  supporting  a 
longish  car  propelled  by  six  silken  oars 
and  guided  by  a  silk  rudder.  It  was 
a  successful  dirigible,  but  too  slow  to 
be  of  any  value,  for  it  was  driven  by 
Land  power  and  traveled  at  only  a 
walking  pace. 

Gen.  Meusnier  that  same  year  de- 
vised a  similar  shaped  balloon,  but 
having  coaxial  screw  propellers  between 
the  car  and  bag,  to  be  actuated  by 
eighty  men.  The  hull  comprised  a 
melon-shaped  hydrogen  bag  inside  a 
slightly  larger  air  bag  always  pumped 
full  and  taut  so  as  to  resist  deforma- 
tion. Stablizing  planes  placed  on  the 
outside,  as  in  the  modern  dirigible, 
were  to  control  the  poise  of  the  vessel. 
The  buoyant  hull  and  suspended  car 
were  to  be  kept  in  alignment  by  suit- 
ably inclining  and  crossing  the  sus- 
pension cords.  The  Meusnier  design 
was  indeed  a  creation  of  fundamental 
importance  which,  for  want  of  engine 
power,  had  to  wait  upwards  of  a  cen- 
tury before  it  could  be  practically  em- 
ployed. 

The  first  torpedo-shaped  balloon  was 
Jullien's  model  of  1850,  made  of  gold 
beaters'  skin,  measuring  23  feet  long 
and  weighing  2*X>  pounds.  It  was 
driven  by  clock-spring-actuating  twin 
propellers  at  either  side  of  its  bow,  and 
had  a  double  rudder  at  its  stern.  It 
could  navigate  steadily  against  a  mod- 
erate wind.  Aerodynamically  this  tiny 
model  excelled  in  design  all  other 
dirigibles  produced  during  the  first 
century  of  aeronautics,  and  was  the 
harbinger  of  the  swift  modern  air 
cruisers  of  the  most  effective  shape 
and  equipoise. 

During  the  remainder  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  steain,  electric  and  gas 
motors  were  in  turn  applied  to  the 
propulsion  of  airships,  but  with  meager 
success.  In  1852  Giffard,  in  a  spindle- 
shaped  balloon  143  feet  long  by  39 
feet  in  diameter,  and  driven  by  a  three- 
horse-power  steam  engine  actuating  an 
11-foot  screw,  voyaged  from  Paris  at 
a  sustained  speed  of  six  miles  an  hour 
through  the  air  and  with  good  control. 
In  1872  the  German  Haenlein.  with  a 
cucumber-shaped  coal  gas  balloon  164 
feet  long  by  30  feet  in  diameter, 
driven  by  a  gas  engine  taking  fuel 
from  the  envelope,  and  actuating  a 
single  screw,  attained  a  speed  of  ten 
miles  per  hour.  In  1884  Renard  and 
Krebs,  in  a  torpedo-shaped  dirigible 
165  feet  long  by  27,5  in  major  diam- 


eter, driven  by  an  electric  battery 
motor,  actuating  a  screw  propeller, 
made  the  first  return  voyage  against 
a  moderate  wind.  The  vessel  showed 
excellent  control,  attained  an  average 
speed  of  14.5  miles  an  hour,  and  was 
of  model  workmanship ;  but  for  lack 
of  power  it  was  practically  abandoned 
till  the  advent  of  the  automobile  en- 
gine. 

In  18B8  Santos-Duinont,  emulating 
the  German  Wolfert,  who  in  1880 
first  attempted  to  drive  a  dirigible 
with  a  benzine  engine,  sailed  aloft  in 
a  spindle-shaped  balloon  82  feet  long 
by  11  feet  in  diameter,  driven  by  a 
motor-cycle  engine  of  3^4  horsepower, 
carried  in  the  car  suspended  beneath 
the  envelope.  Finding  this  vessel  man- 
ageable and  swift  enough  to  make  his 
clothes  nutter,  and  amply  rigid  when 
its  balonet  or  internal  air  cell  was 
properly  inflated,  he  in  subsequent 
years  built  fifteen  more  dirigibles  of 
various  designs.  The  speed  of  the  best 
of  these  varied  from  fifteen  to  upwards 
of  twenty  miles  per  hour.  They  may 
be  considered  as  the  successful  proto- 
types of  the  great  non-rigid  air  cruisers 
which  so  quickly  followed  in  France, 
Germany  and  elsewhere. 

In  1900  Count  Zeppelin,  emulating 
the  Austrian,  Schwartz,  who  in  1897 

•  first  tentatively  drove  a  rigid  metal 
balloon  with  a  petrol  motor,  launched 

i   the  first   of  his  huge   rigid   dirigibles. 

I   Its  hull,  which  was  framed  of  alumi- 

;  num  and  contained  seventeen  compart- 
ments holding  buoyant  hydrogen  bags, 

!  measured  416  feet  long,  38  feet  across, 
cubed  400,000  cubic  feet,  weighed  nine 
tons,  and  had  a  displacement  of  ten 
tons.  It  was  driven  by  two  petrol 
engines  actuating  four  screw  propellers 
mounted  directly  on  the  underside  of 

I  the  hull,  two  forward  and  two  aft. 
Subsequently  larger  vessels,  with  pas- 
senger compartments  running  along 
the  bottom  of  the  hulls,  accommodat- 
ing twenty  to  thirty  passengers,  were 
built  and  powered  with  engines  ade- 
quate to  attain  velocities  of  over  forty 
miles  per  hour.  The  large  vessels  have 
required  for  inflation  nearly  700,000 
cubic  feet  of  hydrogen,  have  weighed 
some  fifteen  tons  and  lifted  four  or 
five  tons  of  useful  load,  have  voyaged 
continuously  twenty  to  forty  hours, 
and  have  made  continuous  journeys  of 
500  to  1,000  miles  in  length.  Zeppe- 
lin X.,  called  the  Schwaben,  a  regular 
transportation  airship  with  accommo- 
dations for  24  passengers,  made  in 


440 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


COUNT  VON  ZEPPELIN'S  GREAT  WORK  EXPRESSED  IN  FIGURES. 


Air- 
ship       Year 

Gas  capacity    Number  of       Length 
in  cubic          gas-tight          injeet 
ftet         rotuparttnents 

Breadth 
in  feet 

Number 
of 
engines 

Total          Number      Speed 
horse-            of  pro-   in  miles 
foiuer           fellers   per  hour 

I.      IOOO 

399,000 

17 

419.9 

37-25 

2 

294 

4 

17.4 

II.      IO05-O6 

393,000 

16 

419.9 

37-25 

2 

170 

4 

27? 

I  1906-07 

399,000 

16 

419.9  ) 

i  2 

J4 

28 

III.  -j  1008-09  1 
(  1912         \ 

427,300 

17 

446.2  j 

37-25 

u 

170 
2IO-230 

1*4 

4 

29.2 
33? 

IV.    1908 

547,400 

17 

446.2 

42.65 

2 

210 

4 

27-29 

V.    1909 

547,400 

17 

446.2 

42.65 

2 

210 

4 

28.6 

VI    j  1909-10 

547,400 

17 

446.2 

42.65 

i: 

220 

345 

4 
6 

30.3 
33-6 

(  1910 

565,000 

18 

472.4 

42.65 

3 

345-360 

4 

32? 

VII.    1910 

681,600 

18 

485.6 

45-93 

3 

400 

4 

34-8 

VIII.    1911 

681,600 

18 

485-6 

45-9 

3 

|00 

35 

IX.    1911 

I  600,000 
(  640,000 

16 
17 

433-1  > 
459-3  i 

45-9 

3 

450-460 

1 

48 
48 

X.     1911 

681,600 

18 

485.6 

45-9 

3 

450-460 

44 

XI.     1912 

681,600 

18 

485.6 

45-9 

3 

450-460 

45 

1911  over  100  trips,  aggregating  8,500 
miles  and  carried  2,300  persons.  Reg- 
ular excursion  tickets  can  now  be  pur- 
chased in  New  York  by  outgoing  tour- 
ists which,  on  presentation  at  the 
Zeppelin  airport  at  Friedrichshafen, 
entitle  the  bearer  to  an  airship  voy- 
age, usually  conducted  on  schedule 
time,  over  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  interesting  regions  of  Germany 
and  with  the  accommodations  of  a 
modern  palace  car.  The  above  table 
gives  the  dimensions,  power  and  speed 
of  Count  Zeppelin's  various  dirigibles 
up  to  1012. 

Rivaling  these  unique  rigid  dirigi- 
bles, at  least  in  celerity  and  control, 
if  not  in  size,  are  the  great  non-rigid 
dirigibles  of  Gross  and  of  Parseval  in 


Germany,  of  Clement  and  of  Julliot  in 
France,  and  of  the  national  govern- 
ment in  Italy.  These  all  comprised 
elongated  silk  bags,  more  or  less  whale 
shaped,  from  which  were  suspended 
the  car  carrying  the  crew  and  passen- 
gers and  the  mechanism  of  propulsion 
and  control.  Scores  of  these  large 
non-rigid  dirigibles  sprang  into  being 
for  sportive  or  military  use,  powered 
sufficiently  to  run  all  day,  to  voyage 
hundreds  of  miles,  and  to  attain  speeds 
of  thirty  to  forty  miles  an  hour.  The 
Parseval  in  particular  has  an  excel- 
lent reputation  for  the  speed  and  pre- 
cision with  which  it  carries  passengers 
on  schedule  time  above  the  city  of 
Berlin  and  over  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting historical  places  in  Germany. 


GROWTH  OF  PASSIVE   FLIERS. 


For  many  decades  two  kinds  of 
passive  flight  have  been  recognized  in 
nature,  and  have  been  understood  to 
be  achievable  by  man.  One  is  vol- 
planing, or  gliding  by  aid  of  gravity 
or  acquired  momentum;  the  other  is 
soaring,  or  gliding  by  force  of  the 
wind  without  loss  of  altitude.  Human 
volplaning  has  been  so  far  perfected 
as  no  longer  to  be  a  novelty ;  human 
soaring  is  a  much  neglected  art,  though 
doubtless  capable  of  very  great  de- 
velopment. 

The  permanent  art  of  passive  man- 
flight  dates  from  Otto  Lilienthal's  ex- 
periments near  Berlin  in  the  early 
nineties  of  the  last  century,  though 


long  previous  to  that  time  some  won- 
derful feats  of  gliding  and  soaring,  of 
both  men  and  models,  were  reported 
by  reliable  witnesses.  Lilienthal  made 
numerous  glides  several  hundred  feet 
in  length,  down  hill  slopes,  sometimes 
pausing  in  the  air  or  rising  consider- 
ably above  his  launching  place.  Some- 
times also  he  wheeled  about  and  re- 
turned nearly  to  his  starting  point. 
At  first  he  used  a  monoplane  glider, 
then  a  biplane,  in  each  case  control- 
ling his  poise  in  the  air  by  shifting 
his  weight  as  he  hung  by  his  arms 
underneath  the  kite-like  motorless 
craft.  He  finally  prepared  to  convert 
his  glider  into  a  dynamic  aeroplane  by 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


441 


adding  a  light  engine;  but  in  an  un- 
lucky glide  his  structure  gave  way  and 
dropped  him  to  his  death  among  its 
tangled  wreckage — the  protomartyr ! 

Lilienthal's  work  was  continued  by 
various  disciples,  mainly  American, 
who  perfected  his  structural  designs 
and  means  of  balance.  Chanute  and 
Herring  in  the  latter  nineties  devel- 
oped the  familiar  Chanute  biplane, 
whose  Pratt  truss  arrangement  of  two 
superposed  concave  surfaces  is  now 
commonly  used  in  many  types  of  power 
aeroplanes.  They,  too,  <  maintained 
their  aerial  poise  by  shifting  their 
suspended  weight.  Early  in  the  twen- 
tieth century  the  Wright  brothers,  of 
Ohio,  and  Prof.  Montgomery,  of  Cali- 
fornia, introduced  in  practice  the  mod- 
ern dynamic  system  of  controlling  an 
aeroplane  in  passive  flight  without 
shift  of  the  operator's  weight,  though, 
broadly  speaking,  their  devices  had 
been  previously  invented  and  pub- 
lished by  various  other  votaries  of 
aviation,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

The  records  for  volplaning  have  not 
been  kept  with  much  care,  but  some 
are  well  attested.  Lilienthal,  Chanute 
and  Herring  and  the  Wrights  all  per- 
formed short  flights  of  usually  less 
than  1.000  feet,  along  sloping  ground. 
Montgomery  in  11MJ3  launched  from  a 
balloon  4.000  feet  in  air  a  glider  bear- 
ing on  its  back  a  dauntless  aeronaut. 
Maloney,  who  by  means  of  wing  warp- 
ing and  a  double  rudder  guided  it, 
with  many  a  playful  clip  and  wheel, 
securely  down  to  a  designated  spot, 
where  he  landed  in  safety.  With  a 
like  aerial  glider  another  Montgomery 
aeronaut  cut  corkscrews  in  the  air. 
The  record  for  volplaning  in  a  power 
machine,  which  really  becomes  a  glider 
when  the  motor  stops,  is  held  by 
Lincoln  Beachy,  who  during  the  Chi- 


cago meet  of  1911,  glided  sheer  down 
to  earth  in  a  Curtiss  biplane  from  an 
elevation  of  11,642  feet. 

The  records  for  soaring  are  briefer, 
and  some  are  not  so  well  attested.  In 
1859  Capt.  Le  Bris,  piloting  a  glider 
patterned  after  an  albatross,  soared 
300  feet  high  and  descended  safely  to 
earth.  This  on  the  authority  of  De  la 
Landelle,  who  wrote  a  history  of  aero- 
nautics, published  in  1884,  and  who 
had  the  account  from  Le  Bris's  neigh- 
bors. Mouillard,  nearly  twenty  years 
ago,  soared  138  fret  over  a  prairie 
after  an  initial  run  and  jump  across 
a  roadside  ditch  with  a  glider  strapped 
to  his  waist.  Many  recent  aeroplan- 
ists  have  been  carried  well  upward  by 
rising  wind  currents.  During  the  glid- 
ing experiments  of  Chanute  and  Her- 
ring one  of  the  operators  was  raised 
by  the  wind  some  forty  feet  high,  then 
landed  almost  in  his  tracks  without 
serious  shock.  Lateral  glides  along  the 
hillside  were  also  made,  one  forty-eight 
seconds  in  length,  which  showed  the 
possibility  of  patrolling  to  and  fro  in 
such  places.  Mr.  Atwood  relates  that 
while  flying  over  a  mountainous  coun- 
try he  once  encountered  an  upsloping 
current  which  lifted  him  over  1,000 
feet  high.  Orville  Wright  was  sup- 
ported on  such  an  ascending  current 
above  a  hill  slope  for  nearly  ten  min- 
utes, sometimes  stationary,  again  glid- 
ing forward  or  backward,  and  some- 
times rising  to  a  considerable  eleva- 
tion above  the  starting  point.  Mr. 
Ludolph  Schroeder  relates  that  in  May, 
1908,  he  launched  from  the  Palisades, 
on  the  Hudson,  a  riderless  glider  six 
feet  long,  made  of  one-inch  pine 
boards,  and  saw  it  caught  up  by  the 
oncoming  wind  and  carried  hundreds 
of  feet  high  and  many  thousand  Jieet 
to  the  west  of  the  river. 


GROWTH    OF  POWER    FLIERS. 


From  time  immemorial  aviation  had 
been  cultivated  in  a  crude,  tentative 
and  unpromising  fashion  before  any 
noteworthy  and  definite  progress  be- 
gan to  be  recorded.  Such  progress 
dates  from  the  first  decade  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Prior  to  that  time 
many  volant  devices  had  been  tested, 
and  some  little  flying  had  been 
achieved,  but  no  permanent  and  sub- 
stantial contribution  to  either  the 
science  or  art  of  dynamic  flight  had 
been  transmitted  to  succeeding  genera- 
tions. 

England  made  the  first  substantial 


contribution  to  the  science  of  aviation. 
In  1809-  and  1810  Sir  George  Cayley 
published  in  Nicholson's  Journal,  now 
the    Philosophical    Magazine,    a    paper 
1  describing  his  experiments  with  large 
aerial  glider  models,  and  setting  forth 
the   principles  of  design  conducive   to 
inherent    stability.      He    clearly    con- 
ceived and  explained  the  advantage  of 
placing  the  wings  of  an  aeroplane  at 
j  a    dihedral    angle    to   one    another,    as 
j  soaring  birds  do,  to  maintain  a  pendu- 
I  Ions   lateral    equilibrium,    and    he   em- 
ployed that  device.     He  anticipated  by 
I  sixty  years    the    Frenchman,  Pe"naud, 


442 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  OFFENBURG-FREIBURG  EXPRESS  RACING  WITH  AND  SNAPSHOTTED 
FROM  THE  ZEPPELIN  AIR-SHIP  "SCHWABEN." 


Courtesy   of   "The   Illustrated   London   Times." 

THE  AIR-SHIP  "ZEPPELIN  III,"  FLYING  OVER  THE  ELBE  DURING  A  SEVERE 

THUNDERSTORM, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


443 


in  providing  for  fore  and  aft  equilib- 
rium by  setting  the  tail,  or  horizontal 
rudder,  at  a  slightly  negative  angle,  so 
that  when  the  flier  plunges  too  swiftly 
downward  the  increasing  pressure  on 
top  of  its  tail  causes  the  bow  to  rise 
until  the  speed  and  course  of  flight 
attain  their  natural  uniformity.  From 
the  weight  and  observed  rate  of  de- 
scent of  his  glider  model  he  computed 
the  work  of  gravity  expended  in  its 
propulsion,  and  thence  proceeded  to 
estimate  the  power  and  weight  of  an 
artificial  motor  that  should  drive  a 
dynamic  aeroplane.  Finding  the  cum- 
brous steam  engine  of  his  time  in- 
adequate, he  conceived  the  idea  of  em- 
ploying an  internal  combustion  engine 
in  its  place,  thus  anticipating  the  mod- 
ern aeronautical  motor.  Indeed,  the 
contributions  to  the  science  of  flight 
made  by  Sir  George  Cayley  seem  to 
be  the  most  radical,  fundamental  and 
original  of  any  that  have  been  re- 
corded up  to  the  present  time  by  the 
promoters  of  mechanical  flight. 

The  English  engineer,  Samuel  Hen- 
sou,  made  the  next  substantial  ad- 
vance in  the  devices  and  principles  of 
aviation.  He  had  not  the  originality 
and  scientific  method  of  his  illustrious 
predecessor,  Cayley ;  but,  as  patent 
lawyers  phrase  it,  he  "reduced  to  prac- 
tice^ his  remarkable  conception  of  a 
dynamic  aeroplane.  In  1842,  he  pat- 
ented a  monoplane  having  all  the  me- 
chanical features  essential  to  success- 
ful flight.  It  was  provided  with  a 
horizontal  and  a  vertical  rudder  oper- 
able by  the  pilot  to  control  the  poise 
of  the  flier  about  corresponding  axes, 
and  was  furnished  with  a  vertical  keel 
surface,  placed  above  the  center  of 
gravity,  to  aid  in  steering  and  to  lend 
inherent  lateral  stability,  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  side  planes  in  a  box  kite. 
Henson's  monoplane  was  thus  equipped 
as  well  for  security  of  poise  and  con- 
trol in  flight  as  a  practical  modern 
aeroplane  of  the  Voisin  type.  Its 
wings,  which  were  of  very  efficient 
shape,  were  trussed  and  covered  very 
much  like  those  of  a  modern  mono- 
plane. The  machine  was  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  an  engine  actuating  twin 
screws,  like  the  successful  models  of 
Tatin,  Langley  and  others  of  later 
date ;  and  was  provided  with  a  three- 
wheel  chassis  for  starting  and  landing, 
as  commonly  practised  nowadays  by 
machines  of  the  Curtiss  type. 

Thus,  while  Cayley  first  set  forth 
the  scientific  principles  of  flight,  Ben- 


son may  be  called  the  first  practical 
inventor  of  the  commercial  aeroplane, 
in  so  far  as  he  first  disclosed  and  pat- 
ented an  invention  capable  of  sustained 
flight  with  passengers.  His  system  of 
control  was  the  same  in  principle  as 
that  of  the  early  Voisin  machine  in 
which  Paulhan  once  flew  82  miles  in 
gusty  weather.  For  lack  of  suitable 
motive  power,  however,  Hensou  wisely 
refrained  from  constructing  a  full:size 
machine. 

In  184G  Stringfellow,  who  had  previ- 
ously experimented  with  Henson,  built 
a  steam  model  aeroplane  of  about  the 
size  of  a  large  soaring  bird,  and 
weighing  altogether,  with  fuel  and 
water,  6l/>  pounds.  A  special  feature 
of  this  model  was  that  its  main  sur- 
faces were  sloped  like  the  wings  of 
a  bird,  slightly  concave  below  and 
feathered  toward  the  back  ;  thus  mak- 
ing it  more  efficient  and  stable  in 
flight.  With  a  good  head  of  steam, 
and  propellers  whirling,  the  model  ran 
down  a  stretched  wire,  leaped  into  the 
air  "and  darted  off  in  as  fair  a  flight 
as  it  was  possible  to  make,  to  a  dis- 
tance of  about  40  yards."  This  was 
the  first  power-driven  aeroplane  model 
to  fly  successfully  and  balance  itself 
in  the  air. 

In  1868  another  Englishman  dis- 
tinguished in  aviation  science,  Mr.  F. 
H.  Wenhani,  published  a  paper  setting 
forth  the  aerodynamic  advantages  of 
driving  aeroplanes  long  edge  first,  to 
increase  their  lift,  and  of  placing  sev- 
eral surfaces  one  above  the  other  to 
secure  ample  support  with  moderate 
wing  spread.  He  may  thus  be  re- 
garded as  jthe  first  inventor  of  a  bi- 
plane or  multiplane.  He  reduced  to 
practice  these  ideas  by  patenting  a 
multiple  surface  aeroplane,  and  mak- 
ing a  tentative  glider  on  which  the 
pilot  should  lie  prone  in  flight. 

Profiting  by  this  new  principle  of 
construction  and  support,  Stringfel- 
low in  1868  built  a  triplane  model 
propelled  by  twin  screws  actuated  by 
a  high  pressure  steam  engine  con- 
tained in  a  double-wedge  shaped  car, 
which  car  moreover  served  as  a  steady- 
ing keel.  The  sustaining  part  of  this- 
machine  comprised  three  superposed 
parallel  planes  held  rigidly  in  place  by 
vertical  posts '  and  oblique  tie  wires. 
He  was  thus  first  to  use  the  Pratt 
truss  arrangement  common  to  the  bi- 
planes and  multiplanes  of  the  present 
day.  The  little  model  flew  in  the 
Crystal  Palace,  London,  but  with  in- 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


445 


different  success.  It  now  hangs  from 
the  ceiling  of  the  American  Museum 
at  Washington,  along  with  other  his- 
torical model  fliers. 

In  1884,  Horatio  Phillips,  of  Eng- 
land, who  had  tested  a  great  variety  of 
model  wing  forms  in  a  wind-tunnel, 
patented  a  shape  very  like  the 
wing  of  a  good  modern  aeroplane.  He 
was  the  first  to  show  the  world  quan- 
titatively, by  published  researches  and 
by  actual  use  in  experimental  aero- 
planes, the  superior  merits  of  arched 
surfaces,  both  single  and  superposed. 
Phillips'  wing-shape  has  been  adopted 
with  various  modifications  in  many 
notable  aeroplanes  of  recent  years.  In- 
vestigations leading  to  similar  results 
were  conducted  in  Germany,  by  Otto 
Lilienthal  and  his  brother.  Their  re- 
sults were  published  in  the  succeeding 
decade,  and  amply  tested  in  several 
man-carrying  gliding  machines,  both 
monoplanes  and  biplanes,  with  which 
many  hundred  successful  glides  down 
hill  slopes  were  made.  Finally  Octave 
Chanute,  the  distinguished  American 
railway  and  bridge  engineer,  aided  by 
Mr.  A.  M.  Herring,  perfected  the  two- 
surface  glider,  and  developed  the  fin- 
ished type  of  structure  now  commonly 
known  as  the  Chanute  biplane.  A  par- 
ticular feature  of  the  original  Chanute 
glider  for  securing  inherent  lateral 
stability  were  the  vertical  side  planes, 


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first  used  by  Lawrence  Hargrave,  in- 
ventor of  the  box  kite. 

The  now  very  commonly  used  sys- 
tem of  controlling  the  poise  of  an 
aeroplane  in  flight  was  invented  and 
disclosed  many  times  before  the  ad- 
vent of  practical  flying.  In  1868  Mat- 
thew Boulton  of  England  first  gave 
to  the  world  a  system  of  control  com- 
prising a  vertical  rudder,  a  horizontal 
rudder,  and  a  pair  of  reverse  turning 
ailerons  operable  by  hand  or  auto- 
matically. He  was  therefore  the  or- 
iginal inventor  of  the  three-torque,  or 
three-rudder,  system  in  aviation.  In 
1893  the  system  of  torsional  wings 
together  with  vertical  and  horizontal 
rudders  for  controlling  flight  was  pub- 
licly described  by  the  present  writer  * 
in  America  and  by  Felix  Ader  in 
France,  who  embodied  it  in  his  mono- 
plane. This  system  was  practically 
employed,  in  one  form  or  another,  by 
the  Wright  brothers  and  by  Prof. 
Montgomery,  early  in  the  twentieth 
century.  The  first  public  demonstra- 
tion of  the  system  was  made  by  Mont- 
gomery as  early  as  April,  1905.  In 
1899  Hugo  Mattullath,  of  New  York, 
drew  up  patent  specifications,  later 
allowed  by  the  U.  S.  Patent  Office,  for 
a  hydroaeroplane  with  two  floats  and 
a  control  system  comprising  a  vertical 
rudder  and  aileron-like  surfaces  on 
either  side  of  his  machine  fore  and 
aft.  The  common  aileron  system 
seems  to  have  been  first  practically 
used  and  indeed  reinvented  early  in 
1908,  by  the  Aerial  Experiment  As- 
sociation, at  Hammondsport.  X.  Y. 

As  to  the  first  human  power  flights, 
Ader  in  1890  is  reported  to  have  flown 
150  feet  in  a  wheel-mounted  monoplane 
driven  by  a  steam  engine  actuating 
twin  screws,  and  controlled  in  flight 
by  independently  operable  horizontal 
and  vertical  rudders  and  reversely 
warpable  wing  tips.  The  construc- 
tion of  his  machine  is  well  known, 
but  its  flights  are  not  well  authenti- 
cated. Maxim  three  years  later  rose 
from  a  track  in  a  steam  driven  multi- 
plane, the  largest  yet  built,  weighing 
3.5  tons  and  lifting  more  than  a  ton 
of  extra  load.  It  had  horizontal  and 
vertical  rudders,  but  no  torsional  wings 
and,  because  of  its  low  center  of 


*The  writer  also  applied  the  system 
in  the  winter  of  1903,  to  the  design, 
for  the  American  Transit  Co.,  of  a 
wheel  mounted  aeroplane  with  stream- 
line body  enclosing  the  aviator  and 
having  transparent  walls. 


446 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


gravity,  it  was  too  unsteady  for  prac- 
tical flight.  Owing  to  their  excessive 
waste  of  fuel  and  water,  both  the 
Ader  and  the  Maxim  power  plants  were 
unsuitable  for  long  voyages  in  the  air. 

The  first  dynamic  aeroplane  of  ade- 
quate stability  and  power  to  carry  a 
man  in  prolonged  flight  was  that  of 
Dr.  Langley,  completed  in  1903.  The 
famous  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and  his  assistant,  Charles 
M.  Manley,  by  designing  and  construct- 
ing a  suitable  motor,  surmounted  the 
last  formidable,  the  hardest,  the  cen- 
turies old  obstacle  in  the  development 
of  an  aeroplane  adapted  to  human  flight. 
This  was  a  gasoline  engine  of  fifty-two 
brake  horse  power  weighing  two  hun- 
dred pounds  and  competent  to  run 
for  many  hours  under  full  load.  More- 
over they  had  provided  for  both  inher- 
ent stability  and  effective  manipula- 
tion of  the  machine  in  flight.  The 
pilot  could  control  the  poise  and  course 
by  several  devices;  he  could  shift  his 
weight  some  feet  in  either  direction ; 
he  could  elevate  and  depress  the  rear 
double  rudder,  which  when  untouched 
insured  steady  longitudinal  poise  on  the 
principle  introduced  by  P6naud ;  he 
could  steer  to  right  and  left  by  turn- 
ing about  its  vertical  axis  a  wind-vane 
rudder  below  and  rearward  of  the  boat. 
The  wings  were  set  at  a  dihedral  angle, 
the  lines  of  lift,  propeller  thrust  and 
forward  resistance  passed  through  the 
centroid,  or  near  it,  thus  providing 
for  projectile  and  gravitational  stabil- 
ity. 

This  machine  was  nearly  a  dupli- 
cate, on  a  four-fold  scale,  of  the  gaso- 
line driven  model  which  during  the 
same  year  had  flown  many  times  with 
good  inherent  equilibrium,  and  this 
model  in  turn  closely  resembled 
in  aerodynamic  features  the  steam- 
driven  model  which  flew  and  balanced 
itself  successfully  above  the  Potomac 
river  in  1896.  Naturally  therefore,  it 
was  expected  that,  with  a  pilot  on  its 
back,  the  large  machine  would  fly  even 
more  securely  than  its  miniature  pro- 
totype. Unfortunately  this  elaborately 
perfected  monoplane  met  with  an  ac- 
cident in  launching,  thereby  bringing 
upon  its  inventor  unmerited  censure, 
and  depriving  him  of  the  credit  of 
having,  produced  the  first  successful 
passenger  aeroplane.  But  it  is  now 
understood  by  aeronautical  engineers 
that  his  large  machine,  as  well  as  the 
model,  had  all  the  elements  essential 
to  prolonged  flight  with  good  inherent 


stability,  and  with  sufficient  manual 
control  for  practical  service  in  mod- 
erate weather.  Moreover  Bleriot,  in  a 
tandem  monoplane  closely  patterned 
after  Langley's,  made  a  successful 
flight  in  1907. 

Langley's  culminating  labors  in  avi- 
ation, though  apparently  thwarted  in 
the  hour  of  imminent  triumph,  left 
his  colleagues  in  both  hemispheres  un- 
daunted and  optimistic.  A  score  of 
sanguine  experimentalists  were  now  at 
work  in  either  hemisphere.  Archdeacon 
in  France  had  offered  a  prize  of  3,000 
francs  for  the  first  person  to  fly  pub- 
licly 25  meters,  with  a  maximum  de- 
scent not  exceeding  one-third  of  the 
range.  Bleriot,  Santos-Dumont,  Voisin, 
Ferber,  Levavasseur,  Esnault-Pelterie, 
Phillips,  Cody,  Ellhamer,  abroad,  the 
Wrights,  Berliner,  Graham  Bell,  Mont- 
gomery in  this  country,  and  many 
others  who  eventually  built  successful 
aeroplanes,  were  now  pursuing  avia- 
tion with  unwavering  confidence.  The 
Wrights,  in  this  country,  and  Phillips 
abroad  were  the  first  to  achieve  a 
measure  of  success ;  the  former  in 
December,  1903,  when  one  of  them 
flew  for  fifty-nine  seconds  in  a  wheel- 
less  biplane  driven  by  a  gasoline  mo- 
tor;  the  latter  in  1904,  when  he  flew 
across  a  field  in  a  wheel-mounted  gas- 
oline-driven multiplane.  But  these 
were  private  flights  of  no  avail  to 
the  profession  generally,  except  that 
the  report  of  the  Wright  experiments 
stimulated  others  to  increased  activity 
which  soon  led  to  success  in  several 
localities,  while  the  Wrights  were  still 
concealing  their  apparatus.  The  first 
flights  made  before  the  technical  pub- 
lic were,  in  Europe,  those  of  Santos- 
Dumont  and  Ellhamer,  in  America, 
those  of  the  Aerial  Experiment  Asso- 
ciation at  Hammondsport,  New  York. 
The  latter  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
before  technical  men  the  merits  of  the 
three-rudder  system  of  control  on  a 
dynamic  aeroplane.  Henceforward  the 
art  advanced  with  prodigious  strides, 
under  the  munificent  patronage  of  a 
marveling  and  delighted  public. 

Among  the  recent  improvements  em- 
ployed in  present-day  aeroplanes  are 
the  wheeled-landing  skids,  the  various 
automatic  stabilizing  surfaces  and  the 
aquatic  appliances.  Landing  skids 
were  familiar  in  the  art  during  the 
last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  skids  combined  with  wheels,  to 
which  they  were  elastically  attached, 
were  introduced  by  Henri  Farman  in 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


447 


1909.  Among  the  automatic  stabiliz- 
ing surfaces  may  be  noted,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rigid  dorsal  fin  first  pat- 
ented by  Henson,  the  elastic  rearward 
protruding  wing-tips  and  the  elastic 
tail  introduced  by  the  Austrian  engi- 
neer, Etrich,  and  the  pendulum-oper- 
ated controlling  surfaces  devised  and 
tried  by  various  experimentalists,  but 
not  yet  generally  adopted.  The  aqua- 
tic devices  proposed  many  years  ago, 
and  first  practically  employed  by  Cur- 
tiss  in  America,  which  enable  an  aero- 
plane to  rise  from  the  water  and  land 
thereon,  constitute  perhaps  the  most 
radical  modern  improvement  in  avia- 
tion, virtually  adding  a  new  and  very 


important   domain    to    the    empire   of 
dynamic  flight. 

Following  the  successful  inaugura- 
tion of  the  flying-machine  for  sportive 
and  military  uses,  special  types  of 
aeroplanes  were  rapidly  developed  for 
the  attainment  of  special  ends.  Ma- 
chines of  stream-line  form  with  pow- 
erful motors,  and  limited  wing  sur- 
face, were  used  to  attain  high  speed, 
as  the  Nieuport,  Deperdussin,  Esnault- 
Pelterie,  etc. ;  machines  of  large  wing 
surface  and  great  power  were  used  to 
carry  large  burdens,  etc.  Without 
presenting  the  details  of  construction, 
the  following  tables  exhibit  the  mar- 
velous progress  of  the  art  as  told  by 
the  records  of  well  attested  flights. 


THE  $2,400  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  TROPHY  WON  BY  GLENN  H.  CTJRTISS.     (Page  456.) 


448 


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PART  II. 

CHAPTER  I. 
CHEMISTRY. 

EDITED  BY  WILLIAM  W.  SHARE,  Ph.D. 


INTERNATIONAL  ATOMIC   WEIGHTS   FOR  1912. 

Element. 

Symbol.  O=16. 

H=l. 

Element. 

Symbol.  O=16. 

H  =  l. 

Aluminium 

Al            27.1 

•  26.88 

Molybdenum 

Mo           96.0 

95.2 

Antimony 

Sb          120.2 

119.25 

Neodymium 

Nd         144.3 

143.2 

Argon 

A             39.88 

39.56 

Neon 

§e           20.2 

20. 

Arsenic 

As            74.96 

74.37 

Nickel 

i            58.68 

58.21 

Barium 

Ba         137.37 

136.28 

Niton 

Nt         222.4 

220.6 

Bismuth 

Bi          208. 

206.35 

Nitrogen 

N              14.01 

13.90 

Boron 

B              11. 

10.91 

Osmium 

Os          190.9 

189.4 

Bromine 
Cadmium 

Br            79.92 
Cd          112.40 

79.29 
111.51 

Oxygen 
Palladium 

O              16. 
Pd         106.7 

15.88 
105.8 

Caesium 

Cs          132.81 

131.8 

Phosphorus 

P             31.04 

30.79 

Calcium 

Ca            40.07 

39.75 

Platinum 

Pt          195.2 

194.64 

Carbon 

C              12. 

11.91 

Potassium 

K             39.10 

38.79 

Cerium 

Ce          140.25 

139.1 

Praseodymium 

Pr         140.6 

139.5 

Chlorine 

Cl            35.46 

35.18 

Radium 

Ra         226.4 

224.6 

Chromium 

Cr            52. 

51.59 

Rhodium 

Rh         102.9 

102.1 

Cobalt 

Co            58.97 

58.5 

Rubidium 

Rb          85.45 

84.8 

Columbium 

Cb            93.5 

92.76 

Ruthenium 

Ru         101.7 

100.9 

Copper 

Cu           63.57 

63.06' 

Samarium 

Sa          150.4 

149.2 

Dysprosium 

Dy         162.5 

161.2 

Scandium 

Sc            44.1 

43.8 

Erbium 

Er          167.7 

166.4 

Selenium 

Se            79.2 

78.6 

Europium 

Eu         152. 

151.1 

Silicon 

Si             28.3 

28.08 

Fluorine 

F              19. 

18.75 

Silver 

Ag         107.88 

107.02 

Gadolinium 

Gd         157.3 

156.1 

Sodium 

Na           23. 

22.82 

Gallium 

Ga           69.9 

69.3 

Strontium 

Sr           87.63 

86.93 

Germanium 

Ge           72.5 

71.9 

Sulphur 

S              32.07 

31.82 

Glucinum 

Gl              9.1 

9. 

Tantalum 

Ta         181.5 

180.1 

Gold 

Au         197.2 

195.6 

Tellurium 

Te         127.5 

126.5 

Helium 

He             3.99 

3.96 

Terbium 

Tb         159.2 

157.9 

Hydrogen 

H               1.008 

1. 

Thallium 

Tl          204. 

202.4 

Indium 

In          114.8 

113.9 

Thorium 

Th         232.4 

230.6 

Iodine 

I             126.92 

125.91 

Thulium 

Tm        168.5 

167.2 

Iridium 

Ir           193.1 

191.56 

Tin 

Sn          119. 

118.06 

Iron 

Fe            55.84 

55.4 

Titanium 

Ti            48.1 

47.7 

Krypton 

Kr           82.92 

82.2 

Tungsten 

W          184. 

182.5 

Lanthanum 

La          139. 

137.9 

Uranium 

U           238.5 

236.6 

Lead 

Pb         207.1 

205.46 

Vanadium 

V            51. 

50.6 

Lithium 

Li              6.94 

6.88 

Xenon 

Xe         130.2 

129.2 

Lutecium 

Lu         174. 

172.6 

Ytterbium  (Neo) 

Yb         172. 

170.6 

Magnesium 

Mg           24.32 

24.13 

Yttrium 

Yt           89. 

88.3 

Manganese 

Mn           54.93 

54.49 

Zinc 

Zn           65.37 

64.8 

Mercury 

Hg         200.6 

199.01        Zirconium 

Zr            90.6 

89.95 

THE  ELEMENTS  IN 

THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR 

DISCOVERY. 

Element. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Element. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Carbon 

Prehistoric 

Antimony 

Valentine 

1450 

Copper 
Gold 

Bismuth 
Zinc 

Paracelsus 

1450 
1520 

Silver 

Phosphorus 

Brandt 

1669 

Iron 

Arsenic 

Schroeder 

1694 

Sulphur 

Cobalt 

Brandt 

1733 

Mercury 

Platinum 

Wood 

Tin 

Nickel 

Cronstedt 

1751 

Lead 

Hydrogen 

Cavendish 

1766 

457 


458 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  ORDER   OF  THEIR  DISCOVERY—  Continued. 

Element. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Element. 

Discoverer. 

Date. 

Fluorine 

Scheele 

1771 

Thorium 

Berzelius 

1828 

Nitrogen 

Rutherford 

1772 

Yttrium 

Woehler 

1828 

Chlorine 

Scheele 

1774 

Magnesium 

Bussy 

1829 

Manganese 

Gahn 

1774 

Vanadium 

Sefstroem 

1830 

Oxygen 

Priestley 

1774 

Lanthanum 

Mosander 

1839 

Tungsten 

d'Elhujur 

1781 

Erbium 

1843 

Molybdenum 
Tellurium 

Hjelm 
Reichenstein 

1782 
1782 

Terbium 
Ruthenium 

Claus 

1843 
1845 

Uranium 

Klaproth  " 

1789 

Caesium 

Bunsen 

1860 

Titanium 

Gregor 

1789 

Rubidium 

1860 

Chromium 

Vauquelia 

1797 

Thallium 

Crookes 

1862 

Columbium 

Hutchett 

1801 

Indium 

Reich  &  Richter 

1863 

Tantalum 

Ekeberg 

1802 

Gallium 

Boisbaudran 

1875 

Cerium 
Iridium 

Berzelius 
Tennant 

1803 
1803 

Ytterbium 
Samarium 

Marignac 
Boisbaudran 

1878 
1879 

Osmium 

" 

1803 

Scandium 

Nilson 

1879 

Palladium 

Wollaston 

1804 

Thulium 

Cleve 

1879 

Rhodium 

Sodium 

Davy 

1804 
1807 

Neodymium            Welsbach 
Praseodymium 

1885 
1885 

Potassium 
Calcium 

1 

1807 
1808 

Gadolinium 
Germanium 

Marignac 
Winkler 

1886 

Barium 
Strontium 

; 

1808 
1808 

Argon 
Helium 

Ramsay  &  Rayleigh      1894 
Ramsay                            1895 

Boron 
Iodine 

Courtois 

1808 
1811 

Krypton 
Neon 

Ramsay  &  Travers 

1898 
i  one 

Cadmium 
Lithium 
Selenium 
Silicon 

Stromeyer 
Arfvedson 
Berzelius 

1817 
1817 
1817 
1823 

Xenon 
Radium 
Europium 

Curie 
Demarcay 

1OJ7O 

1898 
1898 
1901 

Zirconium 

« 

1824 

Dysprosium 

Urbain 

1906 

Bromine 

Balard 

1826 

Lutecium 

" 

1907 

Aluminium 

Woehler 

1828 

Neoytterbium 

" 

1907 

Glucinum 

1828       Niton 

Ramsay  &  Gray 

1910 

MELTING  POINTS  OF  SOME  CHEMICAL 

ELEMENTS. 

Substance. 

Degrees 
Cent. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

Substance. 

Degrees 
Cent. 

Degrees 
Fahr. 

Aluminium 

657 

1215 

Magnesium 

632.6 

1171 

Antimony 

630 

1168 

Manganese 

1207 

2205 

Bismuth 

269 

516 

Mercury 

-38.85 

-37.93 

Cadmium 

321.7 

611 

Nickel 

1435 

2615 

Calcium 

800 

1472 

Phosphorus 

44.2 

112 

Chromium 

1515 

2759 

Platinum 

1753 

3187 

Cobalt 

1464 

2667 

Potassium 

63.6 

146.5 

ear 

1065 
1060 

1949 
1940 

Selenium 
Silver 

217 
961.5 

423 
1763 

Iridium 

1950 

3542 

Sodium 

97.6 

208 

Iron,  pure 

1505 

2741 

Sulphur 

114.5 

238 

gray  pig 

1275 

2327 

Tantalum 

2300 

4172 

white  pig 

1075 

1967 

Tin 

232 

550 

Steel, 

1360 

2480 

Titanium 

3000 

5432 

cast 

1375 

2507 

Tungsten 

2800 

5072 

Lead 

327 

621 

Vanadium 

1680 

3056 

Lithium 

180 

356        Zinc 

:419 

786 

BOILING  POINTS 

OF  SOME  CHEMICAL 

ELEMENTS. 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Degrees 

Substance. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Substance. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Bromine 

58.7 

137.6 

Oxygen 

-182.5 

-296.5 

Cadmium 

778 

1400 

Ozone 

-119 

-182.2 

Chlorine 

-33.6 

-28.5 

Phosphorus 

290 

554 

Fluorine 

-187 

-304.6 

Potassium 

757.5 

1396 

Hydrogen 

-252.5 

-422.5 

Selenium 

690 

1274 

Iodine 

185.5 

366 

Sodium 

877.5 

1612 

Mercury 

357.33 

675.2 

Sulphur 

444.6 

800 

Nitrogen 

-195.5 

-320 

Zinc 

918 

1684 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


459 


THE  MOST  PLENTIFUL  ELEMENTS  AND 

HEAT  OF  COMBUSTION 

THEIR    PERCENTAGE     DISTRIBU- 
TION IN  KNOWN  MATTER. 
Oxygen              47.98         Titanium                .30 
Silicon                25.30         Carbon                    .21 
Aluminium          7.26         Chlorine                  .15 
Iron                      5.08         Phosphorus            .09 
Calcium                3.51         Manganese             .07 
Magnesium          2.50         Sulphur                   .04 
Sodium                 2.28         Barium                    .03 
Potassium            2.23         Nitrogen                 .02 
Hydrogen               .94         Chromium              .01 

SUBSTANCE.                                  CALORIES.           B.  T.  U. 

Alcohol,  ethyl                          7,184             12,931 
methyl                      5,330              9,594 
amyl                          8,958            16,124 
Benzene                                   10,030            18,054 
Carbon,  amorphous                8,080            14,544 
Coal,  bituminous                f     7,800            14,040 
t     9,000            16,200 
"     anthracite                       7,800            14,040 
"      lignite                              6,900            12,420 
Coke                                           7,000            12,600 

ELEMENTARY  COMPOSITION  OF  THE 
HUMAN  BODY. 

Gas,  coal                              f     4,440              7,990 
t     7,370            12,266 
Acetylene                      11,927-           21,469 

Per  cent.              Pounds. 

Ethylene                        11,858            21,344 

Oxygen                             62.43                     93.645 
Carbon                              21.15                     51.725 
Hvdrogen                           9.865                   14.798 
Nitrogen                             3.1                         4.65 
Calcium                               19                         2  85 

Methane                         13,063            23,513 
Hydrogen                      34,462            62,032 
Carbon  monoxide          5,640            10,152 
Oil,  lard                                    9,300            16,740 

Phosphorus                          !946                     L419 
Potassium                              .23                          .345 

"    olive                                   9,473             17,051 
Wood,  hard                              4,750              8,550 

Sulphur                                 .162                       .243 

"       soft  resinous                5,050              9,090 

Chlorine                                 .081                       .121 
Sodium                                  .081                       .122 

A  Calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to 

Magnesium                           .027                      .  040 

raise  1  gramme  of  water  1  degree  Centigrade. 

Iron                                          .014                        .021 

A  British  Thermal  Unit  (B.  T.  U.)  is  the 

Fluorine                                .014                       .021 

amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  pound  of 

100.                       150. 

water  1  degree  Fahrenheit. 

CHEMICAL  SUBSTANCES  AND  THEIR  COMMON  NAMES. 


COMMON  NAME. 

CHEMICAL  NAME.                                COMMON  NAME. 

Alcohol 

Ethyl  alcohol 

Marsh  gas 

Alum 

Potassium  aluminium 

Mosaic  gold 

sulphate 

Muriatic  acid 

Aqua  fortis 

Nitric  acid 

Orpiment 

Aqua  regia 

Nitro-hydrochloric   acid 

Paris  green 

Banana  ether 

Amyl  acetate 

Plaster  of  Paris 

Black  lead 

Graphite  carbon 

Prussian  blue 

Borax 
Brimstone 

Sodium  tetraborate 
Sulphur 

Realgar 
Redlead 

Calomel 

Mercurous  chloride 

Rochelle  salt 

Carbolic  acid 

Phenol 

Caustic  potash 

Potassium  hydroxide 

Sal  ammoniac 

"        soda 

Sodium  hydroxide 

Salt,  common 

Chalk 

Calcium  carbonate 

Salt  of  tartar 

Choke  damp 

Carbon  dioxide 

Saltpetre 

Chrome  yellow 

Lead  chromate 

Salts  of  lemon 

green 

Chromium  oxide 

Soda,  washing 

Clay 

Aluminum  silicate 

baking 

Copperas 

Ferrous  sulphate 

ash 

Corrosive  sublimate 

Mercuric  chloride 

Spirits  of  hartshorn 

Cream  of  tartar 

Potassium  hydrogen  tar- 

Spirits  of  salt 

trate 

Tartar  emetic 

Epsom  salts 
Fire  damp 

Magnesium  sulphate 
Methane 

Verdigris 

Fusel  oil 

Amyl  alcohol 

Vermilion 

Glauber's  salt 

Sodium  sulphate 

Vinegar 

Grape  sugar 
Goulard  water 

Glucose 
Basic  lead  acetate 

Vitriol,  blue 
"        green 

Iron  pyrites 

Iron  disulphide 

"        oil  of 

Laughing  gas 
Lime,  quick 
slaked 

Nitrous  oxide 
Calcium  oxide 
hydroxide 

white 
Volatile  alkali 
White  lead 

Litharge 

Lead  oxide 

Wood  alcohol 

Lunar  caustic 

Silver  nitrate 

Zinc  white 

CHEMICAL  NAME. 

Methane 

Stannic  sulphide 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Arsenic  trisulphide 

Copper  arsenite 

Calcium  sulphate 

Ferric  ferrocyanide 

Arsenic  disulphide 

Lead  oxide 

Sodium    potassium     tar- 
trate 

Ammonium  chloride 

Sodium  chloride 

Potassium  carbonate 
nitrate 

Oxalic  acid 

Sodium  carbonate 

*     hydrogen  carbonate- 
Sodium  carbonate 

Ammonium  hydroxide 

Hydrochloric  acid 

Potassium  antimonyl  ti- 
trate 

Basic  copper  acetate 

Mercuric  sulphide 

Acetic  acid 

Copper  sulphate 

Ferrous  sulphate 

Sulphuric  acid 

Zinc  sulphate 

Ammonium  hydroxide 

Basic  lead  carbonate 

Methyl  alcohol 

Zinc  oxide 


460 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


To  Convert  Degrees  Baume"  into 
Specific  Gravity.— (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water:  Subtract  the  de- 
gree of  Baume"  from  145  and  divide 
into  145.  The  quotient  is  the  specific 
gravity. 

(2)  For-liquids  lighter  than  water : 
Add  the  degree  of  Baume"  to  130  and 
divide  it  into  140.  The  quotient  is  the 
specific  gravity. 

To  Convert  Specific  Gravity  into  De- 
grees Baum6. —  (1)  For  liquids 
heavier  than  water :  Divide  the  speci- 
fic gravity  into  145  and  subtract  from 
145.  The  remainder  is  the  degree  of 
Baume". 

(2)  For  liquids  lighter  than  water: 
Divide  the  specific  gravity  into  140 
and  subtract  130  from  the  quotient. 
The  remainder  will  be  the  degree  of 
Baume". 

COMPARISON     OF     DEGREES      TWADDELL 
AND   SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

In  order  to  change  degrees  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity,  multiply  by 
5,  add  1,000  and  divide  by  1,000. 

Example:     Change  168  deg.  Twad- 
dell  into  specific  gravity. 
168X5 

840 
1,000 

1,000)1,840 

1.84,  specific  gravity. 

To  change  specific  gravity  into  de- 
grees Twaddell,  multiply  by  1,000, 
subtract  1,000  and  divide  by  5. 

Example:  Change  1.84  specific 
gravity  to  degrees  Twaddell. 

1.84X1,000 

1,840 

1,000 

5)840 
168°  Tw. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

Determination  of  Specific  Gravity: 
Solids:  (1)  Solids  heavier  than,  and 
insoluble  in  water: 
o.  By  weighing  in  air  and  water. — 
g  (weight  in  air) 

(loss  of  weight  in  water) 

6.  By  Nicholson's  hydrometer.  Let 
w-i.  be  the  weight  required  to  sink  the 
instrument  to  the  mark  on  the  stem  ;  to 


take  the  specific  gravity  of  any  solid 
substance,  place  a  portion  of  it  weigh- 
ing less  than  wi  in  the  upper  pan, 
with  such  additional  weight,  say  MS, 
as  will  cause  the  instrument  to  sink 
to  the  zero  mark.  The  weight  of  the 
substance  is  then  wi — w».  Next  trans- 
fer the  substance  to  the  lower  pan, 
and  again  adjust  with  weight  w*.  to 
the  zero  mark. 

Sp.gr.  -|£LZ!£S 

c.  By  the  specific  gravity  bottle 
(applicable  to  powders).  Weigh  the 
flask  filled  to  the  mark  with  water, 
then  place  the  substance,  of  known 
weight,  in  the  flask,  fill  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  weigh  again. 
S  B  we*gkt  °f  substance  in  air 

^"""wt.  in  air  +  wt.  of  flask  and  water  - 
wt.  of  flask  filled  with  substance  and 
water. 

(2)  Solids  lighter  than  and  insolu- 
ble in  water.     The  solid  is  weighted 
with  a  piece  of  lead  and  weighed  in 
water. 

q  _          (weight  of  substance  in  air) 

P'  gr'~~(wt.  of  lead  in  water) -(wt.  of  lead 
and  substance  in  water)  +  ( wt.  of  sub- 
stance in  air) 

(3)  Solids  heavier  than  and  soluble 
in  water.     Proceed  .  as   in   1   o,   using 
instead  of  water  some  liquid  without 
action  on  the  solid. 

(weight  of  bulk  of  liquid  equal  to  sub- 
stance)   =    (weight    of    substance    in 
air)     —     (weight     of     substance     in 
liquid). 

._.     e ,    „     -  (wt.  of  bulk  of  liquid 

(wt.  of  bulk  of  water 
equal  to  substance)1 


(sp.  gr.  of  li 
o  _          (weight  of  substance  in  air) 

(weight  of  bulk   of  water  equal  to 
substance) 

Liquids:    (1)   By  the  hydrometer. 

(2)  By  .the  specific  gravity  bottle. 

Weigh  the  bottle  filled  to  the  mark 
with  water,  and  again  when  filled  to 
the  mark  with  liquid. 

(weight     of     liquid     and    bottle) - 

o  =  (weight  of  bottle) 

'V'     (weight     of    water     and     bottle) - 
(weight  of  bottle) 

Tables  of  Specific  Gravity  will  be 
found  under  Weights  and  Measures, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


461 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Tables  showing  a  comparison  of  the  degrees  of  Baume",  Cartier,  and  Beck's  Areometers,  with 
speciSo  gravity  degrees. 


For  Liquids  Lighter  than  Water. 


Degrees  of 

Cartier,' 
Beck. 

Baume. 
Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

-s-"- 

1.0000 

0  9941 

2 

0  9883 

3 

0  9826 

4 

* 

0.9770 

0.9714 

0.9659 

7 

0  9604 

8 

0  9550 

g 

0  9497 

10 

1.000 

0.9444 

11 
12 

15 

15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

0.993 
0.986 
0.979 
0.973 
0.967 
0.960 
0.954 
0.948 
0.942 
0.935 
0.929 
0.924 
0.918 
0.912 
0.906 
0.901 
0.895 
0.889 
0.884 
0.879 
0.873 
0.868 
0.863 
0.858 
0.853 
0.848 
0.843 
0.838 
0.833 
0.829 
0.824 
0.819 
0.815 
0.810 
0.806 
0  801 

1.000 
0.992 
0.985 
0.977 
0.969 
0.962 
0.955 
0.948 
0.941 
0.934 
0.927 
0.920 
0.914 
0.908 
0.901 
0.895 
0.889 
0.883 
0.877 
0.871 
0.865 
0.859 
0.853 
0.848 
0.842 
0.837 
0.831 
0.826 
0.820 
0.815 
0.810 
0.805 
0.800 

0.9392 
0.9340 
0.9289 
0.9239 
0.9189 
0.9139 
0.9090 
0.9042 
0.8994 
0.8947 
0.8900 
0.8854 
0.8808 
0.8762 
0.8717 
0.8673 
0.8629 
0.8585 
0.8542 
0.8500 
0.8457 
0.8415 
0.8374 
0  .  8333 
0.8292 
0.8252 
0.8212 
0.8173 
0.8133 
0.8095 
0.8061 
0.8018 
0.7981 
0.7944 
0.7907 
0  7871 

47 

0  797 

0  7834 

48 

0.792 

0.7799 

49 

0.788 

0.7763 

50 

0.784 

0  7727 

51 

52 

0.781 
0.776 



0.7692 
0.7658 

53 

0.771 

0.7623 

54 

55 
56 

0.769 
0.763 
0  759 



0.7589 
0.7556 
0  7522 

57 

58 

0.755 
0.751 

0.7489 
0.7456 

59 

0.748 

0.7423 

60 

0.744 

0  7391 

61 

0.740 

0  7359 

62 

0,736 

0.7328 

For  Liquids  Heavier  than  Water. 


Degrees  of 

^c™!5' 

Baume'. 

Beck. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Sp.  Gr. 

0 

1.000 

.0000 

J 

1  007 

2 

]'OU 

!0119 

3 

.020 

.0180 

4 

1.028 

.0241 

5 

1.034 

.0303 

6 

.041 

.0366 

7 

.049 

.0429 

8 

.057 

.0494 

9 

.064 

.0559 

10 

.072 

.0625 

11 

.080 

.0692 

12 

088 

.0759 

13 

.096 

.0828 

14 

.104 

.0897 

15 

.113 

.0968 

16 

.121 

.1039 

17 

-130 

.1111 

18 

.138 

.1184 

19 

.147 

.1258 

20 

.157 

1333 

21 

.166 

.1409 

22 

.176 

.1486 

23 

.185 

.1565 

24 

.195 

.1644 

25 

.205 

.1724 

26 

.215 

.1806 

27 

.225 

.1888 

28 

.235 

.1972 

29 

.245 

.2057 

30 

.256 

.2143 

31 

.267 

.2230 

32 

.278 

.2319 

33 

.289 

.2409 

34 

.300 

.2500 

35 

.312 

.2593 

36 

.324 

.2680 

37 

.337 

.2782 

38 

.349 

.2879 

39 

.361 

.2977 

40 

.375 

.3077 

41 

.388 

.3178 

42 

.401 

.3281 

43 

.414 

.3386 

44 

.428 

.3492 

45 

.442 

.3600 

46 

.456 

.3710 

47 

.470 

.3821 

48 

.485 

.3934 

49 

.500 

.4050 

50 

.515 

.4167 

51 

.531 

.4286 

52 

.546 

.4407 

53 

.562 

.4530 

54 

.578 

.4655 

55 

.596 

.4783 

56 

.615 

.4912 

57 

.634 

.5044 

58 

.653 

.5179 

59 

.671 

.5315 

60 

.690 

.5454 

61 

.709 

.5596 

62 

.729 

.5741 

63 

.750 

.5888 

64 

.771 

1.6038 

462 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THERMOMETER  SCALES. 


Much  annoyance  is  caused  by  the 
great  difference  of  thermometer  scales 
in  use  in  the  different  civilized  coun- 
tries. The  scale  of  Reaumur  prevails 
in  Germany.  As  is  well  known,  he  di- 
vides the  space  between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  into  80  deg.  France 
uses  that  of  Celsius,  who  graduated 
his  scale  on  the  decimal  system.  The 
most  peculiar  scale  of  all,  however,  is 
that  of  Fahrenheit,  a  renowned  Ger- 
man physicist,  who  in  1714  or  1715, 
composed  his  scale,  having  ascertained 
that  water  can  be  cooled  under  the 
freezing  point,  without  congealing.  He 
therefore  did  not  take  the  congealing 
point  of  water,  but  composed  a  mix- 


ture of  equal  parts  of  snow  and  sal 
ammoniac,  about  — 14  deg.  R.  The 
conversion  of  any  one  of  these  scales  to 
another  is  very  simple,  and  easily 
made.  To  change  a  temperature  as 
given  by  Fahrenheit's  scale  into  the 
same  as  given  by  the  centigrade  scale 
subtract  32  deg.  from  Fahrenheit's  de- 
grees, and  multiply  the  remainder  by 
5-9.  The  product  will  be  the  tem- 
perature in  centigrade  degrees. 

To  change  from  Fahrenheit's  to 
Reaumur's  scale,  subtract  32  deg.  from 
Fahrenheit's  degrees,  and  multiply  the 
remainder  by  4-9.  The  product  will 
bo  the  temperature  in  Reaumur's  de- 
grees. 


COMPARATIVE   SCALES    OF   THERMOMETER. 


c. 

R. 

F. 

C. 

K. 

F. 

C. 

R. 

F. 

-30 

-24.0 

-22.0 

14 

11.2 

57.2 

58 

46.4 

136  4 

-29 

-23.2 

-20.2 

15 

12.0 

59.0 

59 

47.2 

13H..2 

-28 

-22.4 

-18.4 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

80 

48.0 

140.0 

-27 

-21.6 

-16.6 

17 

13.6 

62  .  6 

61 

48.8 

141.8 

-26 

-20.8 

-14.8 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

62 

49.6 

143.6 

-25 

-  90.0 

-13.0 

19 

15.2 

66.2 

63 

50.4 

145.4 

-24 

-19.2 

-11.2 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

64 

51.2 

147.2 

-23 

-18.4 

-9.4 

21 

16.8 

69.8 

65 

52.0 

149.0 

-22 

-17.6 

-7.6 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

-21 

-16.8 

-5.8 

23 

18.4 

73.4 

67 

53.6 

152.6 

-20 

-16.  Q 

-4.0 

24 

19.2 

75.2 

68 

54.4 

154.4 

-19 

-15.2* 

-2.2 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

69 

55.2 

156.2 

-18 

-14.4 

-0.4 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

70 

56.0 

158.0 

-17 

-13.6 

1.4 

27 

21.6 

80.6 

71 

56.8 

159.8 

-16 

-12.8 

3.2 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

72 

57.6 

161.6 

-15 

-12.0 

5.0 

29 

23.2 

84.2 

73 

58.4 

163.4 

-14 

-11.2 

6.8 

30 

24.0 

86.0 

74 

59.2 

165.2 

-13 

-10.4 

8.6 

31 

24.8 

87.8 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

-12 

-9.6 

10.4 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

-11 

-8.8 

12.2 

33 

26.4 

91.4 

77 

61.6 

170.6 

-10 

-8.0 

14.0 

34 

27.2 

93.2 

78 

62.4 

172.4 

.   -9 

-7.2 

15.8 

35 

28.0 

95.0 

79 

63.2 

174.2 

-8 

-6.4 

17.6 

36 

28.8 

96.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

7 

-5.6 

19.4 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

81 

64.8 

177.8 

-6 

-4.8 

21.2 

38 

30.4 

100.4 

82 

65.6 

179.6 

-5 

-4.0 

23.0 

33 

31.2 

102.2 

83 

66.4 

181.4 

—  4 

-3.2 

24.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

-3 

-2.4 

26.6 

41 

32.8 

105.8 

85 

68.0 

185.0 

-2 

-1.6 

28.4 

42 

33.6 

107.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

-1 

-0.8 

30.2 

43 

34.4 

109.4 

87 

69.6 

188.6 

0 

0.0 

32.0 

44 

35  .  2 

111.2 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

1 

0.8 

33.8 

45 

36.0 

113.0 

89 

71.2 

192.2 

2 

1.6 

35.6 

46 

36.8 

114.8 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

3 

2.4 

37.4 

47 

37.6 

116.6 

91 

72.8 

195.8 

4 

3.2 

39.2 

48 

33.4 

118.4 

92 

73.6 

197.6 

5 

4.0 

41.0 

49 

39.2 

120.2 

93 

74.4 

199.4 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

50 

40.0 

122.0 

94 

75.2 

201.2 

7 

5.6 

44.6 

51 

40.8 

123.8 

95 

76  .  0 

203.0 

8 

0.4 

46.4 

52 

41.6 

125.6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

53 

42.4 

127.4 

97 

77.6 

206.6 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

54 

43.2 

129.2 

98 

73.4 

208  .  4 

11 

8.8 

51.8 

55 

44.0 

131.5 

99 

79.2 

210.2 

12 

9.6 

53.6 

56 

44.8 

132.8 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

13 

10.4 

55.4 

57 

45  .  6 

134.6 

To  change  the  temperature  as  given 
by  the  centigrade  scale  into  the  same 
as  given  by  Fahrenheit,  multiply  the 
centigrade  degrees  by  9-5  and  add  32 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 

To  change  from  Reaumur's  to  Fahr- 


enheit's scale,  multiply  the  degrees  on 
Reaumur's  scale  by  9-4  and  add  82 
deg.  to  the  product.  The  sum  will  be 
the  temperature  by  Fahrenheit's  scale. 
For  those  who  wish  to  save  them- 
selves the  trouble  we  have  calculated 
the  preceding  comparative  table. 


CHAPTER   II. 


ASTRONOMY  AND   TIME. 

EDITED  BY  A.  RUSSELL  BOND. 


ASTRONOMICAL  SYMBOLS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 
0      The  Sun.       °     Degrees, 
d       The  Moon.     '     Minutes  of  Arc. 
?       Mercury.        ''    Seconds  of  Arc.  v 
Venus.           N.  North.      S.    South. 
©  or  6  The  Earth.    E.  East.        W.  West. 
<f      Mars. 
y      Jupiter.                0.  IP  Aries  0 

Total  surface  

.    196,97  1,  984  sq.  miles 
)44,035,515  cubic  miles 
Feet. 
'acificO.)  30,000 
Atlantic)  27,366 
lalaya)                  29  002 

Cubic  contents.  .   259.S 

Greatest  depth  of  sea  (I 
(^ 
Highest  mountain  (Hin 
Highest  balloon  ascent 

By  combining  a  larg< 
rocks  of  all  sorts,  F.  \\ 
the  relative  amourits  o 
of  the  earth: 
Per  cent. 
Oxygen  47.02 

above  the  earth.  37,000 
(without  man)..  95,280 

?  number  of  analyses  of 
r.  Clarke  has  estimated 
f  elements  in  the  crust 

Per  cent. 
Manganese  07 
Sulphur                      07 

h       Saturn.                 I.  8  Taurus.  ...  30 
S       Uranus.              II.  II  Gemini.  ..    .  60 
$      Neptune.          III.  zz  Cancer  90 
6      Conjunction.     IV.  Q  Leo  120 
D       Quadrature.        V.  ItV  Virgo  150 
8       Opposition,       VI.  -c±  Libra  180 
Q      Ascending       VII.  T([  Scorpio  210 
Node.         VIII.  /  Sagittarius  .240 
tJ       Descending       IX.  l/>  Capricorn  us.  270 
Node.               X.  ~  Aquarius.  .  .  300 
h   Hours.                        XI.  X  Pisces  330 
m  Minutes  of  Time'. 
s    Seconds  of  Time.  - 

THE  EAKTH. 

The  Earth  rotates  at  a  velocity  of  15  degrees 
an  hour  (about  17.366  miles  a  minute  at  the 
Equator);  1°  is  therefore  equal  to  4  minutes. 

Silu-on  1!8.06 
Aluminium  8.16 
Iron  .  .                .     4  64 

Barium  05 
Strontium  02 
Chromium  01 
Nickel  01 
Lithium  01 
Chlorine                     01 

Calcium                   3  50 

Magnesium  2.62 
iSocfium               .     2  63 

Potassium  2.32 
Titanium  41 
Hydrogen  17 
Carbon  12 

Fluorine  01 

100 
—  Science  Year  Book. 

Phosphorus  09 

The  Circumference  of  the  Globe  is  about 
24,855  miles,  and  the  diameter  about  7,900 
miles.  More  exactly: 

miles. 

Earth's  Equatorial  Semi-diameter  =  3963.296 
Polar  "          =  3949.790 

"       Mean  «.  "         =  3958.794 

Oblateness    =        3  Jo 

1°  of  Latitude  at  pole =      69.407 

1°  equator =      68.704 

The  temperature  increases  on  an  average 
about  1°  F.  for  every.64  feet  descent.  But  this 
amount  is  variable  according  to  the  locality, 
geological  formation,  and  dip  of  strata.  In 
the  Calumet  and  Hecla  Mines,  observations 
show  an  increase  of  1°  in  about  every  125 
feet.  At  Bendigo  it  is  shown  to  be  1°  per  80 
feet  of  descent.  At  Ronchamp  Collieries,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  temperature  increases  1° 
F.  in  only  49  feet. 

The  mean  density  of  the  earth  is  5.53  times 
as  great  as  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water. 
Area  in  sq.  miles: 

Africa 11,514,000 

North  America 6,446,000 

South  America 6,837,000 

Asia 14,710,000 

Australasia 3,288,000 

Europe 3,555.000 

Polar  Regions 4,888,800 


Total 51,238,800 


The  Earth  is  not  always  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  Sun.  In  the  Nautical  Almanac  the 
sun's  apparent  semi-diameter  is  given  for 
every  day  in  the  year.  The  apparent  semi-di- 
ameter was  16'  17".  89  on  January  1st,  1912, 
and  on  July  1st  of  the  same  year  it  was 
15'  45*.  68.  This  proves  that  a  greater  distance 
separates  us  from  the  sun  hi  summer  than  in 
winter. 

PERIHELION  AND  APHELION. — When  the 
earth  is  nearest  to  the  sun  it  is  said  to  be  ?n 
Perihelion,  and  when  farthest  from  the  sun 
it  is  said  to  be  in  Aphelion. 

THE  EARTH  MOVES  WITH  VARYING  VE- 
LOCITY IN  ITS  ORBIT. — This  is  ascertained 
by  measuring  the  sun's  longitude  for  two 
successive  days  at  different  times  of  the  year, 
by  which  means  it  is  found  in  December  to 
move  over  61'10.0"  within  a  period  of 
twenty-four  hours,  while  in  June  it  only 
moves  over  57' 10.8"  in  the  same  time. 

KEPLER'S  LAW  OF  EQUAL  AREAS. — Kepler 
found  that  the  line  joining  the  center  of  the 
sun  with  the  center  of  the  earth  moved  over 
equal  areas  in  equal  times,  that  is,  the  greater 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  in  June 
compensated  for  the  smaller  arc  of  motion 
in  longitude,  so  that  lines  drawn  from  the 
sun  to  the  extremities  of  the  arcs  moved 
over  make  equal  triangles.  ' 


463 


464 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


REVOLUTION  OF  THE  EARTH  IN  ITS  ORBIT. 
— The  stars  which  are  seen  nearest  to  the  sun 
after  sunset  at  different  times  of  the  year  are 
not  the  same,  but  belong  to  different  signs  of 
the  zodiac.  This  change  of  position  of  the 
sun  with  respect  to  the  stars  takes,  place  at 
the  rate  of  about  1°  a  day,  so  that  the  whole 
heavens  appear  tc  revolve  once  in  a  year  in- 
dependent of  their  diurnal  revolution.  This 
is  due  to  the  real  revolution  of  the  earth  in 
its  orbit.  The  stars  appear  to  describe  little 
ellipses  in  the  course  of  a  year,  but,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  it  is  the  light  coming  from  the 
stars  that  is  displaced  by  the  motion  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit.  This  phenomenon  is  known 
as  the  aberration  of  light.  There  is  also  an 
apparent  displacement  of  the  nearer  stars  with 
respect  to  those  more  distant,  which  is  known 
as  annular  parallax  and  is  used  to  measure 
the  distance  of  stars;  for  the  greater  the  dis- 
placement the  nearer  must  be  the  star. 

THE  MOON. 

The  moon,  our  only  satellite,  is  on  the  aver- 
age 238,850  miles  away,  measuring  from  cen- 
tre of  the  earth  to  the  centre  of  the  moon. 
Its  maximum  distance  is  252,830  and  mini- 
mum 221,520.  After  subtracting  the  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth,  and  the  semi-diarneter 
of  the  moon  from  this  figure,  we  find  that  the 
minimum  possible  distance  between  the  sur- 
faces of  the  planets  is  216,476  miles.  The 
moon  is  only  2,162  miles  in  diameter,  and  its 
surface  area  is  14,685,000  miles,  or  a  little  less 
than  the  combined  areas  of  North  and  S9uth 
America.  The  volume  of  the  earth  is  49  times 
that  of  the  moon  and  its  weight,  or  more 
strictly  speaking,  its  mass,  is  81  times  greater. 
A  man  weighing  140  pounds  on  earth  would 
weigh  but  21  pounds  on  the  moon.  The  surface 
of  the  moon  is  covered  with  tall  mountains 
reaching  20,000  feet  high,  with  deep  craters 
and  crevasses.  The  moon  has  no  atmosphere 
and  apparently  is  a  dead  world.  It  revolves 
about  the  earth  once  in  27d.,  7h.,  43m.,  11.55s. 
or  27.32166  days.  However,  as  the  earth  is 
also  revolving  about  the  sun  the  synodical 
period  or  the  time  from  new  moon  to  new 
moon  is  29d.,  12h.,  44m.,  2.86s.  or  29.53059 
days.  During  the  synodical  period  the  moon 
makes  one  complete  rotation  about  its  axis, 
and  hence  the  moon's  day  is  almost  a  month 
long.  During  this  period  it  keeps  the  same 
face  always  toward  the  earth.  However,  we 
can  see  more  than  half  of  the  moon  because 
the  moon's  axis  is  inclined  5°  8'|from  the  per- 
pendicular to  its  orbit,  so  that  we  can  see 
alternately  its  north  and  south  pole.  Also 
because  its  angular  velocity  about  its  orbit 
varies,  we  can  see  a  little  more  now  of  the 
western  side  and  now  of  the  eastern.  The 
moon  does  not  revolve  about  the  centre  of 
the  earth,  but  about  a  centre  of  gravity  com- 
mon to  both  earth  and  moon.  This  centre  is 
1,063  miles  below  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  earth's  revolutions  about  this  centre  are 
known  as  librations.  The  plane  of  the 
moon's  orbit  is  also  inclined  to  the  earth's 
orbit  5°  5'.  The  points  where  this  plane  crosses 
the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  are  called  the 
nodes.  Eclipses  occur  only  when  the  moon 
is  at  or  near  the  nodes.  For  only  then  can 
its  shadow  fall  on  the  earth  or  the  earth's 
shadow  fall  on  the  moon.  The  nodes  are  not 
fixed,  but  move  at  the  rate  of  one  complete 
revolution  in  18y.,  218d.,  21h.,  22m.,  46s. 
This  period  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  a 
saros  for  it  was  noted  that  eclipses  repeated 
themselves  at  the  lapse  of  such  a  period. 


TJ      •*•>       <Dj3       ftTS'tS  a-1 

;.  1 1!  "" 


2 
U 

h 

J 


in  Hi . 


fFi^siiys 

0.2  w-s-^  g  a  c  a  03^  « 
ii|PiJ**jfa 

gj        X!        rC    0,  .BC 

«   J    .•«    5J55 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


465 


THE  .-SUN. 


— Solar  Parallax  (equatorial  horizontal), 
8.80*±0.02/'.  Mean  distance  of  the  sun  from 
the  earth,  92,885,000  miles;  149,480,000  kil- 
ometers. Variation  of  the  distance  of  the 
sun  from  the  earth  between  January  and 
July,  3,100,000  miles;  4,950,000  kUometers. 
Linear  value  of  1*  on  the  sun's  surface,  450.3 
miles;  724.7  kilometers.  Mean  angular  semi- 
diameter  of  the  sun,  16'  02.0".  Sun's  linear 
diameter,  866,400  miles;  1,394,300  kilometers. 
(This  may,  perhaps,  be  variable  to  the  extent 
of  several  hundred  miles.)  Ratio  of  the  sun's 
diameter  to  the  earth's  109.3.  Surface  of  the 
sun  compared  with  the  earth,  11,940.  Vol- 
ume, or  cubic  contents,  of  the  sun  compared 
with  the  earth,  1,305,000.  Mass,  or  quantity 
of  matter,  of  the  sun  compared  with  the  earth, 
330,000±3000. ,  Mean  density  of  the  sun  com- 
pared with  the  earth,  0.253.  'Mean  density  of 
the  sun  compared  with  water,  1.406.  Force 
of  gravity  on  the  sun's  surface  compared  with 
that  on  the  earth,  27.6.  Distance  a  body 
would  fall  in  one  second,  444.4  feet;  135.5 
meters.  Inclination  of  the  sun's  axis  to  the 
ecliptic,  70°  15'.  Longitude  of  its  ascending 
node  74°.  Date  when  the  sun  is  at  the  node, 
June  4,  5.  Mean  time  of  the  sun's  rotation 
(Carrington) ,  25.38  days.  Time  of  rotation  of 
the  sun  s  equator,  25  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  20°,  25.75  days.  Time  of  rotation 
at  latitude  30°.  26.5  days.  Time  of  rotation  at 
latitude  45°,  27.5  days.  (These  last  four 
numbers  are  somewhat  doubtful,  the  formulae 
of  various  authorities  giving  results  differing 
by  several  hours  in  some  cases.)  Linear 
velocity  of  the  sun's  rotation  at  its  equator, 
1.261  miles  per  second;  2.028  kilometers  per 
second.  Total  quantity  of  sunlight,  1,575,- 
000,000,000,000,000,000,000.000  candles.  In- 
tensity of  the  sunlight  at  the  surface  of  the 
sun,  190,000  times  that  of  a  candle  flame;  5300 
times  that  of  metal  in  a  Bessemer  converter; 
146  times  that  of  a  calcium  light;  3.4  times 
that  of  an  electric  arc.  Brightness  of  a  point  on 
the  sun's  limb  compared  with  that  of  a  point 
near  the  center  of  the  disk,  25  per  cent.  Heat 
received  per  minute  from  the  sun  upon  a 
square  meter,  perpendicularly  exposed  to  the 
solar  radiation,  at  the  upper  surface  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere  (the  solar  constant),  20 
calories.  Heat  radiation  at  the  surface  of 
the  sun,  per  square  meter  per  minute,  1,117,- 
000  calories.  Thickness  of  a  shell  of  ice 
which  would  be  melted  from  the  surface  of 
the  sun  per  minute,  483-2  feet,  or  14  34  meters. 
Mechanical  equivalent  of  the  solar  radiation 
at  the  sun's  surface,  continuously  acting, 
109,000  horse  power  per  square  meter;  or, 
10,000  (nearly)  per  square  foot.  Effective 
temperature  of  the  solar  surface  about 
5,000°  C.,  or  9,000°  F. 

ECLIPTIC. — If  the  brilliance  of  the  sun  did 
not  obscure  the  stars,  in  other  words,  if  we 
were  able  to  see  the  stars  by  day  as  we  do  at 
night,  we  should  note  that  the  sun  travels 
eastward  among  them,  making  a  complete 
revolution  in  a  year.  The  path  of  the  sun 
among  the  stars  is  known  as  the  "Ecliptic." 
The  angle  (23  1A°)  between  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  and  that  of  the  celestial  equator  is 
known  as  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  The 
sun's  motion  is  only  apparent.  The  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  is  really  the  plane  of  the  earth's 
revolution  about  the  sun,  while  the  plane  of 


the    celestial    equator   is   the   plane   of    the 
earth's  rotation  on  its  axis. 

NODES. — The  two  points  where  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic  crosses  the  plane  of  the  celestial 
equator  or  equinoctial  are  called  nodes,  that 
point  at  which  the  sun  appears  to  come  up 
from  below  the  equator  being  called  the  as- 
cending node,  and  that  at  which  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  descend  from  above  the  same  plane 
being  called  the  descending  node. 

THE  FIRST  POINT  OF  ARIES. — The  ascend- 
ing node  above  referred  to  is  the  first  point  of 
Aries.  It  is  universally  used  for  fixing  the 
right  ascension  of  celestial  bodies. 

PRECESSION  AND  NUTATION. — The  sun  and 
moon  attract  the  protuberant  portion  of  the 
earth's  equator  more  on  that  side  nearest  to 
them  than  on  that  side  farthest  away,  and  in 
this  way  the  differential  attraction  tends  to 
tilt  the  axis  a  little,  so  that  it  describes  a  cir- 
cle in  about  25,800  years.  The  moon's  differ- 
ential attraction  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
sun.  On  account  of  the  moon's  continually 
changing  its  relation  to  the  earth's  equator, 
it  causes  the  axis  of  the  earth  to  describe  a 
circle  with  a  wavy  circumference,  known  as 
nutation,  or  nodding  of  the  earth's  axis. 

LATITUDE,  LONGITUDE,  RIGHT  ASCENSION, 
AND  DECLIXATIOX. — Terrestrial  latitude  is 
measured  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  north 
and  south.  Terrestrial  longitude  is  commonly 
measured  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich, 
but  some  countries  use  their  own  meridians. 
Right  ascension  is  measured  from  the  first 
point  of  Aries.  Declination  is  measured  from 
the  celestial  equator.  Celestial  longitude  is 
measured  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  celestial 
latitude  from  the  ecliptic. 

SATELLITES  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM 


p«M 

.1         ME<» 
3=     DOTAUCE 
II  ."»«~ 

SlDEKEAL 

Puio» 

i,   h.     ».    1 

Ducorttin     j        DATE 

The  Moon.. 

THE   EARTH 
..  1     238,840127    7  43  11|                           | 

JUPITER 


5.  (.Nameless) 
1.  lo  
Curopa.  .. 

13  i     112,500 
6}       261,000 
61      .415,000 

11  57  23 

1  13  27  33 
3  13  13  42 

Barnard  
Gableo  
Galileo  

Sept:  9.  1892 
Jan.  7.     1610 
Jan  S      1610 

Ganymede 
Callisto 

C        G64.0QO 
7      1,167  JMO 

7    3  43  33 
16  16  32  H 

Galileo  
Galiteo  

Jan.  7.     1610 
Jan.  7,     1610 

(Nameless) 

14     7,000,000 

250  d. 

Perrine  

Dec.         1904 

(NamelesO 

H      7.v>    ,... 

265d 

Perrine  

Jan.         1905 

(N»mde»).|   17 

15,600,000 

789d.      |  Melottc...... 

Jan,        1908 

SATUR3 

Minus  
Enceladus. 
Tethys  

II 

H 
II 

117.000  I 
157.000 
186,000  I 

22  37    6   W.  Herschd  .. 
1     8  53    71  W.  Herschel... 
1  21   13  26   J.  D.Cassini... 

Ju!jr  18,  1780 
Au>.  29,  17ffl> 
Mar.  21,  1GS4 

Dione  

II 

Jg     ' 

•J   17  1!     9 

J.  D.Cassini... 

Mar.  2l!  16S4 

Rhea  

H 

J.  D.Cassini... 

Hec.  23,  1672 

Titan  
Hyperion... 

1 

M 

771JOOO  'l5  22  41  23i  Huvgens  
934JOOO    21     6  39-27!  G.  P.  Bond... 

Mar.  25.  fOS-'i 
Sept.  16,  1S4S 

lapetus  
Phoebe  

17 

2,225,000  '. 

Qi  ... 

•9    7  54  17 

546  5  d. 

'•'•  "M  •"'":' 

Oct.  25.   Iti7l 
1893 

1      Themis  

17       >06.000  :20  20  24    o!  W.H.PickerinI 

1903 

URAltUS 

1.  Arid  1 
2.  Umbrid.... 
3.  Titania  
4.  Oberoo  

I 

14 

120.000  | 
1*7,000  | 
273400  i 
365,000 

2  12  29  21    I^ssdl  
4     3  27  37    Lassell..,  
S  16  06  29    \V.  Herschel.. 
3  H     7    6i  W.  Herschel... 

OcJ.24,  1851 
Oct.  24.   1S51 
Jan.  II.   17S7 
Jan.  11,   17S7 

NEPTUHE 

1.  (N-ameles^  '  13        221,  500  [ 

5  21     2  44 

Lasvll  'Oct.  10.   lS4fi 

466 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


NAME 

MEAN  DISTANCE' 

FROM  SUN 

SIDEREAL  PERIOD 

MEAN 
)IAM'T'R 
MILES 

MASS 

©=  1 

DENS- 
ITY 

Water 
=  1 

VOLUME 
©  =  1 

AXIAL 
ROTATION 

©  =  1 

MILLIONS 

OF  MILES 

MEAN 
SOLAR 
DAYS 

YEARS 

8    Mercury  . 

0  387 

36.  .0 

87  97 

0  24 

3030 

0  476 

4.7(?) 

0  056 

88* 

9    Venus. 

0  723 

67.2 

224  70 

0  62 

7700 

0  82 

4.94 

0.92 

225* 

©  Earth  ... 

1  000 

92  9 

365  26 

1  00 

7917  6 

I  00 

5  55 

1  00 

23h  56">  4» 

tf   Mars.   ... 

1  524 

141  5 

686.95 

1  88 

4230 

0  108 

3  92 

Q  152 

24h  37""  23» 

H  Jupiter.  . 

5  203 

483  3 

4332  58 

11  86 

86500 

317  7 

1  32 

1309 

9»>  55"-  ± 

b    Saturn  

9  539 

886  0 

10759  2 

29  46 

73000 

94  8 

0  72 

760 

IQh  14m  ± 

6    Uranus  .  . 

19  183 

J781  9 

30686  8 

84  02 

31900 

14  6 

1  22 

65 

? 

V   Neptune... 

30  055 

2971  6 

60181  1 

164  78 

34800 

17  0 

1  11 

85 

? 

O  Sun    .     . 
£   Moon        . 

From  02 

38  ,840  mis 

27,32 

0,75 

866400 
2163 

332000 
1/81.5 

1.39 
3.39 

1300000      25d  7h  4S">  ± 
0  020|     27<«  7h  43m 

Observer's    Handbook. 


PERIODIC   COMETS. 


NAME. 

Perihelion 
Passage. 

Period 

(Years.) 

Perihelion 
Dist. 
Earth's 
Orbit=l. 

Eccen- 
tricity. 

Encke                                      

1885  Mar        7 

3  3 

0.34 

0.846 

Tempel      

1883,  Nov.     20 

5.2 

1.34 

0.553 

Barnard                       

1890,  Feb       17 

5  4 

1  28 

0.582 

Tempel-Swif  t                        

1886  May        9 

5  5 

1  07 

0  656 

1879,  Mar.     30 

5.5 

0.59 

0.810 

1886,  Sept       4 

5  8 

0  88 

0  727 

Tempel                                        . 

1885  Sept     25 

6  5 

2  07 

0  405 

Biela                                 

1882,  Sept.    23 

6.6 

0.86 

0.755 

D'Arrest                                 

1884  Jan       13 

6  7 

1  33 

0  626 

Faye                   

1881,  Jan.      22 

7.6 

1.74 

0.549 

Tuttle                                

1885,  Sept     11 

13  8 

1.02 

0.821 

1884  Jan       25 

71  5 

0  77 

0  955 

Olbers 

1887,  Oct.        8 

72.6 

1.20 

•    0.931 

Halley 

1910,  Apr       19 

74  4 

0  59 

0.967 

SHOOTING  STARS. — The  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal meteor  -swarms  and  the  dates  of  their 
appearance  are  as  follows: — 


Name. 

Date. 

Comet  having 
same  Orbit. 

Andromedes  . 
Lyrids  .  .  . 

23  November 
20  April 

Biela's 
Comet  I   1861 

15  November 

Tempel's   1866 

Perseids  

11  August.  .  . 

Comet  III.  1863 

LIGHT  YEAR 

The  distance  that  light  can  travel  in  a  year 
is  called  a  "Light  Year"  and  is  used  by 
astronomers  as  a  unit  of  linear  measure. 

Light  travels  in 

1  second 186,330  miles 

1  minute 11,179,800      " 

1  hour. . .  670,788,000      " 

1  day 16,098,912,000      " 

1  year 588,022,995,000 

The  earth's  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is 
also  used  as  a  unit  of  linear  measure. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


467 


'GREEK  ALPHABET. 

The  different  stars  of  the  several  constellations  are  usually  indicated  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet.     For  convenience  of  reference,  the  alphabet  is  here  given. 

A  a    Alpha.                         H  »j    Eta.                         N  v    JSu.  T  t  Tau. 

B  ft    Beta.                          e  6    Theta.                    H  f    Xi.  Y  v  Upsilon. 

r  y    Gamma.                     I    t    Iota.                       O  o    Omicron,  *  4>  Phi. 

j  «    Delta.                        K  <    Kappa.                   II  *    Pi.  X  x  Chi. 

E  e     Epsilon. '                   A  A    Lambda                 P  p    Rho.  *  ^  Psi. 

Z  £    Zeta.                           M  n.   Mu.                         2  s    Sigma.  n  u  Omega. 


NAMES   OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  STARS. 


The  following  table  exhibits  the  names  of  all  the  Stars  of  the  First  Three  Magnitudes  to 
which  Astronomers  have  given  names,  at  least  all  those  whose  names  are  in  common  use- 

Canis  Minoris — Little  Dog.Procyon. 

Gomeisa. 

a  Canum        Venaticorum  — 

Cor  Caroli. 

Secunda  Giedi. 

Deneb  Algiedi. 

Schedar. 

Chaph. 

Alder  amin. 

Alphirk. 

Errai. 

Menkar. 

Diphda. 

Baten  Kaito? 


a  Andromedae — Andromeda..Alpheratz. 

8  Mirach  Mizar. 

f  Almacb. 

a  Aquarii — Water  Bearer.  .  .  Sadalmelik. 
B        "      Sadalsund, 

9  "      Skat. 

a  Aquilse — Eagle Altair. 


a  Arietis — Ram. 


o  Aurigse — Charioteer. 


.Alshain. 

.Tarazed. 

.Hamal. 

.Sheratan. 

.Me.sartim. 

.Capella. 

.  Menkalinan. 

a  Bootis — Herdsman Arcturus. 

ff       " Nekkar. 

i        "     Izar,  Mizar,  Mirach. 

r,       "     Muphrid. 

a  Canis  Majoris — Great  Dog.Sirius. 

0      ••  "      Mirzam. 

.       "  "      ...Adara. 

0  Cygni — Swan Albireo. 

«  Draconis — Dragon Thuban. 

0  Alwaid. 

r  . Etanin. 

0  Eridani — River  Eridanus.  .Cursa. 

r  Zaurac. 

n   Geminorum — Twins Castor. 

0  Pollux. 

r  "      Alhena. 

3  " Wesat. 

.Mebsuta. 

.Ras  Algethi. 

0 Korneforos. 

«  Hydras — Sea  Serpent.  .AlFard.Cor  Hydrse. 

«  Leonis — Lion Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 

0         '     Deneb  Aleet,  Denedola,  Deneb. 

Y  Algeiba. 

d  Zosma. 

n   Leporis — Wolf Arneb. 

«  Libras— Scales Zuben  el  Genubi. 

0        '     Zuben  el  Chamali. 

Y        '     Zuben  Hakrabi. 

«  Lyrae^Lyre Vega. 

0        '    Sheliak. 

Y        ' Sulaphat. 

a  Ophiuchi — Serpent  Bearer.Ras  Alhague. 

0  .  .  ._ Cebalrai. 

a  Orionis — Orion Betelgeux. 

ft       " Rigel. 

Y       "      Bellatrix. 


Herculis — Hercules. 


Hunting  Dogs.  .  . 
a2  Capricorni — Sea  Goat.  . 

or  Cassiopeiae — Cassiopeia. 
a  Cephei— Cepheus!  .  .   '.'. 


a  Ceti— Whale. 


.Mira. 


a  Columbae — Dove Phact. 

o  Coronse  Borealis — Crown .  .  Alphecca. 

a  Corvi — Crow Alchiba. 

9       '     Algores. 

a  Crateris — Cup Alkes. 

a  Cvimi— Swan Arided,  Deneb  Adige. 

d  Orionis — Orion Minfaka. 

e  Alnilam. 

a   Pegasi — Pegasus Markab. 

0  " Scheat. 

r       "     : .-.Algenib. 

t        "     Enif. 

C         '     Homan. 

a  Persei — Perseus Mirfak.  , 

f)         "       Algol. 

a   Piscis  Australis — Southern 

Fish Fomalhaut . 

t    Sagittarii — Archer Kaus  Australis. 

a  Scorpionis — Scorpion Antares.      Cor 

Scorpionis. 

a  Serpentis — Serpent Unukalhai. 

a  Tauri— Bull Aldebaran. 

B      * ' Nath. 

r>       '' Alcyone  (Pleiad). 

a  Ursae  Majoris — Great  Bear.Dubhe. 

ft      "  Merak. 

r      "          '        < Phecda. 

«  -.  Alioth. 

C  '        Mizar. 

r;  Alkaid ,  Benetnasch. 

1 Talitha. 

«  Ursse  Minoris — Little  Bear'. Polaris. 
0     "          "      Kochab. 

a  Virginis — Virgin.  .  ..Spica  Azimech,  Spica. 

0  Zavijava. 

e  ,    Vindemiatrix 


.  In  designating  a  star  instead  of  writing  a  of  Ursa  Major  or  a  of  Gemini  or  a  of  Cassiopeia, 
it  is  customary  to  use  the  genitive  form  of  the  constellation  name.  Thus:  a  Ursae  Majoris, 
a.  Geminorum,  a  Cassiopeise,  etc. 


468 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STARS  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR  MAGNITUDE  DOWN 
TO  AND  INCLUDING  POLARIS 


NAME  OF  STAR 


Magnitude       R.  A. 


Dec. 


a  Canis  Majoris — (Sirius) 

a  Argus — (Canopus) 

a  Centauri 

a  Ly rae —  Vega) 

a  Bootis — (Arcturus) 

a  Aurigse — (Capella) 

ft  Orionis—  (Rigel) 

a  Canis  Minoris—  (Procyori) .... 

a  Aquilae — (Altair) 

ft  Centauri 

a  Orionis — (Betelgeux) 

a  Eridani — (Achernar) 

a  Tauri — (Aldebaran) 

ft  Geminorum — (PoUux) 

a  Scorpionis — (Antares) 

a  Virgmis — (Spica) 

a  Cygni— (Deneb) 

a  Leonis — (Regulus) 

a  Pise.  Aust. — (Fomalhaut) .... 

ft  Crucis 

e  Canis  Majoris 

a  Crucis 

y  Crucis 

e  Argus 

y  Orionis—  (Bellatrix) 

A.  Scorpionis 

e  Ursae  Majoris — (Alioth) 

ft  ArgOs 

e  Orionis — (Alnilam) 

ft  Tauri 

y  Geminorum 

a  Persei — (Algenib) 

a  Triang.  Aust 

?  Ursae  Majoris — (Alkaid) . . . 
Argtis....... 

ft  Canis  Majoris 

5  Canis  Majoris. . .    

a  Geminorum — (Castor) 

5  Orionis 

e  Sagittarii 

a  Ursae  Majoris — (Dubhe) . .  . 

ft  Aurigae 

a  Ophiuchi 

a  Pavonis 

e  Sagittarii 

a  Ursae  Minoris — (Polaris) . . . 


1.6 

0.9 

0.1 

0.1 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 

0.5 

0.9 

0.9 

0.9 

1 

1.1 

1.2 

1.2 


1.5 

1.6 

1.6 
|.j 

1.7 
1.7 
1.7 
.7 
.8 
.8 
.8 
.9 
.9 
.9 
.9 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

2.1 
2.1 
2.1 
2.1 
2.1 


m  s 

41  16 
22 

33  37 

33  58 

11  38 
10  11 
10  18 

34  42 
46  29 

57  36 
50  24 
34  26 

30  52 
39  56 
24  1 

20  33 

38  26 

3  41 

52  47 

42  34 
55  10 

21  42 
20  17 
20  43 
20  25 

27  38 
50  10 

12  14 

31  45 
20  44 

32  38 
18  2 

39  20 
44  5 
42  16 
18  49 

4  49 

28  59 
36  19 
18  20 

58  18 

53  4 
30  51 
18  42 
49  59 
27  51 


-16 
-52 
-60 

+  38 
+  19 
+  45 
-8 
+  5 
+  8 
-59 
+  7 
-57 
+  16 
+  28 
-26 
-10 
+  44 
+  12 
-30 
-59 
-28 
-62 
-56 
-59 
+  6 
-37 
+  56 
-69 
-1 
+  28 
+  16 
+  49 
-68 
+  49 
-54 
-17 
-26 
+  32 
•-1 
-34 
+  62 
+  44 
+  12 
-57 
-26 
+  88 


35  41 
38  50 
28  22 
42  4 
38  25 
54  34 

18  9 

27  4 
38  ,7 

56  56 
23  29 

41  1 

19  59 
14  22 

14  15 

42  8 

57  55 
23  51 

5  20 

12  28 

51  6 

36  41 

37  13 

13  34 
16  14 

2  25 

26  14 

21  17 

15  26 
32  2 

28  31 
32  56 

52  3 
45  8 

23  9 
54  41 
15  10 

4  57 

59  19 

25  37 

13  35 

56  22 

37  24 

1  4 

24  25 
50  11 


DISTANCES  OF  THE  NEARER  STARS. 


Centauri 4.3  Light  years 

Lalande  21,185 8.1 

Canis  Majoris  (Sirius) ....    8.7 

Ceti..... 9.8 

Canis  Minoris 10. 1 

Cygni 10.5 

Groombridge  34 11.6 

Aquilae 13.7 

Lalande  21,258 16.1 

Cassiopeiae 16.2 

Ursae  Majoris 18.2 

Eridani 18.8 

Herculis 22.9 

Ceti  (Mira) 22.9 

Pise.  Aust.  (Fomalhaut). . .  23.6 


ft  Leonis  (Denebola) 25.3  Light  years 

ft  Virginis 27.6 

/a  Cassiopeiae 29.1 

y  Draconis 30.5 

M  Herculis 30.8 

y  Cygni 30.8 

Groombridge  1830 32.0 

a  Lyrae  (Vega) 34.7 

0  Ursae  Majoris 35.5 

a  Bootis  (Arcturus) 43.5 

ft  Cassiopeiae 44. 1 

a  Ophiuom 44.1 

a  Tauri  (Aldebaran) 44.7 

«  Aurigae 49.4 

ft  Gemini 50.9 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


469 


THE  NORTHERN  HEAVENS. 


The  maps  shown  on  the  following  pages 
represent  the  heavens  as  seen,  on  the  different 
dates  given,  from  stations  in  and  about  the 
latitude  of  New  York  (40°  N).  It  is  not  an 
easy  matter  to  recognize  the  stars  by  looking 
at  the  map.  A  certain  amount  of  study  is 
necessary ;  for,  of  course,  the  different  stars  of 
a  constellation  are  not  linked  together  by  lines 
as  they  are  in  the  map  and  furthermore  their 
magnitude  is  very  much  exaggerated.  The 
best  plan  for  the  novice  is  to  start  with  a  well 
known  constellation,  such  as  that  of  the 
Great  Bear.  The  "Dipper"  which  is  a  part 
of  the  Great  Bear  is  so  conspicuous  a  group 
in  the  northern  skies  that  anyone  can  point 
it  out.  Knowing  the  Dipper,  the  Pole  Star 
may  readily  be  discovered  by  tracing  a  line 
from  /3  through  o  of  the  Dipper  and  about 
five  times  as  far.  Around  the  Pole  Star 
(Polaris)  which  is  of  the  second  magnitude, 
the  entire  northern  heavens  appear  to  revolve 
once  a  day.  Having  found  the  Pole  Star  the 
constellation  of  Cassiopeia  may  be  found  by 
extending  a  line  from  e  of  the  Dipper  through 
the  Pole  Star  and  as  far  again  to  the  other 
side,  where  a  cluster  of  stars  in  the  form  of  a 
large  ragged  W  will  be  found.  If  we  run  a 
line  diagonally  from  a  of  the  Dipper  through 
y  and  about  eight  or  nine  times  as  far  again, 
we  shall  come  to  the  first  magnitude  star 
Spica,  in  the  constellation  of  the  Virgin, 
while  a  line  extended  from  a  through  ft  and 
about  eight  times  as  far  again  will  bring  us 
in  the  midst  of  the  constellation  of  the  Lion. 
At  the  eastern  end  of  this  constellation,  is 
the  second  magnitude  star  Denebola,  and 
the  distance  from  this  star  to  Spica  is  about 
the  same  as  that  from  Spica  to  Arcturus,  the 
first  magnitude  star  in  the  constellation  of 
Bootes.  Thus  we  may  proceed  building  up 
our  knowledge  of  various  groups  and  using 
these  groups  as  reference  points  to  find  new 
constellations. 

Contrary  to  custom  in  geographical  maps, 
our  star  maps  are  drawn  with  the  east  on  the 
lefthand  side  and  the  west  on  the  righthand 


THE  "DIPPER"  AS  AN  INDEX  TO  THE 

HEAVENS. 

side,  while  north  is  at  the  top  of  the  page  and 
south  at  the  bottom.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  heavens  are  viewed  looking  upward, 
while  the  geographical  map  is  viewed  looking 
downward.  In  locating  stars  and  con- 
stellations, it  is  best  to  hold  the  map  over- 
head when  the  actual  points  of  the  compass 
and  those  marked  on  the  map  will  bear  the 
true  relation  to  each  other. 


XIGHT  SKY:  JANUARY  AXD  FEBRUARY. 


If  one  views  the  heavens  on  the  hours  '• 
specified  under  our  map  of  January,  he  will  i 
find  almost  directly  overhead  a  bright  star  '< 
with  a  triangle  of  lesser  stars  beside  it.  The 
bright  star  is  Capella  or  the  Little  She  Goat 
which  is  held  on  the  arm  of  Auriga,  the 
Charioteer,  whose  left  hand  is  represented  by 
the  triangle  of  stars,  17,  e,  £.  The  constellation 
bears  no  resemblance  whatever  to  a  charioteer 
or  a  goat.  In  fact,  very  few  constellations 
bear  any  resemblance  to  the  objects  the 
ancients  supposed  them  to  represent.  Half- 
way between  Capella  and  the  southern  horizon 
are  the  three  bright  stars  forming  the  belt  of 
Orion.  They  are  indicated  in  the  map  <T,  « ,  6, 
and  they  are  centered  in  the  square  formed 
by  the  stars,  Betelgeux,  Bellatrix,  Rigel  and 
the  star  noted  by  the  letter  K.  The  little 
triangle  of  stars  a't  A.  mark  the  head  of  Orion, 
while  the  line  of  faint  stars  at  ir  represents  a 
lion  skin  that  Orion  is  holding  forth  towards 
the  constellation  of,  Taurus,  the  Bull  The 
principal  star  of  this  constellation  is  Alde- 
baran,  a  bright  red  star,  marking  the  left  eye 


of  the  bull,  while  his  two  horns  are  indicated 
by  the  stars  0  and  f.  The  star  e  is  at  the 
right  eye  of  the  bull,  and  y  at  his  nose.  They 
form  with  Aldebaran  a  triangle  that  is  easily 
recognizable.  A  little  to  the  west  of  this 
group  is  the  interesting  star  cluster  of  the 
Pleiades.  In  this  cluster,  there  are  six  stars 
easily  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  many  can 
see  seven  stars,  while  observers  with  ex- 
ceptionally good  eyesight  have  been  able  to 
see  as  many  as  fourteen  stars.  A  small  spy- 
glass will  reveal  large  numbers. 

The  stars  forming  the  belt  of  Orion  point 
in  the  general  direction  of  the  first  magnitude 
star  Sirius  in  the  constellation  of  Canis  Major, 
the  Great  Dog.  Sirius  is  by  far  the  brightest 
object  in  the  heavens  if  we  exclude  the  sun, 
moon  and  planets.  It  is  one  of  the  nearest 
suns  outside  our  solar  system,  yet  it  is  so  far 
off  that  it  takes  nearly  nine  years  for  its  light 
to  reach  us.  The  diameter  of  Sirius  is  about 
twenty  times  that  of  the  sun  and  its  volume 
is  about  seven  thousand  times  greater.  In 
the  constellation  of  Canis  Major  there  are 


470 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.. 


At  n     o'clock:  Jan.     7 
"   10:30  '•      14 

"     10  "  "          22 


At   9:30  o'clock:   January   29 


9  o'clock:  Feb.  6 
8:30  "  "  14 
8  "  "  21 


NIGHT  SKY:  JANUARY  AND  FEBRUARY. 


two  other  first  magnitude  stars,  but  Sinus  so 
far  outshines  them  that  they  look  no  brighter 
than  second  magnitude  stars.  If  we  follow 
the  line  from  Aldebaran  eastward  bey9nd  £ 
we  come  to  the  constellation  of  Gemini,  the 
Twins,  marked  by  the  two  bright  stars, 
Castor  and  Pollux;  while  south  of  this  con-, 
stellation  is  the  first  magnitude  star  Procyon 
in  the  constellation  of  Canis  Minor,  the  Little 
Dog.  It  will  be  noticed  that  most  of  the 
constellations  so  far  referred  to  lie  adjacent  to 
the  Milky  Way.  If  we  follow  the  Galaxy 
northward,  we  find  just  beyond  the  con- 
stellation of  Auriga,  ithe  constellation  of 
Perseus,  whose  most  interesting  star  is  marked 
0  and  is  known  as  Algol,  the  Demon  Star  or 
tne  Winking  Demon.  Every  two  days, 


twenty  hours  and  forty-nine  minutes,  this 
star  begins  to  fade  until,  in  the  course  of  three 
or  four  hours,  it  loses  four-fifths  of  its  light. 
Then  it  begins  to  become  brighter  until 
eventually,  after  three  or  four  hours  more, 
it  reaches  its  normal  brilliancy.  The  star 
marks  the  head  of  Medusa,  which  according 
to  the  Greek  legend  Perseus  was  carrying 
when  he  came  across  Andromeda  chained  to 
the  rock.  Further  north  along  the  Milky 
Way  we  come  to  Cassiopeia. 

In  the  northeast  is  the  great  dipper  forming 
part  of  Ursa  Major,  the  Great  Bear;  far  in 
the  east  is  the  constellation  of  Leo,  the  Lion, 
in  which  are  the  prominent  stars  Regulus. 
Denebola.  The  curved  Una  of  stars  ending 
with  Regulus  is  known  as  the  Sickle. 


(The  Star  Maps  are  all  copyright^  by  Mwnn  &  Go-,  Inc.) 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


471 


At 


9  o'clock  Apr.  7 
8:30  "  "  14 
8  "  "  24 


At  9:30   o'clock:   March   30 


NIGHT  SKY:   MARCH  AND  APRIL. 


Our  map  for  March  and  April  shows  most 
of  the  constellations  along  the  Milky  Way 
low  in  the  western  sky.  The  great  dipper  is 
well  up  near  the  zenith  with  its  pointer  stars 
)3  and  a  indicating  the  position  of  the  Pole  Star, 
Polaris.  Oddly  enough  the  ancients  repre- 
sented the  great  bear  as  having  a  long  tail, 
indicated  by  the  stars  e,  f,  rj.  These  are  the 
only  stars  that  follow  the  outline  of  the  beast. 
The  star  o  is  at  the  bear's  mouth,  while  the 
stars  K,  i,  and  M,  A,  and  v,  t-  represent  three 
of  his  feet.  The  star  £  is  interesting  because  it 
has  a  small  companion,  called  by  the  Arabs  as 
"Alcor."  A  little  to  the  south  of  the  zenith 

is  the  constellation  of  Leg,  referred  to  in  the 


previous  paragraph.  Below  Leo  are  two 
small  groups  known  as  Corvus,  the  Crow,  and 
Crater,  the  Cup.  They  are  not  very  con- 
spicuous; neither  is  Hydra,  the  Sea  Serpent, 
which  stretches  its  long  length  across  the 
southern  sky.  Its  brightest  star  is  Alphard 
which  is  of  the  second  magnitude.  Above 
the  head  of  the  serpent  is  the  inconspicuous 
constellation  of  Cancer,  the  Crab.  An 
interesting  feature  of  this  constellation  is  a 
faint  star  cluster,  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye 
and  marked  on  the  map  Praesepe,  the 
"Beehive."  In  the  telescope  this  is  seen 
to  be  made  up  of  a  myriad  of  groall  bright 
stars, 


472 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


At  ii       o'clock:  May    7 
'    10:30  15 

"    10  "         "       22 


At  9:30  o'clock:  May  30 
THE  NIGHT  SKY  OF  MAY  AND  JUNE. 


The  constellation  nearest  the  zenith  in 
May  and  June  is  that  of  Bootes,  or  the 
Herdsman.  A  bright  red  -star,  Arcturua*  may 
be  found  in  this  constellation.  It  is  known 
as  the  Wandering  Star  for  the  reason  that  it 
is  slowly  drifting  with  respect  to  the  other 
stars  in  the  Heavens.  Since  the  time  of 
Christ  it  has  moved  in  a  southwesterly 
direction,  fully  one  degree,  or  through  a 
distance  equal  to  twice  the  diameter  of  the 
moon.  Its  yearly  displacement  is  two 
seconds  of  arc.  South  of  Bootes  is  the  con- 
stellation of  Virgo,  whose  brightest  star  is 
Spica.  Between  Virgo  and  Ursa  Major  are 
two  faint  constellations  known  as  Coma 
Berenices,  Berenice's  Hair,  and  Canes 
Venatici,  the  Hunting  Dogs.  Close  to  the 
southern  horizon  is  the  constellation  of 
Centaurus.  the  Centaur.  Not  very  much  of 


this  constellation  can  be  seen  from  our 
latitude.  Its  brightest  stars  lie  below  the 
horizon.  They  include  a  Centauri,  the 
nearest  body  outside  the  solar  system.  This 
star  is  only  255,000  times  as  far  from  us  as  we 
are  from  the  sun.  It  takes  its  light  4J  years 
to  come  to  us.  In  the  southeast,  low  down 
near  the  horizon  may  be  seen  the  constella- 
tion of  Scorpio,  the  Scorpion.  This  con- 
stellation is  made  up  of  a  very  easily  recog- 
nizable group  of  stars.  It  contains  the 
brilliant  first  magnitude  star,  Antares,  at 
each,  side  of  which  are  the  lesser  stars  a-  and  r. 
A  line  of  stars  traces  the  form  of  the  Scorpion 
as  shown  to  better  advantage  in  the  next 
map.  The  Scorpion  embraces  in  its  claws 
the  constellation  Libra,  or  the  Scales.  In 
the  north  above  the  Polar  Star,  we  may  see 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


473 


the  body  of  the  Little  Bear,  Ursa  Minor. 
Most  of  the  stars  of  this  constellation  are  faint 
with  the  exception  of  Polaris  and  two  stars 
/3  and  y  which  have  been  called  the  guards. 
Between  Ursa  Minor  and  the  Zenith,  the 
constellation  Draco,  or  the  Dragon,  twines  its 


long  form.  The  stars  y,  ft  and  £  mark  the 
head  of  the  dragon.  To  the  eastward  of  the 
constellation  Bodtes  is  a  partial  ring  of  stars 
known  as  Corona,  or  the  Crown.  This  is  one 
of  the  few  groups  actually  outlining  the 
object  it  is  supposed  to  represent. 


At  ii     o'clock:  July 

10:30  14 

"     10  "         "       22 


At   9:30   o'clock:   July   30 

XIGHT  SKY:  JULY  AND  AUGUST. 


o'clock:  Aug.     7 
••3°       "  *4 

8  "         "       22 


The  Zenith  constellation  for  July  and 
August  is  Lyra,  the  Lyre,  with  its  bright  blue- 
white  star,  Vega,  nearly  directly  overhead. 
Just  west  of  the  Zenith  is  the  constellation 
Hercules  whose  stars  form  a  ragged-looking  H. 
Below  this  constellation  is  Ophiuchus  who 
has  in  his  grasp  the  constellation  Serpens  or 
the  Serpent.  Low  d9wn  in  the  south  the 
constellation  of  Scorpio  has  dragged  its  full 
length  above  the  horizon  and  it  is  easy  to 
trace  its  body  and  tail  ending  with  the  stars 


A.  and  v.  The  9pposite  side  of  the  Milky  Way 
no.w  stretches  its  length  across  the  sky,  con- 
taining in  its  extent  many  brilliant  con- 
stellations. Just  east  of  Scorpio  is  the 
constellation  of  Sagittarius,  the  Archer. 
Well  up  in  the  southeast  is  the  star  Altair  of 
the  constellation  Aquila,  the  Eagle,  and 
just  above  Altair  is  the  tinv  constellation, 
Sagitta  or  the  Arrow.  To  the  east  may  be 
seen  Delphinus,  the  Dolphin.while  to  the  east  of 
Lyra  is  the  constellation  of  Cygnus,  the  Swan. 


474 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


At  it     o'clock;   Sept.     6 
'     10:30  "         i4 

'      10  "  21 


At  9     o'clock:  June     ^ 
"    8:30       "  14 

"    8  "         "        22 


At   9:30    o'clock:    September   29 


NIGHT  SKY:  SEPTEMBER  AND  OCTOBER. 


Our  map  for  these  two  months  shows  no 
constellation  immediately  overhead.  Half- 
way between  the  Zenith  and  the  Pole  Star 
is  the  constellation  of  Cephas,  a  badly  formed 
W  made  up  of  stars  that  are  not  very  bright, 
with  the  exception  of  a-  which  is  of  second 
magnitude.  The  Milky  Way  now  stretches 
overhead  and  makes  a  beautiful  sight  on  a 
moonless  night.  About  thirtv  degrees  south 
of  the  Zenith  is  the  constellation  Pegasus. 
Its  three  stars,  y,  a,  and  /3  form  with  the  star  a 

of  the  constellation  Andromeda,  a  large  square 


known  as  the  "Square  of  Pegasus."  Below 
the  constellation  Pegasus  is  that  of  Aquarius, 
the  Water  Bearer,  while  to  the  southwest  is 
the  zodiacal  constellation  of  Capricornus,  the 
Sea  Goat.  This  constellation  is  marked  by  a 
very  pretty  naked  eye  double  at  a.  The 
most  consp»3uous  star  in  the  south  is  Fomal- 
haut,  of  the  Southern  Fish.  This  brilliant 
star  can  hardly  be  appreciated  in  northern 
latitudes  because  it  is  not  very  favorably 

C laced  for  observation.    Below  Fomalhaut  is  a 
right  little  group  known  as  Grus,  the  Crane, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


475 


At   it  o'clock:     Nov.     j 
'     10:30  14 

"       JO  "  "  22 


At   9:30   o'clock:    November    30 


NIGHT  SKY:  NOVEMBER  AND  DECEMBER. 


Running  westward  from  the  zenith  stretches 
the  constellation  of  Andromeda,  the  chained 
lady  who  was  rescued  by  Perseus.  In  this 
constellation  may  be  seen  a  faint  nebula  which 
in  a  telescope  is  shown  to  cover  an  enormous 
extent,  a  great  whirl  of  nebulous  material. 
Probably  it  represents  a  star  in  the  making. 
The  great  square  of  Peensus  lies  just  to  the 
south  of  the  zenith.  The  southern  sky  is 
filled  by  the  constellation  9f  Cetus,  the  Whale. 
The  most  interesting  star  in  this  group  is  that 
of  Mira,  which  on  the  average  of  once  in 


eleven  months,  blazes  forth  with  a  brilliance, 
sometimes  exceeding  the  second  magnitude. 
Generally,  however,  it  does  not  exceed  the 
third  magnitude,  while  its  normal  brightness 
is  such  that  it  is  barely  visible  to  the  naked 
eye.  Between  Cetus  and  the  zenith  are  three 
small  constellations,  i.  e.,  Pisces,  the  Fishes, 
Aries,  the  Ram,  and  Triangulus,  the  Triangle. 
In  the  southeast  sky  is  the  wandering  river,  Eri- 
danus,  while  the  eastern  sky  is  filled  with  bril- 
liant winter  constellations  described  in  the 
paragraph  on  the  January  ,and  February  map. 


The  accompanying  map  shows  all  the  stars 
clearly  visible  to  the  naked  eye  within  60 
decrees  of  the  south  pole.  Only  parts  of  this 
region  may  be  seen  from  stations  north  of  the 

Equator  and  even  south  of  the  Equator  the 


THE  SOUTHERN  HEAVENS. 

entire  region  cannot  be  seen  at  one  time, 
except  from  stations  below  the  sixtieth 
latitude.  To  adjust  the  map  so  as  to  show 
just  what  southern  stars  are  in  sight,  from 
any  given  station  at  any  4ay  and  hour, 


476 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


MAP  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  HEAVENS. 


proceed  as  follows:  Add  to  the  time  as  given 
by  the  clock  (if  the  clock  gives  standard  time 
greater  accuracy  may  be  obtained  by  correct- 
ing it  to  give  the  local  time)  the  quantity 
given  in  the  accompanying  table  for  the 
current  month,  and  add  to  this  sum,  four 
minutes  for  each  day  of  the  date.  The  result 
will  be  Sidereal  time. 

h.         m. 

January 18         39 

February 20         41 

March 22         32 

April 0         34 

May.... 2         32 

June 4         34 

July 6         31 

August 8         35 

September 10         37 

October 12         35 

November 14         38 

December 16         36 


Midnight  should  be  counted  as  12  hours, 
1  A.M.  as  13  hours,  and  so  on,  and,  if  the 
sum  exceeds  24  hours,  this  amount  should  be 
subtracted  from  it.  For  example,  for  1:15 
A.M.  on  October  25th,  we  have: 


Clock  time 

From  table,  for  October. 
4  X25=  100  minutes,  or. . 

Sum 

Subtract  24  hours 

Sidereal  time.  . . 


in. 
15 

id 

40 


27         30 

24  0 

3          30 


The  results  of  this  calculation  will  be  correct 
within  four  or  five  minutes  at  the  most,  if  the 
observer's  clock  keeps  local  time.  If  it  keeps 
standard  time,  the  result  should  be  corrected 
by  the  amount  by  which  standard  time  is  fast 
or  slow  of  local  time.  For  our  present  purpose 
this  correction  is  usually  hardly  necessary. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Find  now  the  point  on  the  margin  of  the 
map  corresponding  to  the  sidereal  time. 
Turn  the  map  until  the  corresponding  time  on 
the  margin  is  at  the  top.  Then  lay  a  straight 
edge  across  the  map  so  that  it  passes  above 
the  center  at  a  distance  equal  to  the  ob- 
server's latitude,  (if  north  of  the  Equator). 
As  the  white  circles  on  the  map  are  10  degrees, 


20  degrees,  etc.,  from  the  center  this  can 
be  done  very  easily.  The  part  of  the  map 
above  the  straight  edge  then  represents  the 
southern  sky  as  it  appears  above  the  ob- 
server's horizon.  For  stations  south  of  the 
Equator,  the  straight  edge  should  be  held 
below  the  center  of  the  map,  at  a  distance 
equal  to  the  latitude. 


THE  LARGE  REFRACTORS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


INSTITUTION. 

Aperture 
hi  Inches. 

Focal 
Length  in 
Feet. 

Date  of 
Erection. 

Yerkes  Observatory,  Wisconsin,  USA  

40  0 

62  0 

1897 

Lick  Observatory   California   USA 

36  0 

57  8 

1888 

National  Observatory,  Meudon,  France         

32  5 

53  0 

1891 

Astrophysical  Observatory,  Potsdam   Germany 

31  1 

39  4 

Bischoff  sheim  Observatory,  Nice,  France  

303 

52  6 

1889 

Imperial  Observatory,  Poulkova,  Russia  
National  Observatory*   Paris   France 

30.0 
28  9 

42.0 

1882 

Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  England  

28.0 

28  0 

1894 

Imperial  Observatory,  Vienna,  Austria         .         .    . 

27  0 

34  0 

1894 

26  0 

26  0 

1897 

Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  U.  S.  A  
Leander  McCormick  Observatory,  Virginia,  U.  S.  A  

26.0 
26.0 
95  o 

32.5 
32.5 

1871 
1874 
1868 

National  University,  Meudon,  France  .         

244 

52  2 

1891 

Harvard  College   Cambridge   USA 

24  0 

11  3 

1894 

Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Africa  

24  0 

22  6 

1897 

Lowell  Observatory,  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  U.  S.  A  

24.0 
23  6 

31.0 
59  0 

1895 
1889 

Halstead  Observatory,  Princeton,  U.  S.  A  
City  Observatory,  Edinburgh,  Scotland  

23.0 
22.0 
21  8 

32.0 
30.0 

1881 

Buckingham  Observatory,  England        

21  2 

M   Porro    Private  Observatory   Italy                 

20  5 

20  0 

280 

1891 

Manila  Observatory   Philippines             

20  0 

1892 

19  7 

41  2 

Imperial  Observatory    Stra^sburg,  Germany  

19  1 

23  0 

1880 

19  1 

23  0 

Dearborn  Observatory,  Illinois,  U.  S.  A  
National  Observatory,  La  Plata,  Argentina  
Lowell  Observatory,  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  U.  S.  A  
Flower  Observatory   Philadelphia   USA 

18.5 
18.1 
18.0 
18  0 

27.0 
29.5 
26.3 

1863 
1890 
1894 
1896 

Royal  Observatory,  'Cape  of  Good'  Hope,  Africa  

18.0 

22.6 

1897 

—Knowledge   Diary   and  Scientific   Handbook. 


SHOOTING  A  BULLET  OFF  THE  EARTH. 

When  a  bullet  is  fired  from  a  horizontal  gun,  the  curve  of  the  path  that  it  pursues  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  horizontal  velocity  of  the  bullet  and  gravity.     The  higher  the  horizontal 

, ,         velocity  the  flatter  wfll  be  the  curve  and 

the  further  will  the  bullet  travel  before  it 
strikes  the  earth.  If  the  velocity  of  the 
bullet  were  26,100  feet  per  second  the 
curve  of  its  path  would  be  parallel  to  the 
circumference  of  the  earth.  Accordingly 
the  bullet  would  pass  around  the  earth 
without  touching  it,  and  return  to  its 
starting  point  in  one  hour  and  twenty- 
three  minutes.  It  would  continue  to  re- 
volve about  the  earth  as  long  as  the  velocity  was  maintained.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be 
constantly  attracted  by  the  earth  and  would  be  forever  falling  away  from  a  straight  line 
towards  the  earth  without  ever  reaching  it.  If  the  speed  of  the  bullet  were  37,000  feet  per 
second  it  would  fly  on  never  to  return  to  the  earth. 


478 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


479 


TIME. 


All  calculations  of  time  are  based  on  the 
sun — not  the  real  sun  that  we  see,  but  a 
fictitious  sun  that  keeps  better  time  than  the 
real  sun.  The  time  that  is  indicated  by  a  sun 
dial  is  actual  sun  time  or  Apparent  Solar  Time; 
but  this  is  not  accurate  enough  for  the  civilized 
world  because  the  day  from  noon  to  noon  as 
marked  by  the  real  sun  is  longer  at  certain 
times  of  the  year  than  at  others.  However, 
astronomers  have  constructed  a  fictitious  sun 
that  gives  us  days  of  uniform  length,  and  the 
time  it  marks  off  is  called  Mean  Solar  Time. 
But  this  does  not  fully  solve  the  problem  of 
time.  We  have  still  to  contend  with  the  fact 
that  the  sun  reaches  the  meridian  successively 
later  as  it  progresses  westward,  so  that  noon 
in  Chicago,  for  instance,  will  be  much  later 
than  noon  in  New  York.  In  fact,  noon  on  the 
west  side  of  New  York  would  come  a  few 
seconds  later  than  noon  on  the  cast  side. 
If  each  town  in  the  country  used  local  mean 
solar  time,  or  Local  Time  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  the  utmost  confusion  would  prevail, 
particularly  on  railroads  connecting  the  towns. 
To  avoid  this  confusion  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  establish  certain  zones  in  which 
uniform  time  is  observed.  It  takes  the  sun 
twenty-four  hours  to  circle  the  earth  (to  be 
sure  it  is  the  earth  that  moves,  but  for  con- 
venience we  will  consider  that  the  earth  is 
stationary  and  that  the  sun  is  moving  around 
it).  The  earth  is  divided  into  360  degrees 
of  longitude.  Therefore,  it  takes  the  sun  one 
hour  to  traverse  15  degrees  of  longitude. 
The  United'  States  and  the  majority  of  the 
European  countries  have  established  time 
zones  approximately  15  degrees  wide,  so  that 
the  time  of  one  zone  will  differ  from  the  next 
adjacent  zones  by  an  even  hour.  The  degrees 
of  longitude  are  measured  from  Greenwich, 
and  at  15  degrees  east  of  Greenwich  the 
Standard  Time  used  by  the  surrounding 
country  will  be  just  one  hour  ahead  of  Green- 
wich Time.  Regions  in  the  neighborhood  30 
degrees  east  of  Greenwich  will  use  time  two 
hours  faster  than  the  standard  time  of 
Greenwich.  The  same  is  true  in  the  west- 
ward direction,  except  that  here  the  clocks 
will  be  set  slower  than  Greenwich  Time  in  even 
hours  at  intervals  of  15  degrees. 

Eastern  Time  is  taken  from  the  75th 
meridian,  which  being  five  times  15  degrees 
west  of  Greenwich,  makes  the  time  in  this 
zone  five  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  Time. 
Central  Time  is  taken  from  the  90th  meridian 
and  is  one  hour  slower  than  Eastern  Time  and 
six  hours  slower  than  Greenwich  Time. 
Mountain  Time  is  taken  from  the  105th 
meridian,  and  Pacific  Time  from  the  120th 
meridian.  The  zones  are  somewhat  distorted, 
mainly  to  suit  the  convenience  of  railroads. 

The  movement  which  resulted  in  the  adop- 
tion of  the  present  time  system  may  be  said 
to  have  originated  in  a  report  on  the  subject 
by  the  American  Meteorological  Society 
which  was  submitted  at  a  meeting  of  the 
General  Time  Convention  held  on  October 
13,  1881,  proposing  a  single  standard  for  the 
whole  country  and  suggesting  the  hour  theory 
as  an  alternative  proposition.  The  proposal 
to  fix  one  standard  of  time  for  the  whole 
country  had  much  to  recommend  it  from  a 
scientific  point  of  view.  But  it  was  found  to 
be  impracticable  on  account  of  the  many 


discrepancies  which  would  occur  between 
time  by  the  clock  and  solar  time.  Accord- 
ingly the  hour  system  was  adopted  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Convention  held  in  April, 
1883.  At  noon,  on  November  8,  1883,  time 
signals  were  sent  out  from  Washington  in 
accordance  with  the  new  hour  standard  time. 

In  Europe  each  country  is  small  enough  to 
be  included  in  a  single  zone.  Greenwich  J'ime 
is  used  in  Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain, 
Holland  (railways  and  telegraph),  Portugal, 
and  Spain.  Central  European  Time,  which  is 
one  hour  faster  than  Greenwich  Time,  is  used 
by  Austria-Hungary,  Denmark,  Germany, 
Italy,  Norway,  Servia,  Sweden  and  Switzer- 
land. Eastern  European  Time,  two  hours 
faster  than  Greenwich,  is  used  by  Bulgaria  and 
Egypt,  and,  by  Europeans,  in  Turkey,  the 
native  time  in  the  last-named  country  being 
based  on  sunset,  which  being  the  end  of  the 
Turkish  day,  marks  the  hour  of  12. 

In  Belgium,  France,  Italy  and  Spain  rail- 
road clock  dials  are  divided  into  twenty-four 
hours,  beginning  with  0  at  midnight  and  thus 
doing  away  with  A.  M.  and  P.  M.  In  France 
and  Portugal,  clocks  on  the  exterior  of  railroad 
stations  are  true,  while  those  within  are  set 
five  minutes  slow. 


TWENTY-FOUR  AND    TWELVE  HOUR 
TIME  COMPARED. 

Were  it  possible  for  a  person  to  trovel  west- 
ward around  the  world  as  fast  as  the  sun, 
time  would  to  him  appear  to  be  at  a  standstill. 
If  he  started,  say  at  noon  Monday,  it  would 
always  be  noon  Monday  to  him,  and  ap- 
parently there  would  be  no  change  in  his 
calendar.  Yet  somewhere  along  his  course 
around  the  world  Monday  must  have  ended 
and  Tuesday  must  have  begun.  Were  the 
traveler  proceeding  eastward  he  would  in  12 
hours  meet  and  pass  the  sun  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  earth  and  would  apparently  have 
reached  the  hour  of  noon  Tuesday.  At  the 
end  of  12  hours  more  he  would  meet  the  sun  a 
secpnd  time  and  would  have  to  tear  off  another 
leaf  from  his  calendar  and  call  the  tune  noon, 
Wednesday.  In  other  words,  his  journey 
around  the  globe  would  have  taken  him  two 
days  longer  than  the  man  who  traveled  with 
the  sun  and  made  the  trip  in  no  time.  It  is 
a  fact  that  a  trip  around  the  earth  in  a  west- 


480 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


ward  direction  can  actually  be  made  in  two 
days  less  than  a  trip  in  the  eastward  direction, 
although  the  same  rate  of  speed  is  preserved; 
but  the  days  of  the  east-bound  traveler 
would  be  shorter  than  those  of  the  west-bound 
traveler.  In  both  cases  the  travelers  would 
arrive  with  their  calendars  one  day  wrong; 
but  a  line  has  been  established  running  north 
and  south  at  which  travelers  are  obliged  to 


add  a  day  if  they  cross  it  going  westward  or 
subtract  a  day  if  they  cross  it  traveling  east- 
ward. In  other  words,  the  day  is  supposed  to 
start  and  end  along  this  line,  which  is  called 
the  International  Date  Line.  It  follows  the  i 
180th  meridian  except  for  a  few  digressions,  as 
indicated  in  the  map  on  the  opposite  page, 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  inhabitants  of 
islands  lying  nearby. 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  TIME. 

(To  the  nearest  second.) 


Earlier  ( -  )or  Later  ( +  )  than. 


EJast'n  Stand'd.      Greenwich 


United  States— 
From  Maine  to  South  Carolina 

From  Dakota  and  Michigan  to  Texas  and  Florida . 

From  Montana  to  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 

Pacific  Coast  States  and  Nevada ! 

Sitka,  Alaska.  .1 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Tutuila,  Samoa 

Guam .  . 

Philippine  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

Algeria 

Argentina 

Australia,  western 

Australia,  central 

Australia,  eastern 

Austria-Hungary 

Belgium 

Borneo  (British  North)  and  Labuan . . . 

Brazil  (Rio  Janeiro) 

British  Columbia 

Canada,  eastern 

Canada,  central 

Chile. 


China  (Shanghai) 

China  (Saigon) 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica  ..... 

Cuba 

Denmark 

Ecuador 


Egypt 
Engla 


gland  ................. 

Fiji  Islands  (Suva)  ........ 

France  .................. 

Germany  ................ 

Gibraltar  ................ 

Greece  ................. 

Holland  .................. 

Honduras  ................ 

Hongkong  ............... 

India  (Madras)  ........... 

Ireland  .................. 

Italy  .................... 

Jamaica  (Kingston)  ....... 

Japan  .......  .  ........... 

Java  .................... 

Kiaochau  ................ 

Korea  ................... 

Madagascar  (Tananarive)  . 
Malta*  ................  .. 

Mauritius  ................ 

Mexico  .  .................. 

Newfoundland  (St.  Johns)  , 
New  Zealand  ............. 

Nicaragua  ............... 

Norway  ................. 


h 

0 

_  * 

-2 
-3 

-4 

-6 

+  14 
+  13 


+  5 

+  0 

+  13 

+  14 

+  15 

+  6 

+  5 

+  13 

+  2 

-3 

0 

-1 

+  0 

fli 

+  12 

+  0 

-0 

-0 

+  6 

-0 

+  7 

+  5 

+  16 

+  5 

+  6 

+  5 

+  6 

+  5 

-1 

+  13 

+  10 

+  4 

+  6 

-0 

+  14 

+  12 

+  13 

+  14 

+  8 

+  6 

+  8 

-1 

+  1 

+  16 

-0 

+  6 


0 

8 

so 
sq 
so 

a 

o 

0 

9  21 
43  12 

6  '6 
30 


17  14 

5  43 

6  49 
3  6 

36  17 

29  26 
0  0 

14  7 

0  0 

0  0 

53  44 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

34  53 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

30  00 
34  39 


50  13 

36  27 

29  16 

30  0 
45  10 

0  0 


h 

-5 
-6 

-7 

-8 

-9 

-10 

-11 

+  9 

+  8 

-4 

-5 

+  0 

-4 

+  8 

+  9 

+  10 

+  1 

0 

+  8 
j> 

-5 
+  6 

A 

+  8 
+  7 

-t 
-5 

+  1 

-5 

+  2 

0 

+  11 
+  0 

+  1 

0 

+  1 

0 

-6 
+  8 
+  5 
-0 
+  1 
-5 
+  9 
+  7 
+  8 
+  9 
+  3 
+  1 
+  3 
-6 
-3 
+  11 
-5 
+  1 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


481 


TABLE  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  TIME— Continued. 
(To  the  nearest  second.) 


Earlier  (-)  or  Later  (  +  )  than, 


East'nStand'd.i     Greenwich. 


Nova  Scotia 

Panama  (Colon) 

Peru 

Portugal 

Russia  (Pulkowa) 

Russia  (Irkutsk) 

Russia  (Vladivostok) . 

Salvador 

Servia 

Singapore 

South  Africa  (British). 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Tunis 

Turkey 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


+  1 
-0 
-0 
+  5 
+  7 
+  11 
+  13 
-0 
+  6 
+  11 
+  7 
+  5 
+4 
+  6 
+  5 
+  7 
+  1 
+0 


0  0 

19  39 

9  3 

0  0 

1  19 
57  5 
47  31 
56  32 

0  0 

55  25 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

0  0 

9  21 

0  0 

15  11 

32  16 


-4 

-5 

-5 

0 

+  2       1 
+  6     57 


+2 
0 

+  1 
+  1 
+  0 
+2 
-3 
-4 


0  0 
19  39 
9  3 
0  0 
19 


+  8  47  31 
-5  56  32 
+  10Q 


+  6     55 


0 

(I 

Q 
0 

g 

o 

44 


25 

0 

0 
0 

^o 

S 


27 


MAP  SHOWING  INTERNATIONAL  DATE  LINE 


482 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


483 


CALENDAR    FOR    2OO    YEARS.* 

FROM  THK  INTRODUCTION  OF  MKW  STYLE. 

By  CHARLES  E.  BENHAM. 


OCT. 

WAY 

FEB. 
AUG. 
NOV. 

MAR. 

UNE 

SEP 
DEC. 

JAN. 
APR. 
ULY 

14 

1753 

a 

1754 
3 

1755 

4 

1756» 
13 

17S7 

1758 
1 

1759 
2 

1760* 
10 

1781 

1762 

1783 

1764* 

1765 

1766 

1767 

1768' 

MAY 

FEB. 
AUG. 
NOV. 

MAR. 

UNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

JAN. 
APR. 
JULY 

OCT. 

13 

T 

1770 

a 

1771 

1772* 
11 

1TT3 

1774 
7 

1775 
1 

1,76* 

1777 

1778 

1779 

1780< 

1781 

1792 

1783 

1784' 
12 

FEB. 
AUG. 
NOV. 

MAR. 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

JAN. 
APR. 
ULY 

OCT. 

MAY 

12 

T 

1788 
1 

1787 
3 

lsr 

1789 
5 

1790 
6 

5 

1792« 
8 

1793 
8 

1794 
4 

1795 
5 

1796* 
13 

1797 

1 

T 

1799 

1800 
4 

MAR. 

UNE 

SEP 
DEC. 

JAN. 
APR. 
JULY 

OCT. 

MAY 

FEB. 
AUG. 
NOV. 

1801 

1803 

1803 

Itrt4* 

1805 

laps 

1807 

1808' 
13 

11 

1809 

1810 
i 

1811 

a 

1812* 
11 

1813 
6 

1814 
7 

1815 

1 

1816* 
9 

JDNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

JAN. 
APR. 
JULY 

OCT. 

MAY 

FEB. 
AUG. 

NOV. 

MAR. 

10 

1817 

4 

1818 
6 

1819 
6 

1830* 
14 

1821 

a 

1822 

8 

4 

1824* 
12 

T 

1898 

1827 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832» 
8 

SEP. 
DEC. 

JAN, 
APB. 
JULY 

OCT. 

MAY 

FEB. 
AUG. 
NOV. 

MAR. 

JUNE 

9 

T 

4 

6 

T 

1837 
1 

1838 

» 

1*40' 
11 

1811 

1843 

1843 

1844* 

1845 

1846 

1847 

1848' 
14 

JAN. 
APR. 
JULY 

OCT. 

MAY 

FEB. 
AUG. 
NOV. 

MAR. 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

1849 

1850 

1851 

1853* 

1853 

1864 

1855 

1856' 
10 

1867 

1868 

1859 

1860* 

1861 

1863 

1863 

1864* 
13 

MAY 

AUG. 

FEB. 
MAR. 
NOV. 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

APR. 
JULY 

JAN. 
OCT. 

7 

1965 

1868 

1867 

.1868* 

1869 

1870 

1871 

1872* 

•1873 
4 

1874 

• 

1875 

18T76* 
14 

T 

1878 
8 

1879 

4 

1880* 
12 

AUG. 

FEB. 
MAR. 
NOV. 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

APR. 
JULY 

JAN. 
OCT. 

MAY 

6 

1<B1 

1883 

1883 

1884* 

1886 

1886 

1887 

1888* 

•8 

1890 

« 

1891 
6 

1893* 
18 

1893 

1 

1*4 

1895 

-1896* 
11 

FEB. 
MAR. 

NOV, 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

APR. 
JULY 

JAN. 
OCT. 

MAY 

AUG. 

5 

T 

1898 
7 

1899 

1900 
2 

T 

1903 

4 

1903 
6 

1904* 
13 

."? 

"? 

T 

1908* 
11 

T 

1910 
7 

1911 

1912' 
9 

JUNE 

SEP, 
DEC. 

APR. 
JULY 

JAN. 
OCT. 

MAY 

AUG. 

FEB. 
MAR. 
NOV. 

4 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916* 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920« 
12 

1931 

1923 

1933 

1934* 

1925 

1926 

1927 

1928* 
8 

SEP. 
DEC. 

APR. 
JULY 

JAN. 
OCT. 

MAY 

AUG. 

FEB. 
MAR, 
NOV. 

JUNE 

3 

1939 

1930 
4 

1931 
5 

1932* 
13 

1933 
1 

1934 
2 

1935 
8 

1936* 
11 

T 

1938 
7 

1939 

1 

1940* 

1941 
4 

1942 
5 

1943 
6 

1944» 
14 

APR. 
JULY 

JAN. 

OCT; 

MAY 

AUG. 

FEB. 
MAR. 

NOV. 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC. 

2 

1946 

a 

1946 
8 

1947 

4 

1948* 
13 

T 

1950 
1 

1951 
2 

T 

•  Leap  Year. 
CALENDAR—  1753  to  195*. 

JAN. 
OCT 

MAY 

AUG 

FEB. 
MAR. 
NOV. 

JUNE 

SEP. 
DEC 

APR. 
JULV 

1 

SUN 

M. 

T. 

W. 

THU 

F. 

SAT. 

I      8 

15 

23 

39 

Under  the  year  find  its  number.   Take 
the  month  row  in  ine  with  that  num- 
ber as  the  heading  of  the  Week-table 
below,     The  week-day  for  any  date  ia 
that  year  will  be  found  in  line  with  the 
figure  representing  the  day  of  the  month. 

Ex.*   tin  2)  June  24  =  Sun. 
Aug.  *i  =  Tues. 

t8wt9)Majr3i  =  Fri. 
Feb.'  29  =  Thurs. 

•  Knowledge  and  Scientific  Ncwa. 

M. 

T. 

W. 

THU 

F. 

SAT. 

SUN 

2    9 

16 

23 

30 

T. 

W. 

THU 

F. 

SAT. 

SUN 

M. 

3    1 

17 

94 

81 

W 

THU 

F. 

SAT. 

SUN 

M. 

T. 

t    11 

18 

35 

THU 

F. 

SAT. 

SUN, 

M. 

T. 

W, 

6    13 

19 

36 

P. 

SAT. 

SUN 

M. 

T. 

W. 

THU 

B    13 

20 

27 

SAT. 

SUN. 

.M. 

T. 

W. 

THU 

F. 

1    I 

21 

28 

484 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Hydrogen- 
sphere 


Stratosphere 
Troposphere 


WEGENER'S  "PROFILE  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE." 

The  lowest  dotted  line  (about  7  miles  above  the  ground)  is  "where  the  air  stops  growing 
colder."  It  is  the  upper  limit  of  ordinary  clouds,  of  storms,  and  of  balloon  ascensions  by 
human  beings.  Nearly  all  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  lies  below  this  level.  Above  this 
line  comes  the  second  layer  of  the  atmosphere,  the  stratosphere  (also  called  the  "isothermal 
layer,"  because  a  thermometer  carried  up  through  it  would  show  little  change  of  temperature 
with  change  of  elevation).  This  layer  has  been  penetrated  by  sounding-balloons,  carrying 
meteorological  apparatus  but  no  human  aeronaut,  as  far  as  20  miles  above  the  earth.  At  about 
50  miles — the  upper  limit  of  twilight — begins  a  region  in  which  the  atmosphere  consists  chiefly 
of  hydrogen.  Near  the  lower  border  of  this  region  clouds  of  fine  dust  have  sometimes  been 
observed,  shining  by  reflected  sunlight  on  summer  nights.  These  "noctilucent  clouds"  are  com- 
monly explained  as  the  product  of  volcanic  eruptions  on  the  earth  (they  were  frequently  seen 
after  the  eruption  of  Krakatoa),  but  may  be  of  cosmical  origin. 

Concerning  the  uppermost  regions  of  the  atmosphere  we  have  little  positive  knowledge. 
Above  about  130  miles  from  the  earth,  Dr.  Alfred  Wegener,  the  author  of  this  diagram,  believes 
that  a  gas  ("geocoronium"),  much  lighter  than  hydrogen  prevails,  to  which  he  attributes  the 
characteristic  green  line  in  the  spectrum  of  the  higher  auroras.  This  is  hardly  more  than  a 
guess  at  present. 


CHAPTER  III. 


METEOROLOGY.* 

BY  C.  FITZHUGH  TALMAX. 


COMPOSITION,   PRESSURE     AND     HEIGHT 
OF    THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

Up  to  a  height  of  eight  or  ten  miles 
above  the  earth  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere  is  remarkably  uniform, 
as  to  its  principal  constituents.  Pure 
dry  air  is  a  mixture  (not  a  chemical 
compound)  of  gases  in  the  following 
proportions,  by  volume :  Nitrogen, 
78.0370;  oxygen,  20.99 %  ;  argon, 
0.947c  ;  carbon  dioxide,  0.03%  ;  hydro- 
gen, 0.01%  ;  together  with  minute 
quantities  of  neon,  krypton,  xenon, 
helium,  and  possibly  other  gases.  At 
the  levels  habitable  by  man  the  air 
always  contains  invisible  water  vapor 
(from  a  small  trace  to  about  5%), 
and  usually  small  and  variable 
amounts  of  ozone,  ammonia,  nitric 
acid,  and  other  gases,  which,  on  ac- 
count of  their  irregular  occurrence, 
are  not  classed  among  the  normal 
constituents  of  the  atmosphere.  Lastly, 
the  lower  air  always  contains  solid 
impurities,  in  endless  variety,  gen- 
erically  known  as  dust. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  at  sea- 
level  averages  about  14.7  pounds  to 
the  square  inch,  which  corresponds 
to  a  reading  of  29.92  inches  of  the 
barometer.  The  density  and  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  decrease  rapidly  as  we 
ascend.  At  an  altitude  of  3.6  miles 
above  sea-level  they  are  reduced  one- 
half ;  i.  e.,  half  the  whole  mass  of 
the  atmosphere  lies  below  this  eleva- 
tion ;  yet  the  atmosphere  extends  at 
least  300  miles  above  the  earth.  At 
great  altitudes  the  tenuity  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  comparable  to  that  of  the 
best  ''vacuums"  attainable  in  the 
laboratory. 

THE   UPPER   ATMOSPHERE. 

The  investigation  of  the  upper  at- 
mosphere, which  has  been  prosecuted 
most  actively  since  the  beginning  of 
the  twentieth  century,  constitutes  a 
special  branch  of  research  known  as 


aerology.     It  has  made  meteorology  a 
"science  of  three  dimensions." 

The    atmosphere    is    "sounded"    by 
means    of    meteorological    instruments 
attached   to   kites  and  balloons.     The 
greatest    height    ever    attained    by    a^ 
kite    was    4.51    miles    above    sea-level, 
at  Mount  Weather,  Va.,  May  5,  1910; 
by   a   balloon,   20.14   miles,   at   Uccle, 
Belgium,  June  9, 1911.  Above  the  levels 
attainable  by  these  means,  the  atmos- 
phere is  studied  by  observations  of  the 
aurora,     meteor     trains,     and    optical 
phenomena,  and  by  computation  of  the 
distribution  of  the  atmospheric  gases, 
as  determined  by  their  atomic  weights. 
Since    the    year    1902    it    has    been 
known  that  the  atmosphere  is  divided 
into    at    least    two    layers,    or    shells, 
having   quite   different   properties.      If 
we   could   travel   in   a   balloon   to   the 
top  of  the  atmosphere  we  should  find 
the  air  rapidly  growing  colder  as  we 
ascended,   until,  at  a  height  of  about 
7  miles,  this  fall  in  temperature  sud- 
denly  ceased,   as  we  entered   the   iso- 
thermal   layer,   or    stratosphere.      The 
air  below  this  level — the  troposphere — 
contains   practically   all   the    moisture 
of    the   atmosphere ;    hence   all   clouds 
(except    possibly    dust    clouds   of   vol- 
canic or  cosmical  origin).     All  storms, 
also,  are  confined   to  the  troposphere. 
During  our  ascent  through  the  stra- 
tosphere we  should  find  ourselves  in  a 
region  of  comparatively  gentle  winds 
and     of    uniform     temperature     in    a 
vertical    direction.       We    should    find 
the    atmosphere    gradually    ceasing    to 
be  "air,"  and  becoming  mainly  nitro- 
gen.    Later  we  should  reach  a  region 
in    which    nitrogen    was    replaced    by 
the  lighter  gas  hydrogen. 

Possibly  a  gas  even  lighter  than 
hydrogen  exists  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  if  so  it  must  be  most  abundant  at 
the  highest  levels.  Its  existence  is 
conjectured  on  the  evidence  of  the 
spectrum  of  a  certain  type  of  aurora, 


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486 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


and   it   has  been  named  provisionally 
"geocoronium." 

Wegener's  profile  of  the  atmosphere 
represents  these  facts  graphically.1 

THE     METEOROLOGICAL    ELEMENTS     AND 
INSTRUMENTS. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  is  meas- 
ured with  the  thermometer,  or  con- 
tinuously with  the  thermograph.  Ex- 
tremes of  temperature  are  automatic- 
ally recorded  with  the  maximum  and 
the  minimum  thermometer.  The  tem- 
perature underground  is  measured 
with  the  soil  thermometer. 

The  total  solar  radiation  or  inso- 
lation is  measured  with  the  actino- 
meter  or  the  pyrheliometer.  The  in- 
tensity of  the  shorter  wave-lengths, 
including  the  ultra-violet,  is  measured 
with  several  forms  of  photometer.  The 
distribution  of  energy  throughout  the 
solar  spectrum  is  measured  with 
Langley's  bolometer.  The  duration  of 
sunshine  is  measured  with  the  sun- 
shine-recorder. 

The  pressure  of  the  air  is  measured 
with  the  barometer  (mercurial  or 
aneroid),  or  continuously  with  the 
barograph.  Minute  fluctuations  of 
pressure  are  measured  with  the  stato- 
scope,  the  microbarograph,  the  pres- 
sure-variometer, or  the  variograph. 
Altitude,  as  affecting  barometric  pres- 
sure, is  measured  with  the  hypsometer. 

The  humidity  of  the  air  (relative 
or  absolute)  is  measured  with  the 
hygrometer  or  the  psychrometer;  or 
continuously  with  the  hygrograph. 

The  rainfall  is  measured  with  the 
rain-gage — probably  the  oldest  of 
meteorological  instruments.  Rain- 
gages  were  used  in  India  in  the  4th 
century  B.C.  The  self-recording  rain- 
gage  makes  a  continuous  record  of  the 
amount  of  rainfall ;  the  ombroscope 
of  its  duration  only,  including  the 
lightest  showers.  Snowfall  is  usually 
measured  as  rainfall ;  i.  e.,  the  ob- 
server melts  the  snow  before  measur- 
ing it,  or  else  computes  its  "water 
equivalent."  There  are,  however, 
snow-gages  of  various  forms.  The 
drosometer,  for  measuring  dew,  is  lit- 
tle used. 


1Wegener's  "geocoroniumsphere"  is 
still  a  matter  of  speculation,  but  has  at- 
tained considerable  prominence  in  the 
current  literature  of  meteorology.  His 
"hydrogensphere"  is,  in  current  termi- 
nology, usually  included  in  the  strato- 
sphere. 


Evaporation  is  measured  with  the 
atmometer  (atmidometer,  evapori- 
meter)  ;  continuously  with  the  atmo- 
graph. 

The  direction  of  the  wind  is  ob- 
served with  the  wind-vane,  which  may 
be  arranged  to  make  a  continuous 
record.  The  velocity  or  the  force  of 
the  wind  is  measured  with  the  ane- 
mometer (continuously  with  the  anem- 
ograph) ,  or  estimated  by  the  ob- 
server in  terms  of  a  simple  wind- 
scale.  (See  Beaufort  Scale  at  the  end 
of  the  chapter.)  The  vertical  compo- 
nent of  the  wind  is  measured  with 
the  vertical  anemometer. 

The  state  of  the  weather,  as  clear, 
partly  cloudy,  cloudy,  raining,  foggy, 
etc.,  is  observed  non-instrumentally. 
The  degree  of  cloudiness  is  the  num- 
ber of  tenths  of  the  sky  covered  with 
clouds,  from  0  =  cloudless  to  10  — 
completely  overcast.  Exact  measure- 
ments of  cloudiness  may  be  made  with 
Besson's  nephometer.  The  duration 
of  cloudiness  at  night  is  sometimes 
measured  with  the  pole-star  recorder. 

Clouds  are  observed  as  to  their 
form,  and  as  to  direction  and  speed 
of  movement,  as  measured  with  the 
nephoscope.  Photographic  measure- 
ments of  clouds  are  made  with  the 
photonephograph. 

The  normal  electrical  phenomena  of 
the  atmosphere  include  the  vertical 
potential  gradient,  measured  with  col- 
lectors and  electrometers  (some  self- 
recording)  ;  also  ionization  and  its 
effects,  observed  with  dissipation-ap- 
paratus, conductivity-apparatus,  ion- 
counters,,  etc. 

Lightning  flashes  set  up  Hertzian 
waves  (known  to  wireless  operators 
as  "atmospherics,"  "strays,"  "statics," 
"X's,"  etc.)  and  these  arc  recorded  at 
a  distance  by  the  ceraunograph,  or 
thunderstorm-recorder,  or  audibly  in 
the  ceraunophone. 

Aerological  observations,  now  form- 
ing part  of  the  routine  of  many  ob- 
servatories, have  been  referred  to  in 
the  preceding  section.  The  apparatus 
employed  includes  the  kite  and  the 
kite-reel  (usually  a  power-driven 
winch)  ;  the  captive  'balloon;  the 
pilot-balloon  (sent  aloft  without  at- 
tached instruments,  merely  for  ob- 
serving the  drift  of  the  upper  air, 
and  usually  followed  with  a  theodo- 
lite) ;  the  sounding-balloon  (which 
bursts  at  a  great  altitude,  and  is 
wafted  gently  to  the  ground,  with  its 
attached  instruments,  by  a  parachute 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


487 


or  an  auxiliary  balloon)  ;  the  inflat- 
ing-balance,  for  securing  the  proper 
ascensional  force  of  balloons ;  and 
special  light  forms  of  meteorograph, 
which  are  attached  to  kites  and  bal- 
loons and  continuously  record  the  tem- 
perature, pressure,  humidity,  etc.,  dur- 
ing a  flight. 

Various    accidental    constituents    of 
the  atmosphere  are   measured  at  cer- 


tain observatories;  especially  ozone, 
with  the  ozonometer,  and  dust,  with 
the  dust-counter,  the  koniscope,  or  the 
aeroscope. 

The  periodical  phenomena  of  ani- 
mals and  plants  form  a  most  valuable 
gage  of  weather  and  climate.  Their 
observation  constitutes  a  borderland 
between  meteorology  and  biology, 
known  as  phenology. 


METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     (Pages  488-497.) 

I.     TEMPERATURE  AND  RADIATION. 

I.  Maximum    and    minimum    thermometers.        2.  Thermograph.      .  3.  Thermometer    screen.        4. 
Earth:    thermometer    (section).     5.   "Black    bulb    in    vacuo."     6.  Pyrheliometer    (Marvin).     7.  Ther- 
mometric    sunshine    recorder    (Marvin).     8.  Photographic    sunshine    recorder    (Jordan).     9.  Burning- 
glass    sunshine    recorder    (Campbell-Stokes).     10.  Terrestrial    radiation    thermometer. 

II.     ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE. 

II.  Mercurial    barometer   (Fortin   type).     12.  Aneroid   barometer.     13.  Statoscope.     14.  Barograph. 
15.  Microbarograph    (Shaw-Dines).     16.  Pressure-variometer    (Bestelmeyer). 

Nos.  13  and  16  are  for  aeronautical   use. 

III.     HUMIDITY. 

17.  Aspiration  psychrometer  (Assmann).  18.  Hair  hygrometer.  19.  Psychrometer.  20.  Poly- 
meter  (Lambrecht).  21.  Whirl  psychrometer. 

IV.     PRECIPITATION. 

22.  Tipping-bucket  rain-gage.  23.  Tube,  density  bucket,  and  scale  for  weighing  samples  of 
snow  (Marvin).  24.  Rain-gage  and  measuring-glass  (Snowdon  pattern).  25.  Details  of  standard 
rain-gage  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau).  26.  Vertical  snow  scale  (Marvin). 

V.     EVAPORATION. 

27.  Evaporation-pan  and  still-well  (Marvin).  28.  Evaporimeter  (Piche).  29.  Porous  cup  atmo- 
meter  (Livingston).  30.  Balance-evaporimeter  (Wild).  31.  Atmograph  (Houdaille). 

VI.     WIND. 

32  and  33.  Pressure-tube  anemometer  (Dines).  34.  Arrow  wind-vane,  Robinson  anemometer, 
and  support  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  patterns).  35.  (To  the  left)  Land's  pressure-anemometer. 
(To  the  right)  Windmill  vane  of  the  anemocinemograph  (Richard).  36.  Pressure-plate  anemometer 
(Fuess).  37.  Pendulum  anemometer.  38.  Recording  dial  of  No.  36.  39.  Photographic  vertical 
anemometer  (Ludewig).  40.  Vertical  anemometer  (Wiechert). 

Nos.    39  and  40  are   chiefly  of  aeronautical   use. 

VII.     CLOUDS. 

41.  Reflecting  nephoscope  (Fineman).  42.  Nephometer  (Besson).  43.  Direct-vision  nephoscope 
(Besson).  44.  Reflecting  nephoscope  (Marvin). 

VIII .     ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICTT. 

45.  Self-registering  electrometer  (Benndorf).  46.  Dissipation  apparatus  (Elster  &  Geitel). 
47.  Conductivity  apparatus  (Gerdien).  48.  Ceraunograph,  or  thunderstorm  recorder,  combined 
with  a  barograph  (Turpain). 

IX.     AEROLOGY. 

49-52.  Meteorographs  for  kites  and  balloons  (49,  German;  50,  U.  S. ;  51,  French;  52,  English). 
53.  Balloon  theodolite.  54.  Inflating  balance.  55.  Meteorological  kite. 

X.     MISCELLANEOUS. 

56.  Meteorograph,  or  electrical  recording  apparatus  for  wind-vane,  anemometer,  rain-gage, 
and  sunshine  recorder  (U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  pattern).  57.  Dust-counter  (Aitken).  58.  Aeroscope 
(Miquel). 


The  foregoing  list  of  the  meteoro- 
logical elements  and  instruments  is  by 
no  means  exhaustive. 

SEATING   AND   COOLING   OF   THE   ATMO- 
SPHERE. 

The  amount  of  heat  received  by 
the  atmosphere  from  the  moon,  the 
planets  and  the  stars  is  infinitesimal. 


and  these  bodies  have  no  influence 
whatever  on  terrestrial  weather  and 
climate.  The  atmosphere  is  very 
slightly  warmed  by  the  internal  heat 
of  the  earth ;  its  mean  temperature 
is  probably  raised  less  than  three- 
tenths  of  a  degree  Fahrenheit  by  this 
agency — a  negligible  amount. 


488  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


489 


15 


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METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     II.     ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE. 


490 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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METEOROLOGICAL   INSTRUMENTS.     III.     HUMIDITY. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


491 


y 


26 


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METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     IV.     PRECIPITATION. 


492 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


28 


A 


Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     V.     EVAPORATION. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


493 


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METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     VI.     WIND. 


494 


{SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


I         I 


EYE-LEVEL 


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METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     VII.     CLOUDS. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


495 


Copyright   1912,    by   Munn   &   Co..    Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     VIII.     ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 


496 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,   1912,   by  Munn   &   Co.,   Inc. 

METEOROLOGICAL  INSTRUMENTS.     IX.     AEROLOGY. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


497 


56 


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METEOROLOGICAL   INSTRUMENTS.     X.    MISCELLANEOUS. 


498 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


KITE  FLYING  FROM  A  MOVING  BOAT 
ON  LAKE  CONSTANCE. 

The  sun  is  the  one  great  source 
from  which  the  atmosphere  is  heated. 
At  its  outer  limit  the  atmosphere  re- 
ceives vertically  from  the  sun,  on  an 
average,  1.92  calories  of  heat  per 
square  centimeter  per  minute  (Abbot, 
Proc.  Amer.  Phil.  Soc.,  1911).  This 
datum  is  known  as  the  solar  constant 
— a  misnomer,  as  the  actual  amount 
fluctuates  by  several  per  cent ;  i.  e., 
the  sun  is  not  actually  a  constant 
source  of  heat. 

The  atmosphere  is  mainly  heated 
from  below,  although  the  heat  origin- 
ally comes  from  above.  This  paradox 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  but  a 
small  part  of  the  solar  heat  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  atmosphere  when  pass- 
ing through  it  on  its  way  to  the  earth. 
Several  processes  are  involved  in  the 
disposal  of  solar  heat  (more  accurate- 
ly, radiation)  by  the  earth  and  its  at- 
mosphere, and  different  wave-lengths 
undergo  different  effects.  This  com- 
plex subject,  involving  the  study  of 
solar  radiation  with  the  aid  of  the 
pyrheliometer,  bolometer,  photometer, 
polarimeter,  etc.,  forms  a  border 
science  between  meteorology  and  solar 
physics,  with  important  applications 
to  biology.  It  is  engaging  the  atten- 
tion of  a  numerous  body  of  investiga- 
tors, but  has  not  yet  received  a  dis- 
tinct name. 

For  the  present  purpose  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  earth,  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays,  imparts  its  heat  by  con- 
duction to  a  shallow  layer  of  air  im- 
mediately above  it.  Conversely,  por- 
tions of  the  earth's  surface  withdrawn 
from  the  sun's  rays  lose  their  heat  by 
radiation  into  space,  and  the  air  ad- 
jacent to  them  is  cooled  by  conduction. 


Inequalities  of  temperature  plus  the 
force  of  gravity  set  up  air  currents, 
which  distribute  heat  through  the  at- 
mosphere. The  latter  process  is  called 
convection.  As  between  a  land  sur- 
face and  a  water  surface,  the  former 
undergoes  much  wider  fluctuations  of 
temperature  from  day  to  night,  and 
from  summer  to  winter,  causing  cor- 
respondingly wider  fluctuations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  overlying  atmo- 
sphere. Hence  a  continental  climate 
is  much  less  equable  than  a  marine 
climate.  Lastly,  rising  and  falling 
air-masses  are  adiabatically  cooled 
and  heated,  respectively,  at  the  rate 
of  1.6°  Fahrenheit  per  300  feet  of 
vertical  motion.  (The  cooling  process 
is  less  rapid  than  this  when  con- 
densation of  moisture  is  in  progress.) 

DISTBIBUTION   OF   TEMPEBATUBE. 

The  earth  revolves  around  the  sun, 
and  its  axis,  which  always  remains 
parallel  to  itself,  is  inclined  to  the 
plane  of  its  orbit.  These  facts  explain 
the  march  of  the  seasons  and  their  op- 
position in  the  two  hemispheres.  The 
amount  of  heat  (insolation)  received 
at  any  place  at  a  given  moment  de- 
pends chiefly  upon  the  altitude  of  the 
sun.  The  aggregate  amount  received  at 
any  period  of  the  year  depends  also 
upon  the  length  of  the  day,  which 
varies  with  latitude,  except  at  the 
equinoxes.  At  the  summer  solstice,  the 
north  pole,  where  the  day  is  then  24 
hours  long,  actually  receives  a  greater 
daily  amount  of  insolation  than  any 
other  part  of  the  globe;  but  this  is  in- 
effective in  raising  the  temperature 
on  account  of  the  long  oblique  path  of 
the  solar  rays  through  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  large  amount  of  snow  and  ice 
that  must  be  melted  before  the  over- 
lying air  can  be  warmed.  At  the  win- 
ter solstice  a  still  greater  amount  of 
insolation  is  received  at  the  south 
pole,  as  the  earth  is  then  in  perihelion. 

If  the  earth  had  a  smooth  homoge- 
neous surface  and  no  atmosphere  the 
horizontal  distribution  of  temperature 
at  any  time  would  depend  entirely 
upon  latitude.  The  theoretical  climate 
resulting  from  such  conditions  is  called 
solar  climate.  Actually,  however,  this 
simple  distribution  is  profoundly  modi- 
fied by  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  air 
through  which  the  sun's  rays  pass  (de- 
pending upon  the  sun's  altitude),  the 
different  thermal  properties  of  land  and 
water,  the  presence  or  absence  of  snow 
and  ice,  the  configuration  of  the  earth's 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


499 


ANNUAL  ISOTHERMS  OF  THE  GLOBE  (BUCHAN.) 


surface,  the  prevailing  winds,  the  dis- 
tribution of  water  vapor,  etc. 

How  widely  the  actual  distribution 
of  temperature  differs  from  that  of 
the  solar  climate  may  be  seen  from 
an  annual  isothermal  chart  of  the 
globe.  An  isotherm  is  a  line  on  such 
a  chart  drawn  through  places  hav- 
ing the  same  temperature.  The  first 
isotherms  of  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature of  the  whole  world  were 
drawn  by  Humboldt  in  1817,  and  in- 
troduced into  meteorology  the  valu- 
able idea  of  the  isogram — i.  e., 
a  line  on  a  chart  connecting  places 
at  which  equality  of  some  phys- 
ical condition  exists.  An  isogram  of 
barometric  pressure  is  called  an  iso- 
bar; of  rainfall,  an  isohyet;  of  cloud- 
iness, an  isoneph;  of  duration  of  sun- 
shine, an  isohel;  etc.  Upwards  of 
eighty  meteorological  isograms  have  I 
been  given  special  names.2 

The  lowest  temperatures  on  the 
earth  occur  in  winter  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Siberia,  the  somewhat 
indefinite  center  of  greatest  cold  being 
known  as  the  "cold  pole."  At  Ver- 
khoyansk, in  this  region,  a  temperature 
of  90.4°  below  zero  Fahrenheit  was 
recorded  on  Jan.  15,  1885— the  lowest 
ever  reported  at  a  regular  meteorolog- 

*See  "The  Meteorological  Isograms," 
Scientific  American  Supplement,  Nov.  12, 
1910. 


ical  station.  The  highest  tempera- 
tures occur  in  the  deserts  of  both  the 
temperate  and  the  torrid  zones.  At 
Wargla  (French  Ouargla) ,  in  the  Al- 
gerian Sahara,  a  temperature  of 
127.4°  Fahrenheit  was  recorded  on 
July  17,  1879.  Much  higher  temper- 
atures have  been  reported — as  high  as 
167°  in  the  desert  of  Gobi — but  the 
records  in  these  cases  are  not  entirely 
trustworthy.  Of  course  these  are  all 
shade  temperatures. 

In  the  upper  atmosphere  the  lowest 
temperatures  occur  at  great  heights 
over  the  equatorial  regions,  where  the 
troposphere  is  thicker  than  in  higher 
latitudes,  and  hence  the  ordinary  fall 
of  temperature  with  ascent  proceeds  to 
a  greater  height  before  the  isothermal 
layer  is  reached.  The  lowest  tem- 
perature ever  registered  by  a  sound- 
ing-balloon was  119°  below  zero 
Fahrenheit,  over  Victoria  Nyanza,  in 
the  heart  of  Africa. 

GENERAL    CIRCULATION    OF   THE   ATMOS- 
PHERE. 

f  In  the  equatorial  regions  the  surface 
air  is  heated  more  than  elsewhere,  and 
tends  to  rise  and  overflow  at  high 
levels,  toward  the  poles ;  while  the 
relatively  cold  air  of  the  polar  regions 
tends  to  flow  equatorward,  near  the 
earth's  surface,  to  replace  it.  A  simple 
circulation  between  the  equator  and 


500 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


the  poles  could,  however,  only  occur 
if  the  earth  did  not  rotate  on  its  axis. 

The  deflective  force  of  the  earth's  ro- 
tation causes  a  particle  of  air  mov- 
ing in  any  direction  over  the  earth's 
surface  to  deviate  to  the  right  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  to  the  left  in 
the  southern. 

At  about  latitude  30°  the  winds 
coming  from  the  equator  have  been  so 
much  deflected  that  they  move  almost 
due  eastwardly.  The  result  is  a  great 
whirl  around  the  pole,  occupying  most 
of  the  temperate  zone  in  each  hemis- 
phere, with  prevailing  winds  from 
west  to  east  at  all  levels.  The  centrif- 
ugal force  of  this  whirl  causes  the 
air  to  bank  up  at  about  latitude  30° , 
producing  a  belt  of  high  pressure  in 
that  region,  which  is  known  as  the 
horse  latitudes.  Between  this  belt 
and  the  equator  there  -is  a  regular  cir- 
culation of  air  equatorward  below  (the 
trade  winds)  and  poleward  above  (the 
antitrades)  ;  both  systems  being  given 
an  oblique  direction  by  the  earth's  ro- 
tation. Near  the  equator,  between  the 
two  trade  wind  systems,  is  a  region  of 
calms  or  variable  winds,  with  abund- 
ant clouds  and  rains,  known  as  the 
doldrums.  Trades  and  doldrums  shift 
north  and  south  in  the  course  of  the 
year,  following  the  sun,  and  give  to 
regions  which  come  alternately  under 
their  control  successive  dry  and  rainy 
seasons. 

The  prevailing  westerly  winds  of 
middle  latitudes  are  stronger  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  where  they  blow 
mainly  over  the  ocean  and  are  little 
impeded  by  friction,  than  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere ;  hence  the  violence  of 
the  winds  known  to  mariners  as  the 
"brave  west  winds"  in  the  region 
called  the  "roaring  forties"  (about 
40°  south  latitude). 

Within  the  polar  circles  the  low 
temperatures  increase  the  density  of 
the  air,  which  flows  radially  away 
from  the  poles  near  the  earth's  sur- 
face ;  an  effect  that  appears  to  be  re- 
enforced  by  the  drainage  of  air  down 
the  glacier  slopes  of  the  two  polar 
continents  (Greenland  and  Antarc- 
tica). ' 

From  north  to  south  the  main  winfi 
systems  of  the  globe  run  in  the  fol- 
lowing sequence : 

1.  Arctic      calms      and      outflowing 
winds-,     deflected     westwardly      (with 
poleward  winds  overhead). 

2.  Westerly      (i.      e.,     eastwardly) 
winds  of  middle  latitudes. 


3.  Horse  latitudes   ("calms  of  Can- 
cer"). 

4.  Northeast     trade     winds      (with 
southwest  antitrades  overhead). 

5.  Doldrums     or     equatorial     calms 
(with  east  winds  overhead). 

6.  Southeast     trade     winds      (with 
northwest  antitrades  overhead). 

7.  Horse  latitudes   ("calms  of  Cap- 
ricorn"). 

8.  Westerly      (i.     e.,     eastwardly) 
winds  of  middle  latitudes. 

9.  Antarctic    calms    and    outflowing 
winds,     deflected     westwardly      (with 
poleward  winds  overhead). 

These  prevailing  wind  systems  are, 
however,  greatly  disturbed  by  the  peri- 
odic winds  due  to  the  different  ther- 
mal effects  of  land  and  water  sur- 
faces ;  by  the  surface  configuration  of 
the  land;  and,  in  middle  latitudes,  by 
the  continual  passage  of  cyclonic  and 
anticyclonic  areas. 

PERIODIC   WINDS. 

Comparing  day  and  night,  summer 
and  winter,  the  land  is  alternately 
warmer  and  colder  than  the  ocean. 
Hence  there  is  an  annual  seesaw  of 
the  winds  on  a  vast  scale  between  land 
and  sea  (the  monsoons),  and  a  daily 
seesaw  on  a  smaller  scale  between 
coasts  and  the  adjacent  waters  (land 
and  sea  breezes;  land  and  lake 
breezes ) . 

Another  class  of  alternating  winds 
occurs  in  valleys,  where  warm  air 
flows  up  the  slopes  by  day,  and  cold 
air  drains  downward  by  night  (moun- 
tain and  valley  breezes).  This  phe- 
nomenon has  always  strongly  im- 
pressed the  popular  imagination  ;  and 
scores  of  winds  of  this  class  have  been 
given  individual  local  names.  Such 
are  the  pontias,  vesine  and  solore  of 
the  French  Alps ;  the  joran  of  Lake 
Geneva ;  the  brcva  and  the  tivano  of 
Lake  Como,  etc. 

CYCLONES    AND    RELATED    PHENOMENA. 

A  cyclone,  barometric  depression,  or 
low  is  a  system  of  winds  blowing 
around  a  center  of  low  barometric 
pressure.  Near  the  earth's  surface  the 
wind  is  drawn  spirally  inward  toward 
the  center  of  the  system,  the  direction 
of  rotation  being  always  counterclock- 
wise in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
clockwise  in  the  southern.  Hence  we 
have  Buys  Ballot's  law:  Stand  with 
your  back  to  the  wind  and  the  barom- 
eter will  be  lowest  on  your  left  hand 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  on 
your  right  hand  in  the  southern.  The 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


501 


air  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  sys- 
tem rises  and  tends  to  flow  spirally 
outward,  though  its  actual  direction  is 
much  modified  by  the  prevailing  drift 
of  the  atmosphere  (west-east  in  mid- 
dle latitudes).  Besides  its  rotary  mo- 
tion, the  cyclone  as  a  whole  has  usually 
a  more  or  less  rapid  translatory  mo- 
tion. The  two  motions  may  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  earth,  which 
rotates  on  its  axis  and  at  the  same 
time  revolves  in  its  orbit  around  the 
sun. 

Extra-tropical  cyclones,  which  are 
responsible  for  the  very  changeable 
weather  of  the  temperate  zones,  cover 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  square  miles 
and  have  a  translatory  movement  aver- 
aging 600  or  700  miles  a  day,  usually 
in  an  eastwardly  direction.  They  ap- 
pear to  be  carried  around  the  globe 
in  the  general  circumpolar  whirl  de- 
scribed above.  They  are  typically 
accompanied  by  cloudy  weather,  with 
rain  or  snow  and  rising  temperature 
on  'their  east  and  equatorward  sides : 
and  by  clearing  weather,  with  falling 
temperature,  on  their  west  and  pole- 
ward sides. 

The  term  anticyclone,  or  high,  is 
somewhat  loosely  applied  to  any  region 
of  high  barometric  pressure.  The  typ- 
ical anticyclone  has  a  system  of  winds 
just  the  reverse  of  that  found  in  the 
cyclone,  outflowing  below  and  inflow- 
ing above ;  and  such  a  system  is  com- 
monly assumed  to  be  characterized  by 
clear,  cool  and  settled  weather.  In 
fact,  however,  all  kinds  of  weather 
occur  in  anticyclones,  which  appear  to 
be  essentially  somewhat  inert  masses 
of  air  which  are  not  partaking  of  the 
circulation  going  on  around  them. 

The  tropical  cyclone  (hurricane  of 
the  West  Indies ;  typhoon  of  the 
China  Sea  :  bagnio  of  the  Philippines), 
is  a  relatively  violent  whirl,  which 
originates  in  the  stagnant  air  of  the 
doldrums,  and  usually  moves  in  an 
oblique  and  curved  path  toward  higher 
latitudes,  sometimes  passing  into  the 
temperate  zone  and  becoming  an  ex- 
tratropical  cyclone.  These  disturb- 
ances (which  are  always  "storms," 
while  extra  tropical  cyclones  frequent- 
ly are  not)  are  confined  to  certain 
relatively  small  regions  of  the  globe, 
and  to  certain  seasons.  West  India 
hurricanes  are  most  common  from 
July  to  October  (the  "hurricane  sea- 
son"). They  frequently  cause  fright- 
ful devastation  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the 
southeastern  coasts  of  the  United 


States  (as  at  Galveston,  Sept.  8,  1900, 
when  6,000  lives  and  $30,000,000  in 
property  were  destroyed).  The 
amount  of  shipping  exposed  to  these 
storms  will  be  much  increased  with 
the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
Their  movements  are  now  closely 
watched  by  the  C.  S.  Weather  Bu- 
reau, which  maintains  observing  sta- 
tions in  the  West  Indies  during  the 
hurricane  season,  and  receives  regular 
wireless  weather  reports  from  vessels 
plying  in  that  region. 

The  spout  is  a  vortex  in  the  atmos- 
phere, usually  not  over  a  few  hundred 
feet  in  diameter,  which  begins  in  the 
upper  air  and  is  propagated  down- 
ward. Its  position  is  marked  by  a 
funnel-shaped  cloud.  Spouts  are  dis- 
tinguished, according  to  their  place  of 
occurrence,  as  landspouts  and  water- 
spouts, and  the  more  violent  land- 
spouts  are  called  tornadoes.  The  tor- 
nado is  popularly  miscalled  a  "cy- 
clone." These  disturbances  appear  to 
be  secondary  phenomena  of  the  true 
cyclone,  and  (in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere) occur  chiefly  in  a  region  south- 
east of  the  cyclone  center. 

Thunderstorms  are  sometimes  scat- 
tered phenomena,  of  local  origin,  and 
sometimes  occur  in  a  long  line  extend- 
ing radially  from  center  to  border  of 
a  cyclone.  In  the  latter  case  they  con- 
stitute a  line-squall.  Their  winds  tend 
to  rotate  about  a  horizontal  axis. 
Their  electrical  phenomena  are  proba- 
bly the  result,  not  the  cause,  of  the 
atmospheric  movements. 

A  wind  blowing  from  a  warm  re- 
gion toward  a  cyclonic  center  is  called 
a  sirocco,  and  its  attendant  weather 
is  often  called,  in  the  United  States, 
a  warm  wave.  Winds  blowing  in  win- 
ter from  a  cold  region  toward  such  a 
center  bring  us  cold  leaves,  or  bliz- 
zards (the  latter  term  implying  the 
presence  of  driving  snow  as  well  as  a 
low  temperature). 

A  wind  of  cyclonic  origin  blowing 
down  a  mountain  slope  constitutes  a 
faV.icind.  Such  a  wind,  dried  by  the 
precipitation  of  its  moisture  on  the 
windward  slope,  and  further  dried  and 
heated  by  compression  in  its  descent, 
is  called  a  foehu  (chinook  in  the  north- 
western United  States)  ;  its  effects 
are  most  striking  in  winter,  when  it 
sometimes  raises  the  temperature  on 
the  lee  side  of  the  mountains  30°  or 
40°  in  a  few  minutes,  causing  the 
snow  to  disappear  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  The  bora  of  the  Adriatic 
and  the  mistral  of  the  French  Riviera 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


differ  from  the  foehn  in  the  fact  that 
they  blow  from  a  cold  mountainous 
interior  to  a  warm  coastland,  and 
therefore,  though  heated  in  their  de- 
scent, produce  the  impression  of  a  cold 
wind. 

MOISTURE     IN     THE     ATMOSPHERE. 

For  any  temperature  of  the  air 
there  is  a  maximum  amount  of  mois- 
ture that  can  be  present  in  an  invis- 
ible form  (water  vapor)  ;  when  the 
air  is  charged  to  the  limit  it  is  said 
to  be  "saturated."  Absolute  humidity 
is  the  weight  of  water  vapor  present, 
per  unit  volume,  or  the  tension  of  this 
vapor ;  relative  humidity,  the  ratio  of 
the  amount  present  to  the  amount 
necessary  for  saturation,  expressed  in 
percentage.  Cooling  of  saturated  air 
causes  condensation,  in  the  form  of 
cloud,  fog,  mist,  rain,  snow,  hail,  dew, 
or  hoarfrost.  The  temperature  at 
which  condensation  occurs  is  called 
the  dew-point. 

The  cooling  of  the  air  leading  to 
the  formation  of  clouds  occurs  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  One  of  the  most 
common  is  the  adiabatic  cooling  of  a 


THE      INTERNATIONAL     CLASSIFICATION 
OF    CLOUDS. 

[Nearly  all  classifications  of  clouds  arc 
based  upon  that  of  Luke  Howard,  pub- 
lished in  1803.  Howard  defined  seven 
types  of  cloud,  which  he  named  cirrus, 
cumulus,  stratus,  cirro-cumulus,  cirro- 
stratus,  cumulo-stratus,  and  cumulo-cirro- 
stratus  or  nimbus. 

A  score  or  more  of  other  classifica- 
tions, some  of  them  very  elaborate,  have 
since  been  introduced ;  but  the  Inter- 
national Classification,  illustrated  here- 
with, is  the  only  one  now  in  general 
use. 

The  photographs  numbered  3,  2,  5, 
8  and  9  are  from  Loisel's  "Atlas  photo- 
graphique  des  Nuages"  ;  all  the  others 
are  by  Commander  D.  Wilson-Darker, 
R.N.R. 


A  cloud  at  the  earth's  surface  con- 
stitutes mist  or  fog  (nearly  synony- 
mous terms,  the  latter  being  usually 
preferable  for  technical  use).  Haze 
is  a  turbid  state  of  the  atmosphere ; 
sometimes  purely  optical,  sometimes 
mechanical.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 


1.  Cirrus — Detached  clouds  of  delicate  or  fibrous  appearance  often  showing  a 
featherlike  structure,  generally  of  a  white  color.  Occasionally  cirrus  clouds  are 
arranged  in  parallel  belts  which  cross  a  portion  of  the  sky  in  great  circles,  and  by 
an  effect  of  perspective  appear  to  converge  towards  a  point  on  the  horizon,  or  if 
sufficiently  extended  towards  the  opposite  point  also.  (Cirro-stratus  and  Cirro- 
cumulus  are  also  sometimes  arranged  in  similar  bands.) 


body  of  air  rising  and  expanding  under 
diminished  pressure.  The  upper 
douds,  cirrus,  cirro-stratus,  cirro- 
cumulus,  consist  of  ice  crystals ; 
all  others  of  water  drops,  though 
the  latter  often  occur  when  the  tem- 
perature is  far  below  the  freezing 
point,  the  water  being  "supercooled." 


often  due  to  the  presence  of  dust  and 
smoke,  rather  than  moisture,  and  is 
then  called  dry  fog  or  dust  haze. 

Moisture  deposited  from  the  atmos- 
phere upon  the  earth  is  called  precip- 
itation. In  the  cold  season  this  usual- 
ly takes  the  form  of  snow;  i.  e.,  tiny 
ice  crystals,  in  a  great  variety  of 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


503 


2.  Cirro-Stratus. — A  thin  whitish  sheet  of  cloud,  sometimes  covering  the  sky 
completely  and  giving  it  a  milky  appearance  (it  is  then  called  cirro-nebula),  at 
other  times  presenting  more  or  less  distinctly  a  formation  like  a  tangled  web. 
This  sheet  often  produces  halos  around  the  sun  or  moon. 


3.     Cirro-Cumulus  (Mackerel  Sky). — Small  globular  masses  or  white  flakes  without 
shadows,  or  showing  very  slight  shadows,  arranged  in  groups  and  often  in  lines. 


shapes ;  in  the  warm  season,  of  rain. 
Hail,  properly  so  called,  falls  chiefly 
i-n  summer  thundershowers.  It  con- 
sists of  ice  and  compact  snow,  often 
in  concentric  layers.  The  destruction 
wrought  by  hail  throughout  the  world 
averages  at  least  $200,000,000  a  year. 
Many  expedients  have  been  tried  to 
avert  hailstorms ;  e.  g.,  the  discharge 
of  cannon,  bombs,  and  rockets  at  the 
clouds,  and  the  erection  of  paragreles, 
or  "hail  rods"  (essentially  lightning 
rods)  ;  but  the  resulting  benefits  are 
entirely  illusory.  The  term  soft  hail 


is    applied    to    little    pellets    of    snow 
that    fall    in    spring ;    winter   hail,    or 
sleet,   to  pellets  of  clear  ice  that  fall 
i    in  winter. 

Fog  drifting  against  terrestrial  ob- 

j   jects  in  cold  weather  leaves  a  rough 

deposit  of  ice  known  as  rime.     Rain, 

I   in  cold  weather,  may  coat  such  objects 

|   with  a  smooth  sheet  of  ice,  known  as 

j   glazed  frost.     Sometimes  this  deposit 

is    so    heavy    as    to    break    down    the 

branches    of    trees,    telegraph    wires, 

etc.,    constituting   an   ice   storm. 

Moisture    condensed    directly    upon 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


4.  Alto-Stratus. —A  thick  sheet  of  a  grey  or  bluish  color,  sometimes  forming  a. 
compact  mass  of  dark  grey  color  and  flhrous  structure.  At  other  times  the  sheet 
is  thin,  resembling  thick  cirro-stratus,  and  through  it  the  sun  or  the  moon  may  be 
seen  dimly  gleaming  as  through  ground  glass.  (In  this  picture  patches  of  cumulus 
are  seen  in  the  foreground.) 


5.  Alto-Cumulus. — Largish  globular  masses,  white  or  greyish,  partially  shaded, 
arranged  in  groups  or  lines,  and  often  so  closely  packed  that  their  edges  appear 
confused. 


objects  that  have  been  cooled  by  noc- 
turnal radiation  is  called  deiv  when 
liquid,  hoarfrost  when  frozen. 

Rainfall,  as  an  element  of  climate, 
includes  all  forms  of  aqueous  precipi- 
tation (the  frozen  forms  being  ex- 
pressed in  their  water  equivalent). 
Measurements  of  rainfall  refer  to  the 
depth  of  water  that  would  lie  upon 
the  ground  if  none  of  it  ran  off,  soaked 
in,  or  evaporated.  Annual  rainfalls 
may  be  classified,  especially  with  ref- 
erence to  agriculture,  as  excessive 


when  over  75  inches ;  copious,  50-75 
inches ;  moderate,  25-50  inches ;  light, 
10-25  inches ;  desert,  under  10  inches. 
The  heaviest  rainfall  occurs  within 
or  near  the  tropics.  The  rainiest  me- 
teorological station  in  the  world  is 
Cherrapunji,  India,  with  an  annual 
mean  of  457.80  inches.  Remarkable 
showers  include  one  of  101.84  inches 
in  four  days,  June  12-15.  1876,  at 
Cherrapunji ;  and  one  of  135  inches  in 
eight  days  in  November,  1909.  at  Sil- 
ver Hill,  Jamaica  (of  this  amount 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


505 


6.  Strato-Cumulus. — Large  globular  masses  or  rolls  of  dark  clouds,  frequently 
covering  the  whole  sky.  especially  in  winter.  Generally  it  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  grey  layer  irregularly  broken  up  into  masses  of  which  the  edge  is  often  formed 
of  smaller  masses,  often  of  wavy  appearance.  Sometimes  this  cloud  form  presents 
the  characteristic  appearance  of  great  rolls  arranged  in  parallel  lines  and  pressed 
close  up  to  one  another  (roll-cumulus). 


7.  Mmbus. — A  thick  layer  of  dark  clouds,  without  shape  and  with  ragged 
<>dges  from  which  steady  rain  or  snow  usually  falls.  Through  the  openings  in  these 
clouds  an  upper  layer  of  cirro-stratus  or  alto-stratus  may  be  seen  almost  invariably. 
If  a  layer  of  nimbus  separates  up  in  a  strong  wind  into  shreds,  or  if  small  loose 
clouds  are  visible  floating  underneath  a  large  nimbus,  they  may  be  described  as 
fracto-nimbus  ("scud,"  of  sailors). 


114.50  inches  fell  in  five  days).  The 
heaviest  mean  annual  rainfall  in  the 
United  States  (not  including  Alaska) 
is  about  136  inches  in  Tillamook 
County,  Oregon. 

No  part  of  the  world  is  absolutely 
rainless,  though  there  are  parts  of 
the  Sahara  and  other  deserts  in  which 
whole  years  go  by  without  a  drop  of 
rain. 


ATMOSPHERIC  ELECTRICITY. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  has  nor- 
mally a  charge  of  negative  electricity ; 
hence,  with  respect  to  the  earth,  any 
point  in  the  atmosphere  has  normally 
a  positive  potential.  The  potential 
gradient  of  the  atmosphere  at  any  time 
and  place  is  the  difference  of  potential 
per  meter  of  vertical  distance.  It  is 
subject  to  a  simple  yearly  and  a  less 


506 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


8.  Cumulus  (Wool-pack  Cloud). — Thick  cloud  of  which  the  upper  surface  is 
dome-shaped  and  exhibits  protuberances  while  the  base  is  horizontal.  These  clouds 
appear  to  be  formed  by  a  diurnal  ascensional  movement  which  is  almost  always 
noticeable.  True  cumulus  has  well  defined  upper  and  lower  limits.  In  strong 
winds  a  broken  cloud  resembling  cumulus  is  often  seen  in  which  detached  portions 
undergo  continual  changes.  This  form  is  distinguished  by  the  name  fracto-cvmulus. 


9.  Cumulo-Nimbus  (Thunder  Cloud). — Heavy  masses  of  cloud  rising  in  the  form 
of  mountains  or  turrets  or  anvils  generally  s'urmounted  by  a  sheet  or  screen  of 
fibrous  appearance  (false  cirrus),  and  having  at  its  base  a  mass  similar  to  nimbus. 
Prom  the  base  local  showers  of  rain  or  of  snow  (occasionally  of  hail  or  soft  haili 
usually  fall.  Sometimes  the  upper  edges  assume  the  compact  form  of  cumulus,  and 
form  massive  peaks  round  which  the  delicate  "false  cirrus"  floats.  At  other  times 
the  edges  themselves  separate  into  a  fringe  of  filaments  similar  to  cirrus  clouds. 


simple  daily  variation.  In  disturbed 
weather,  especially  during  thunder- 
storms, it  fluctuates  widely  and  rapid- 
ly, frequently  changing  its  sign. 

The  ionization  of  the  atmosphere, 
together  with  its  effects  and  possible 
causes,  forms  one  of  the  important 
new  branches  of  meteorological  re- 
search. Owing  to  the  presence  of  ions 


in  the  atmosphere,  an  electrically 
charged  body  loses  its  charge  by  con- 
duction to  the  surrounding  air.  This 
process,  known  as  dissipation,  is  af- 
fected by  various  meteorological  con- 
ditions. 

An  excessive  difference  of  potential 
between  a  point  in  the  atmosphere  and 
the  earth,  or  between  two  points  in 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


507 


or  by  fountains,  it  may  be  distinguished  by  the  name 


(a)  (b) 

Lightnin-    flashes    photographed    with    (a)    stationary    camera,    and    (6)     moving 
camera.      (Dr.   B.   Walter,    Hamburg). 


the  atmosphere,  may  result  in  a  dis- 
ruptive discharge  along  a  narrow 
path,  known  as  lightning;  or,  more 
specifically,  linear  lightning,  from 
which  is  distinguished  the  more  gentle 
diffuse  discharge  known  as  sheet 


lightning.  Apparent  sheet  lightning 
is  often  merely  the  reflection  on  the 
clouds  of  distant  linear  lightning;  it 
is  then  distinguished  as  heat  light- 
ning. St.  Elmo's  fire  (also  called  by 
a  score  of  other  names)  is  a  brush 


508 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NEWSPAPER  WEATHER  MAP 


discharge  from  the  points  of  terres- 
trial objects,  and  is  most  common  on 
mountain  summits.  Ball  lightning, 
which  takes  the  form  of  a  ball  of  fire 
moving  slowly  through  the  air,  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

Photographs  made  with  a  camera 
turning  on  a  vertical  axis  have  proved 
that  linear  lightning  often  consists  of 
several  discharges  in  rapid  succession 
along  an  identical  path  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 

An  apparently  broad  stream  of 
lightning  is  called  ribbon  lightning. 
Beaded  or  pearl  lightning  assumes 
the  appearance  of  a  string  of  brilliant 
beads.  It  is  very  rare.  Still  rarer  is 
rocket  lightning,  which  shoots  up  into 
the  air  at  the  apparent  speed  of  a  sky- 
rocket. 

The  utility  of  lightning-rods  has 
often  been  questioned.  The  consensus 
of  scientific  opinion  is  that  they  are 
very  useful  if  properly  constructed ; 
otherwise  they  are  worse  than  useless. 

The  aurora  polaris  is  now  most 
commonly  attributed  to  the  passage 
of  cathode  rays  through  the  atmos- 
phere, under  the  effects  of  some  kind 
of  radiation  or  emission  from  the  sun. 


Its  variations  are  generally  synchro- 
nous with  those  of  solar  activity  and 
terrestrial  magnetism.  The  aurora  is 
best  studied  by  means  of  simultaneous 
photographs  from  two  stations,  and 
with  the  spectroscope.  There  appear 
to  be  two  principal  forms:  (1)  the 
tranquil,  homogeneous  arc  (part  of  a 
groat  circnmpolar  ring),  occurring 
only  at  great  altitudes;  and  (2) 
shifting  beams  and  draperies,  occur- 
ring mainly  at  lower  levels.  There  is 
some  evidence  that  a  feeble  auroral 
glow  commonly  extends  over  the  whole 
nocturnal  sky,  in  all  latitudes  (earth- 
light}. 

ATMOSPHERIC  OPTICS. 

The  optical  phenomena  of  the  at- 
mosphere (photometeors)  include  as- 
tronomical refraction,  the  colors  of 
the  sky,  twilight  phenomena,  polari- 
zation of  skylight,  scintillation,  mi- 
rage, the  transparency  of  the  atmos- 
phere, and  various  luminous  appear- 
ances, including  rainbows,  coronas, 
glories  and  halos. 

The  rainbow  is  due  to  the  refrac- 
tion and  reflection  of  light  in  water 
drops  (usually  raindrops).  Primary 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


509 


Area  embraced  collectively    < 
by  the  maps  of: 
Canada,  U.S.,  Mexico. 


Argentina,  Chile*  Brazil. 
f  Gt.  Britain.  France.  Spam, 

(Germany,  Netherlands,  Bel- 

40. I^I4=Xgmm.  Denmark,  Sweden, 

/Russia,  Italy,  Switzerland, 
(Austria,  Algeria,  &  Egypt. 

EB    India. 

amsa  China  (Zikawei  Observatory), 


•The  weather  maps  of  Chile 
and  Braz  J  have  recently  been 
suspended,  pending  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  meteorological 
services  of  those  countries. 


Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 

LAND  AREAS  EMBRACED  IN  THE  PUBLISHED  DAILY  WEATHER  MAPS 
OF  THE  WORLD. 


and  secondary  bows  (often  bordered 
with  supernumerary  or  spurious 
boics)  are  seen  opposite  the  sun  ;  the 
higher  the  sun,  the  lower  the  system 
of  bows,  and  vice  versa.  Bows  of 
higher  order  (tertiary,  quaternary, 
etc.)  are  of  theoretical  interest  only; 
they  are  rarely,  if  ever.  seen.  The  re- 
flected image  of  the  sun  in  a  sheet  of 
water  may  give  rise  to  intersecting 
rainboics.  Lunar  rainbows  are  some- 
times seen  ;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  nearly 
colorless,  owing  to  feeble  illumination. 

The  corona  is  a  small  ring,  or 
series  of  rings,  of  prismatic  Colors,  sur- 
rounding the  sun  or  moon  ;  it  is  due 
to  the  diffraction  .of  light  by  water 
drops,  ice  crystals  or  dust.  Fine 
dust  in  the  atmosphere  (as  after 
the  eruption  of  Krakatoa)  gives  rise 
to  a  large  corona  known  as  Bishop's 
ring. 

From  a  mountain  top  or  other  ele- 
vation a  person  sometimes  sees  his 
shadow  cast  on  a  bank  of  fog  or  cloud. 
(The  shadow  seems  "gigantic"  owing 
to  overestimation  of  its  distance.)  The 
head  is  often  surrounded  by  a  glory  of 
colored  light,  due  to  diffraction.  The 
whole  phenomenon  is  called  the  spec- 


ter   of    the    Brocken.      Very    striking 
examples    are    seen    from    balloons. 

Halos  are  due  to  the  refraction  or 
reflection  (or  both)  of  light  by  ice 
crystals  in  the  atmosphere.  These 
may  take  the  form  of  rings  of  definite 
angular  size  (the  commonest  has  a. 
radius  of  22°)  surrounding  the  sun 
or  moon ;  also  of  rings  or  arcs  in 
various  other  positions,  and  discs  of 
light  (parhelia,  or  paraselene;  in 
popular  language,  "sundogs"  or 
nioondogs").  Some  halos  are  dis- 
tinctly colored,  others  are  not.  Com- 
plete descriptions  and  discussions 
ef  halo  phenomena,  scores  of  which 
have  been  classified,  are  found  only  in 
certain  French  and  German  works.* 

CLIMATE. 

Climate  is  often  defined  as  average 
weather ;  and  climatic  statistics  refer 
mainly  to  average  conditions.  It 
would  be  better,  however,  to  define 
it  as  "the  sum  total  of  weather," 


3On  the  descriptive  side  the  best  ac- 
count is  L.  Besson's  "Les  diff£rentes 
formes  de  halo  et  leur  observation,"  pub- 
lished in  L' Astronomic,  Paris,  March- 
May,  1911. 


510 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Copyright,   1912,   by  Munn   &  Co.,   Inc. 

Daily  synoptic  weather  chart  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  (Chart  of  Jan.  13, 
1911.)  It  is  prepared  daily,  in  manuscript,  at  Washington  from  telegraphic  reports, 
but  is  not  published.  The  curved  lines  are  isobars,  or  lines  of  equal  barometric 
pressure. 


since  occasional  departures  from  the 
average,  in  the  shape  of  hot  and 
cold  waves,  droughts  and  excessive 
rain,  severe  storms,  etc.,  aid  in  giving 
character  to  the  climate  of  the  places 
where  they  occur. 

Climatology  is  the  science  of  cli- 
mate in  general ;  climatography  is  de- 
voted to  the  description  of  particular 
climates. 

That  "the  climate  has  changed" 
within  a  generation  or  so  is  a  stub- 
born popular  delusion,  which  prevails 
all  over  the  world,  and  has  probably 
prevailed  in  every  age.  It  arises  from 
the  fact  that  exceptional  weather  im- 
presses itself  more  lastingly  upon  the 
memory  than  normal  weather. 

METEOROLOGICAL    SERVICES    AND    THEIR 
WORK  ;     WEATHER     PREDICTION. 

The  central  organization  is  the  In- 
ternational Meteorological  Committee, 
which  meets  triennially ;  president, 
Dr.  W.  N.  Shaw,  director  of  the  Brit- 
ish Meteorological  Office,  London ; 
secretary,  Dr.  G.  Hellmann,  director  of 
the  Royal  Prussian  Meteorological  In- 
stitute, Berlin.  Under  this  committee 
are  several  international  "commis- 
sions" on  special  subjects.  Occasional- 
ly an  International  Meteorological 
Conference  is  held,  comprising  the 
directors  of  all  meteorological  services. 

Practically  every  civilized  country 
has  an  official  weather  service ;  some 


have  more  than  one.  These  services 
issue  weather  maps  and  weather  fore- 
casts, and  compile  climatic  statistics. 
The  national  weather  service  of  the 
United  States  is  the  Weather  Bureau 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
with  headquarters  in  Washington ;  its 
chief  is  Prof.  Willis  L.  Moore. 

A  weather  service  consists  of  a  cen- 
tral station  or  observatory,  and  a 
"reseau"  of  subordinate  stations  scat- 
tered over  the  country.  The  stations 
are  of  two  principal  classes:  (1)  Tele* 
graphic  stations,  at  which  meteorolog- 
ical observations  are  made  simulta- 
neously at  fixed  hours  (in  the  United 
States,  8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.,  eastern 
standard  time),  and  immediately  tele- 
graphed to  headquarters,  where  they 
are  charted  to  form  the  weather  map 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  weather  fore- 
cast (2)  Climatological  stations, 
largely  manned  by  volunteer  observers. 
Their  reports  are  sent  in  by  post, 


oCalm       . 

1  Light  Air 

2  Light  Breeze 

3  Gentle      „ 

4  Moderate,, 

5  Fresh        ,. 

6  Strong      ,, 

7  High  Wind 

8  Gale 

9  Strong  Gale 
10  Whole     „ 
n  Storm      . 
12  Hurricane 


BEAUFORT  WIND  SCALE. 

.     Equivalent  velocity 


o  miles  per  hour. 
-3 


(Moderate  Gale) 


19-24 
25-31 
32-38 
39-46 
47-54 
55-63 
64-75 
above  75 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


511 


and  are  utilized  especially  in  compil- 
ing climatic  statistics.  Certain  coun- 
tries, including  the  United  States,  re- 
ceive reports  from  observers  on  ship- 
board, and  compile  meteorological  sta- 
tistics for  the  oceans.  Many  marine 
observers  now  send  reports  by  wireless 
telegraphy. 

The  cardinal  principle  of  forecasting 
from  the  weather  map  is  the  fact  that 
the  weather  depends  mainly  upon  the 
movement  of  cyclones  and  anticy- 
clones. The  distribution  of  weather 
in  these  systems  has  been  described 
above.  Broadly  speaking,  the  weather, 
in  the  temperate  zones,  moves  from 
west  to  east. 

The  prediction  of  ordinary  weather 
changes,  from  day  to  day,  is  the  least 
successful  and  the  least  important  part 
of  forecasting.  On  the  other  hand, 
such  phenomena  as  severe  storms, 
cold  waves,  heavy  snowfall  disas- 
trous night  frosts,  and  other  occur- 
rences of  far-reaching  importance  are 
predicted  with  great  accuracy. 

The  latest  development  of  weather 
forecasting  in  the  United  States  is  the 
daily  iceather  map  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  has  proved  the  im- 
portance of  certain  quasi-permanent 
areas  of  high  and  low  pressure  (for 
example,  the  great  "high"  that  pre- 
vails over  Siberia  in  winter)  in  de- 
termining the  movements  of  the  subor- 
dinate "highs"  and  "lows"  that  directly 
control  the  weather. 


River  stage  prediction  has  reached 
a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  especially 
in  the  United  States,  where  numerous 
river-gages  and  rainfall  stations  are 
maintained  in  every  important  river 
basin,  and  it  is  possible  to  predict  the 
stage  of  a  river,  at  a  given  point,  from 
three  or  four  days  to  three  weeks  in 
advance,  within  a  limit  of  error  of  a 
few  inches. 

METEOROLOGY  AND  AERONAUTICS. 

Meteorological  investigations  have 
received  a  great  impetus  through  the 
development  of  aeronautics.  The  re- 
quirements of  this  art  have  given  a 
practical  raison  d'etre  to  the  world- 
wide campaign  of  upper  air,  or  free 
air,  research  that  has  been  carried  on 
by  meteorologists  since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century. 

In  the  year  1911  was  published  the 
first  general  textbook  of  aeronautical 
meteorology  (by  Linke),  a  practical 
science  that  aims  to  do  for  the  aero- 
naut what  marine  meteorology  and 
hydrography  combined  do  for  the  ma- 
riner. 

Special  weather  predictions  for 
aeronauts  have  been  undertaken  ex- 
perimentally in  Germany ;  where  an 
"aeronautical  weather  bureau"  has  its 
headquarters  at  Lindenberg  and  a  net- 
work  of  telegraphic  reporting  stations 
throughout  the  country  at  which  daily 
observations  of  the  upper  air  currents 
are  made  with  pilot  balloons. 


SENDING  UP  A  PILOT  BALLOON 
to  determine  the  speed  and  direction  of  the  air 
currents   at   various   levels.      The   movement   of 
the   balloon    is   observed  with   a   theodolite. 


512 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SMALL  CRAFT,  STORM  AND  HURRICANE  WARNINGS.     (U.  S.) 


5nMUI  Craft 


Storm 


Hurricane 


N.W.  WINDS 


5  W  WINDS 


N.E.WIND3 


S.E.  WINDS 


NO.l. 


N0.2. 


SLUE 


NO. 3. 


NO. 4 


NO.  5 


FAIR  WEATHfR 


TEMPERATURE 


RAIN  OR  SNOW  LOCAL   RAIN 

OR    SNOW 

EXPLANATION  OF  WEATHER  FLAGS.    (U.  S.) 


COLO    WAVE 


EXPLANATION    OF    SMALL     CRAFT, 

STORM    AND    HURRICANE 

WARNINGS. 

Small  craft  warning. — A  red  pennant  indi- 
cates that  moderate  winds  are  expected. 

Storm  warning.— A  red  flag  with  a  black 
center  indicates  that  a  storm  of  marked  vio- 
lence is  expected. 

The  pennants  displayed  with  the  flags  indi- 
cate the  direction  of  the  wind:  white,  westerly 
(from  southwest  to  north);  red,  easterly  (from 
northeast  to  south).  The  pennant  above  the 
flag  indicates  that  the  wind  is  expected  to  blow 
from  the  northerly  quadrants;  below,  from  the 
southerly  quadrants. 

By  night  a  red  light  indicates  easterly 
winds,  and  a  white  light  below  a  red  light, 
westerly  winds 

Hurricane  warning. — Two  red  flags  with 
black  centers,  displayed  one  above  the  other, 
indicate  the  expected  approach  of  a  tropical 
hurricane,  or  one  of  those  extremely  severe 
and  dangerous  storms  which  occasionally  move 
across  the  Lakes  and  northern  Atlantic  coast. 

No  night  small  craft  or  hurricane  warnings 
are  displayed. 

INTERPRETATION  OF  DISPLAYS 

No.  1,  alone,  indicates  fair  weather,  station- 
ary temperature. 

No.  2,  alone,  indicates  rain  or  snow,  station- 
ary temperature. 

No.  3,  alone,  indicates  local  rain  or  snow, 
stationary  temperature. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  fair 
weather,  warmer. 

No.  1,  with  No.  4  below  it,  Indicates  fair 
weather,  colder. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  rain  or 
snow,  warmer. 

No.  2,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  rain  or 
snow,  colder. 


No.  3,  with  No.  4  above  it,  indicates  local 

rain  or  snow,  warmer. 

No.  3,  with  No.  4  below  it,  indicates  local 

rain  or  snow,  colder. 


INTERNATIONAL   STORM  SIGNALS. 


For  a  gale  commencing  with 
wind  in  the  NW.  quadrant. 


For  a  gale  commencing  with 
wind  in  the  SW.  quadrant. 


For  a  gale  commencing  with 
wind  in  the  NE.  quadrant. 


For  a   oale  commencing  with 
wind  in  the  SE.  quadrant. 


For  a  hurricane. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


513 


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514 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LOWEST  TEMPERATURE:  RECORD  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1910, 
BY  MONTHS,  AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS. 

[Source:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 

1  Number  of 
years  rec- 
ord. 

•-» 

£ 

j. 

! 

i 

i-^ 

I 

< 

1 
1 

03 

October. 

1 
& 

December. 

Lowestreo- 

°rd-  II 

Abilene  Tex 

24 

"F. 

—  5 

•If. 

*F. 
17 

•F. 
25 

°F. 
33 

48 

55 

55 

40 

30 

13 

1 

•F. 

g 

Albany  N  Y 

36 

—24 

18 

—  8 

13 

29 

40 

48 

45 

32 

23 

10 

17 

24 

Amarillo  Tex            .  . 

18 

—  6 

16 

—  2 

22 

26 

42 

51 

49 

36 

23 

4 

_  i 

16 

Atlanta  Oa       

31 

—  2 

g 

8 

25 

38 

39 

58 

55 

43 

30 

16 

1 

8 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak  
Boise,  Idaho          

35 
31 

-44 
—28 

-43 
12 

-36 
5 

-  3 
17 

13 

26 

31 
30 

32 
40 

32 
32 

to 

28 

-  2 
16 

-28 
—  10 

-38 
_  7 

—44 

—28 

Boston,  Mass  ......... 

39 

-13 

11 

—  8 

11 

31 

42 

46 

47 

34 

25 

—  2 

—12 

—  13 

Buffalo,  N.  Y  

37 

—14 

13 

—  4 

11 

28 

39 

47 

44 

35 

24 

2 

—  9 

—  14 

Charlotte.  N.  C  

31 

_  1 

5 

14 

26 

37 

45 

55 

53 

38 

28 

18 

_  5 

—  5 

Chicago,  111  

37 

—20 

21 

—12 

17 

27 

40 

50 

47 

32 

14 

_  2 

—23 

—23 

Cleveland,  Ohio  

37 

—  17 

16 

—  4 

15 

28 

38 

46 

46 

36 

24 

0 

—  12 

—  17 

Denver,  Colo  

37 

—29 

22 

—11 

4 

19 

36 

42 

40 

21 

-18 

-25 

-29 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  
Dodge  Kans 

31 
35 

-30 
20 

-26 
26 

-  8 
—  9 

11 
13 

26 
19 

37 

40 

48 
46 

40 
45 

26 
30 

14 

to 

-10 
13 

-20 
15 

-30 
26 

Dubuque,  Iowa  
Duluth,  Minn  

36 
37 

-32 
-41 

-31 
36 

-12 
—26 

14 
3 

26 
16 

39 
33 

40 
44 

41 

40 

24 
28 

15 

g 

-12 
-29 

-24 
-34 

-32 
—41 

Eastport,  Me  

36 

—20 

20 

—  8 

2 

28 

30 

45 

44 

30 

23 

—13 

-21 

—21 

El  Paso  Tex 

31 

5 

5 

21 

29 

40 

49 

56 

52 

42 

26 

11 

5 

5 

Fresno  Cal 

22 

20 

24 

28 

34 

38 

42 

50 

51 

42 

36 

27 

23 

20 

Galveston  Tex 

38 

H 

g 

30 

43 

52 

57 

66 

68 

54 

44 

29 

18 

8 

Green  Bay,  Wis 

23 

—36 

33 

—23 

11 

26 

34 

43 

40 

25 

g 

—12 

—21 

—36 

Harrisburg,  Pa 

21 

—  5 

13 

5 

22 

34 

43 

50 

49* 

36 

28 

11 

4 

—13 

Havre,  Mont 

18 

—43 

48 

—41 

—  11 

15 

31 

31 

27 

18 

—  7 

—33 

—43 

—  48 

Helena,  Mont 

29 

—42 

41 

—20 

6 

22 

31 

36 

29 

20 

3 

—22 

—40 

-42 

Huron,  S.  Dak  

28 

-43 

-37 

-as 

7 

?0 

31 

41 

33 

18 

3 

-28 

-34 

—43 

Indianapolis,  Ind  . 

36 

-25 

18 

0 

19 

31 

39 

48 

46 

30 

22 

—  5 

-15 

—25 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

38 

15 

10 

26 

34 

46 

54 

66 

64 

49 

40 

26 

14 

10 

Jupiter,  Fla 

22 

24 

27 

33 

39 

53 

64 

68 

68 

61 

48 

36 

24 

24 

Kansas  City,  Mo  
Knoxville,  Tenn.. 

21 
39 

-17 
—16 

-22 
—  10 

2 
5 

22 
24 

27 
34 

48 
42 

54 
52 

46 
50 

35 
35 

26 
25 

4 
12 

-13 
—  5 

-22 
—  16 

Lander,  Wyo  

18 

—36 

—35 

—24 

2 

13 

26 

34 

23 

7 

2 

—31 

—30 

-36 

Little  Rock,  Ark  
Los  Angeles,  Cal  

30 
32 

-  5 

30 

-12 

28 

16 
31 

28 
36 

39 
40 

51 

46 

60 
49 

52 
49 

41 
44 

31 

40 

10 
42 

6 
30 

-12 
28 

Louisville,  Ky  .  .  . 

37 

—20 

—14 

3 

21 

33 

43 

54 

50 

36 

26 

4 

—  7 

-20 

Lynchburg,  Va  

36 

—  6 

—  3 

14 

25 

34 

45 

53 

47 

35 

27 

13 

—  5 

—  6 

Montgomery  Ala 

37 

5 

5 

21 

30 

35 

48 

61 

58 

45 

31 

21 

g 

—  5 

New  Orleans,  La... 

39 

15 

7 

30 

38 

52 

58 

66 

63 

55 

40 

29 

20 

7 

New  York,  N.  Y... 

38 

—  6 

—  6 

3 

20 

34 

45 

50 

51 

36 

31 

7 

—  6 

-  6 

Northfield,  Vt 

22 

32 

35 

—18 

_  1 

18 

30 

34 

31 

23 

12 

—  14 

—27 

—35 

North  Platte.  Nebr.... 
Oklahoma,  Okla 

35 
19 

-35 
-11 

-35 
17 

-21 
9 

12 
22 

19 
33 

33 

48 

42 
56 

36 
49 

21 
36 

9 
27 

-25 
9 

-30 
—  2 

-35 
—17 

Omaha,  Nebr  . 

37 

—32 

26 

_  7 

g 

25 

42 

50 

44 

30 

15 

—14 

17 

—32 

Oswego,  N.  Y  
Palestine  Tex 

39 
28 

-23 

o 

-18 

-11 
20 

13 

36 

27 
39 

39 

48 

45 
60 

44 
54 

35 
43 

24 
31 

20 

-18 
g 

-23 

—  6 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va  
Phoenix,  Ariz  

21 

27 

-11 
12 

-27 
19 

4 

?4 

20 
30 

31 
35 

42 
33 

48 
46 

45 
49 

33 
39 

20 
34 

15 
?4 

-  5 

18 

-27 
12 

Port  Huron,  Mich  
Portland,  Oreg 

35 
36 

-15 
—  2 

-25 
7 

-14 
20 

7 
28 

26 
32 

35 
39 

42 
43 

41 
43 

30 
35 

19 
31 

-  6 
11 

-14 
3 

-25 
_  <> 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak  
Red  Bluff,  Cal  

22 
32 

-37 
18 

-40 
22 

-17 
26 

-  2 
30 

19 
37 

35 
44 

37 
53 

39 
52 

23 
45 

10 
32 

-  9 

26 

-25 
25 

-40 

18 

St.  Louis,  Mo... 

39 

—22 

-18 

3 

22 

32 

44 

55 

52 

37 

24 

5 

-17 

-22 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

37 

—41 

-33 

—22 

7 

23 

36 

45 

40 

28 

12 

—24 

-39 

—41 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.... 
San  Antonio,  Tex  .  .. 

35 
32 

-20 
6 

-13 

4 

0 

21 

18 
35 

25 
44 

33 
53 

43 
58 

44 
57 

29 
46 

22 
36 

-  2 
21 

-10 
10 

-20 
4 

San  Francisco,  Cal  
Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex  
SaultSte.  Marie,  Mich.. 
Seattle,  Wash    . 

38 
36 
21 
16 

29 
-13 
-28 
11 

33 
—11 
-37 
12 

33 
0 

-27 
20 

40 
11 
3 
32 

43 
20 
21 
36 

46 
33 
32 
42 

47 
43 
40 
48 

47 
40 
37 
46 

47 
21 

28 
36 

45 
13 
16 
31 

38 
—11 
-  7 
15 

34 
-13 
-19 
25 

29 
-13 
-28 
11 

Shreveport,  La.    . 

36 

1 

—  5 

22 

32 

42 

53 

62 

54 

44 

31 

18 

to 

-  5 

Spokane,  Wash... 

28 

—30 

—25 

—10 

22 

29 

34 

41 

38 

26 

12 

—13 

—18 

-30 

Springfield,  111  

30 

—22 

—24 

2 

19 

32 

40 

49 

48 

31 

20 

2 

—14 

—24 

Springfield   Mo 

22 

—17 

29 

3 

22 

30 

46 

53 

44 

35 

21 

g 

11 

29 

Tampa,  Fla    

19 

a 

22 

32 

38 

53 

64 

•65 

66 

54 

44 

32 

19 

19 

Vicksbur?.  Miss... 

37 

3 

—  1 

24 

31 

43 

52 

62 

54 

42 

34 

22 

12 

_  1 

Walla  Walla,  Wash  
Washington,  D.  C  
Williston.N.  Dak... 
Wilmington,  N.  C 

24 
39 
31 
39 

-17 
-14 
-49 
9 

-15 
-15 
-49 
5 

2 
4 

-35 
20 

29 
22 
—  4 

28 

35 
33 
14 
38 

40 
43 
30 
51 

45 
52 
36 
58 

41 
49 
32 
56 

36 
36 
13 
42 

24 
26 
-  3 
32 

-  9 
12 
-29 
20 

-  2 
-13 
-46 
10 

-17 
-15 
-49 
5 

Winnemucca,  Nev  

30 

-28 

-22 

-  3 

12 

17 

29 

33 

26 

16 

10 

-  9 

-20 

-28 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


515 


HIGHEST  TEMPERATURE:  RECORD  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1910, 
BY  MONTHS,  AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS. 

[Source:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 

Number  of 
years  reo 
ord. 

! 

£ 

1 

| 

t 

H» 

>. 

! 

I 

j 

November. 

j 

Highest  rec- 
ord. 

Abilene,  Tex  

24 

36 
18 
31 
35 
31 
39 
37 
31 
37 
37 
37 
31 
35 
.36 
37 
36 
31 
22 
38 
23 
21 
18 
29 
28 
36 
38 
22 
21 
39 
18 
30 
32 
37 
36 
37 

1 

22 
35 
19 
37 
39 
28 
21 
27 
35 
36 
22 
32 
39 
37 
35 
32 
38 
36 
21 
16 
36 
28 
30 
22 
19 
37 
24 
39 

% 

30 

•F. 
110 
100 
105 
100 
107 
111 
102 
95 
102 
103 
99 
105 
109 
108 
106 
99 
93 
113 
115 
98 
100 
101 
108 
103 
108 
106 
104 
96 
106 
100 
99 
106 
109 
107 
102 
107 
102 
100 
95 
107 
108 
106 
100 
108 
102 
119 
99 
102 
106 
115 
107 
104 
102 
108 
101 
97 
94 
96 
110 
104 
107 
106 
96 
101 
113 
104 
107 
103 
104 

83 
64 
80 
75 
60 
62 
70 
70 
77 
65 
71 
76 
64 
74 
63 
51 
54 
77 
71 
75 
51 
67 
61 
63 
64 
70 
81 
83 
70 
76 
59 
78 
87 
74 
77 
79 
82 
67 
61 
70 
79 
63 
69 
81 
74 
87 
64 
62 
69 
77 
74 
51 
57 
83 
78 
76 
46 
61 
80 
55 
73 
75 
82 
82 
67 
76 
52 
SO 
59 

92 
63 
84 
78 
64 
67 
64 
67 
79 
63 
72 
77 
70 
83 
67 
58 
52 
86 
83 
76 
59 
74 
63 
65 
68 
72 
86 
87 
76 
79 
64 
79 
88 
78 
75 
83 
82 
69 
59 
74 
90 
78 
61 
83 
76 
92 
60 
68 
72 
82 
78 
61 
68 
90 
80 
75 
46 
67 
81 
59 
72 
76 
86 
83 
69 
78 
58 
81 
69 

95 
79 
96 
87 
81 
77 
78 
79 
91 
81 
83 
82 
88 
98 
86 
70 
57 
93 
87 
85 
82 
83 
77 
72 
85 
84 
91 
89 
90 
87 
71 
87 
99 
88 
92 
90 
86 
78 
75 
86 
90 
91 
78 
88 
86 
97 
77 
79 
85 
86 
90 
83 
77 
97 
80 
82 
64 
75 
90 
74 
91 
92 
92 
88 
74 
93 
72 
94 
82 

99 

88 
90 
89 
90 
92 
85 
84 
94 
88 
87 
86 
92 
95 
8» 
82 
72 
98 
101 
85 
84 
92 
94 
86 
94 
87 
92 
90 
95 
90 
82 
94 
100 
91 
95 
92 
89 
90 
85 
95 
95 
94 
85 
92 
93 
105 
84 
90 
90 
96 
91 
87 
85 
99 
88 
84 
77 
85 
96 
87 
89 
89 
90 
92 
92 
93 
92 
90 
S3 

105 
93 

98 
94 
96 
100 
97 
88 
97 
94 
92 
92 
94 
101 
94 
91 
85 
105 
110 
91 
91 
95 
92 
89 
% 
96 
98- 
93 
91 
94 
86 
94 
103 
94 
97 
98 
94 
95 
90 
97 
94 
97 
94 
93 
94 
114 
93 
99 
92 
110 
94 
94 
93 
104 
97 
89- 
89 
90 
101 
95 
92 
90 
94 
95 
100 
96 
101 
97 
98 

110 
99 
105 
98 
103 
.105 
98 
93 
102 
98 
96 
99 
101 
106 
99 
97 
88 
113 
112 
97 
100 
97 
108 
102 
99 
100 
100 
95 
100 
99 
95 
102 
105 
100 
98 
106 
98 
'   97 
95 
102 
101 
100 
98 
100 
99 
119 
97 
99 
103 
110 
102 
98 
101 
105 
100 
92 
93 
96 
104 
96 
98 
98 
95 
101 
105 
102 
J07 
100 

>W 

110 
100 
100 
100 
107 
111 
101 
95 
102 
103 
97 
102 
109 
108 
106 
99 
93 
112 
115 
98 
100 
101 
103 
103 
108 
106 
104 
% 
106 
100 
99 
106 
109 
107 
102 
107 
102 
99 
95 
107 
104 
106 
100 
103 
102 
117 
99 
102 
106 
115 
107 
104 
102 
106 
98 
96 
94 
95 
107 
103 
107 
106 
96 
100 
111 
103 
106 
103 
104 

105 
98 
102 
98 
105 
106 
97 
94 
100 
98 
99 
105 
103 
105 
100 
95 
90 
110 
113 
98 
98 
98 
106 
98 
108 
101 
101 
% 
103 
100 
96 
105 
106 
105 
100 
103 
100 
96 
92 
103 
108 
105 
98 
108 
98 
116 
99 
97 
106 
114 
106 
100 
101 
108 
92 
97 
90 
92 
110 
104 
100 
102 
96 
100 
113 
101 
107 
99 
102 

104 
97 
101 

97 
102 
100 
102 
95 
99 
98 
98 
97 
99 
101 
97 
94 
89 
104 
111 
94 
95 
95 
93 
91 
106 
98 
98 
93 
101 
99 
90 
101 
108 
102 
99 
99 
96 
100 
90 
101 
102 
102 
93 
104 
99 
114 
97 
93 
102 
108 
102 
96 
93 
103 
101 
90 
91 
87 
101 
98 
99 
102 
94 
98 
100 
104 
101 
96 
94 

94 
90 
94 
91 
91 
91 
90 
86 
92 
87 
87 
90 
91 
94 
89 
80 
83 
94 
100 
91 
84 
88 
88 
84 
94 
89 
92 
94 
91 
94 
82 
93 
102 
91 
92 
96 
94 
88 
83 
94 
97 
92 
84 
97 
90 
105 
87 
83 
% 
97 
91 
87 
88 
99 
94 
85 
80 
81 
95 
86 
91 
90 
93 
94 
87 
92 
95 
92 

a? 

88 
71 
83 
82 
73 
72 
76 
70 
80 
75 
74 
77 
76 
84 
74 
73 
64 
85 
84 
85 
69 
75 
75 
71 
77 
76 
86 
87 
80 
80 
72 
84 
96 
79 
81 
85 
85 
74 
70 
81 
86 
80 
75 
87 
78 
97 
69 
73 
79 
88 
82 
74 
74 
89 
83 
77 
67 
68 
86 
70 
77 
79 
87 
86 
78 
80 
71 
83 
73 

83 
66 
75 
73 
64 
62 
67 
64 
76 
68 
68 
74 
69 
79 
67 
54 
54 
77 
74 
77 
51 
66 
63 
46 
65 
68 
81 
86 
70 
75 
57 
78 
89 
74 
73 
79 
83 
68 
61 
72 
76 
71 
66 
81 
72 
95 
65 
65 
75 
76 
74 
58 
61 
86 
72 
65 
48 
62 
79 
57 
67 
74 
83 
79 
65 
73 
59 
78 
63 

Albany  N  Y 

Amarillo,  Tex  

Atlanta  Ga 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak.... 

Boston,  Mass  

Buffalo'  N.  Y  .  .  . 

Charlotte  N.  C  ... 

Chicago,  111  

Cleveland,  Ohio 

Denver,  Colo  

Des  Moines  Iowa  ... 

Dodge,  Kans  

Dubuque  Iowa 

Duluth,  Minn  

Eastport  Me 

El  Paso,  Tex  

Fresno  Cal        . 

Galveston,  Tex.......... 

Green  Bay  Wis    . 

Harrisburg,  Pa.....  

Havre  Mont 

Helena  Mont     .         ... 

Huron,  S.  Dak  

Indianapolis,  Ind.  
Jacksonville,  Fla  

Jupiter  Fla 

Kansas  City,  Mo  
Knoxville,  Term  

Lander,  Wyo 

Little  Rock,  Ark  

Los  Angeles  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky  

Lynchburg  Va 

Montgomery,  Ala  

New  Orleans  La. 

New  York,  N.  Y  

Northfield  Vt 

North  Platte,  Nebr.  . 

Oklahoma,  Okla.  

Omaha,  Nebr  .  . 

Oswego,  N.  Y  

Palestine,  Tex 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va  
Phoenix,  Ariz  

Port  Huron  Mich 

Portland,  Oreg 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak  
Red  Bluff,  Cal  

St.  Louis,  Mo  

St.  Paul,  Minn, 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.... 
San  Antonio,  Tex 

San  Francisco,  Cal  

Santa  Fe,N.  Mex  

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich  .  . 
Seattle,  Wash  

Shreveport,  La  
Spokane,  Wash  
Springfield  111 

Springfield,  Mo  

Tampa,  Fla  

Vicksburg,  Miss 

Walla  Walla,  Wash 
Washington.  D.  C.. 
WUllston.jr,  Dak.. 
Wilmington,  N.  C.. 
Winnemuoea,  Nev. 

516 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


NORMAL  TEMPERATURE:  MONTHLY  AND  ANNUAL  MEANS 
AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS.1 

[Source:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 

»-» 

1 

I 

1 

1 

1 

, 

! 

1 

1 

£ 

1 

•< 

Abilene  Tex 

*F, 

43 

•F. 

45 

•F. 

55 

•P. 
64 

•F. 
72 

°F. 
78 

•F. 

82 

•F. 

81 

•JF. 
74 

°F. 
64 

•F. 
53 

•F. 

45 

•F. 
63 

Albany,  N.  Y  .  . 

22 

24 

32 

46 

59 

68 

72 

70 

62 

50 

38 

28 

48 

AtaariUo,  TP*  t 

34 

37 

45 

55 

64 

72 

76 

75 

68 

56 

44 

30 

55 

Atlanta,  Ga 

42 

45 

52 

61 

70 

76 

78 

76 

72 

62 

52 

45 

61 

Bismarck,  N.  Dak 

7 

g 

22 

43 

55 

64 

70 

68 

67 

26 

15 

40 

Boise,  Idaho  

29 

34 

42 

50 

58 

66 

73 

72 

62 

50 

40 

32 

51 

Boston,  Mass.... 

27 

28 

35 

45 

57 

66 

71 

69 

63 

41 

32 

49 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

25 

24 

31 

42 

54 

65 

70 

69 

03 

59 

39 

30 

47 

Charlotte,  N.  C. 

40 

44 

51 

59 

68 

76 

79 

77 

71 

61 

50 

43 

60 

Chicago,  111 

24 

25 

34 

46 

56 

66 

72 

65 

53 

39 

29 

48 

Cleveland,  Ohio  

26 

27 

34 

46 

58 

68 

72 

70 

64 

53 

40 

31 

49 

Denver,  Colo  . 

29 

31 

39 

48 

57 

66 

72 

70 

63 

51 

39 

32 

50 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 

20 

24 

36 

51 

62 

70 

76 

73 

65 

52 

37 

26 

49 

Dodge,  Kans 

27 

31 

42 

54 

64 

73 

78 

70 

68 

55 

40 

32 

53 

18 

22 

33 

49 

61 

70 

75 

72 

64 

52 

36 

24 

48 

Dulutn,  Minn  

10 

14 

24 

38 

49 

58 

66 

65 

57 

45 

29 

18 

39 

Eastport,  Me  

tf\ 

21 

?q 

38 

47 

54 

60 

60 

55 

fl 

37 

25 

41 

El  Paso,  Tex  . 

44 

49 

56 

64 

72 

80 

80 

79 

73 

62 

51 

45 

63 

Fresno  Cal                          k 

45 

49 

55 

61 

68 

76 

82 

81 

74 

05 

55 

47 

63 

Galveston,  Tex  

53 

56 

62 

69 

75 

81 

83 

83 

79 

72 

03 

56 

69 

Green  Bay,  Wis  

15 

17 

$7 

41 

54 

65 

70 

67 

59 

47 

32 

21 

43 

Harrisburg,  Pa.. 

29 

30 

38 

51 

70 

74 

72 

65 

54 

42 

33 

52 

Havre,  Mont 

14 

15 

27 

43 

54 

62 

68 

67 

58 

31 

21 

42 

Helena  Mont 

20 

22 

31 

42 

52 

61 

67 

66 

56 

44 

33 

25 

43 

Huron,  S  Dak  

10 

13 

27 

45 

57 

67 

72 

60 

45 

27 

16 

42 

Indianapolis,  Ind  .  . 

28 

31 

40 

52 

63 

72 

76 

74 

67 

55 

42 

33 

53 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

54 

57 

62 

68 

74 

79 

81 

80 

77 

70 

61 

55 

68 

Jupiter  Fla 

64 

66 

72 

76 

80 

81 

82 

81 

77 

72 

66 

74 

Kansas  City  Mo    . 

26 

30 

41 

54 

64 

73 

78 

76 

68 

50 

42 

32 

53 

Knoxvillp,  Tenn  . 

38 

41 

48 

57 

66 

73 

76 

75 

69 

58 

47 

40 

57 

Lander.  Wyo  .  ..... 

17 

22 

31 

42 

52 

61 

68 

66 

55 

42 

29 

19 

42 

Little  Rock,  Ark  . 

41 

44 

53 

63 

70 

77 

81 

79 

73 

63 

52 

44 

62 

Los  Angeles  Cal 

54 

65 

57 

59 

62 

67 

70 

72 

70 

65 

60 

56 

62 

Louisville,  Ky  

34 

37 

45 

56 

67 

75 

79 

76 

70 

58 

46 

38 

57 

Lynch  burg,  Va  ...... 

36 

38 

45 

56 

66 

74 

77 

75 

68 

57 

46 

38 

56 

48 

51 

58 

65 

74 

79 

81 

80 

76 

66 

56 

49 

65 

53 

56 

62 

68 

74 

80 

81 

81 

78 

70 

61 

54 

68 

New  York,  N.  Y... 

30 

31 

38 

48 

59 

68 

74 

72 

66 

56 

44 

34 

52 

Northfleld,  Vt 

15 

17 

26 

40 

54 

63 

67 

63 

55 

44 

32 

20 

41 

North  Platte  Nebr 

21 

25 

35 

49 

59 

68 

74 

72 

63 

50 

35 

27 

48 

Oklahoma,  Okla  

3") 

38 

49 

60 

68 

76 

80 

78 

72 

61 

48 

39 

59 

Omaha,  Nebr  .  . 

20 

24 

36 

50 

62 

72 

76 

74 

66 

54 

38 

27 

50 

Oswego,  N.  Y  . 

24 

24 

31 

43 

55 

64 

70 

69 

63 

51 

39 

29 

47 

Palestine,  Tex  

46 

51 

58 

66 

72 

78 

80 

80 

75 

66 

57 

49 

65 

Parkersburg  W  Va 

31 

34 

42 

53 

63 

72 

76 

73 

66 

55 

Phoenix,  Ariz  .      . 

50 

54 

60 

67 

75 

84 

90 

89 

81 

70 

59 

52 

69 

Port  Huron,*Mich  .. 

22 

22 

30 

42 

54 

64 

69 

67 

61 

50 

37 

27 

45 

39 

41 

46 

51 

57 

61 

66 

66 

61 

53 

46 

41 

52 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak 

a 

24 

32 

44 

54 

64 

70 

69 

59 

47 

34 

26 

45 

Red  Bluff,  Cal 

45 

49 

54 

59 

66 

•76 

82 

81 

74 

64 

53 

46 

62 

St.  Louis  Mo 

31 

34 

44 

56 

66 

75 

79 

77 

70 

58 

43 

36 

56 

St.  Paul,  Minn  . 

1? 

15 

?S 

46 

58 

67 

72 

70 

60 

48 

31 

19 

44 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  ...      . 

29 

33 

41 

50 

58 

68 

76 

76 

65 

52 

40 

32 

52 

San  Antonio,  Tex 

51 

54 

62 

69 

75 

80 

82 

82 

77 

69 

59 

53 

68 

San  Francisco,  Cal  .  .  , 

•iO 

51 

ffl 

54 

56 

57 

57 

58 

59 

58 

56 

51 

55 

Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex  . 

?8 

32 

39 

48 

57 

66 

69 

67 

61 

50 

38 

30 

49 

SaultSte.  Marie,  Mich... 
Seattle,  Wash  

13 
3P 

13 
40 

21 

44 

36 
49 

48 
55 

58 
60 

62 
64 

61 
63 

54 

58 

43 
51 

31 
44 

20 
41 

•38 
51 

46 

50 

58 

66 

73 

80 

82 

81 

76 

66 

55 

49 

65 

Spokane,  Wash  ... 

27 

30 

39 

48 

56 

63 

69 

68 

59 

47 

37 

31 

48 

Springfield,  HI 

26 

29 

39 

52 

64 

72 

76 

74 

66 

65 

41 

31 

52 

Springfield.-Mo  

31 

34 

44 

56 

«•> 

72 

7fi 

75 

68 

57 

44 

?6 

55 

Tampa,  Fla  

57 

61 

66 

71 

76 

79 

80 

80 

78 

73 

65 

60 

70 

Vicksburg,  Miss  . 

47 

51 

58 

65 

73 

78 

80 

80 

75 

65 

56 

49 

65 

Walla  Walla,  Wash 

33 

36 

44 

53 

61 

68 

74 

74 

65 

54 

43 

36 

53 

Washington  D  C 

33 

34 

42 

53 

64 

73 

77 

74 

68 

57 

45 

36 

56 

Williston,  N.  Dak...,.  . 

6 

g 

09 

40 

54 

64 

69 

68 

60 

43 

25 

14 

39 

Wilmington,-  N.  C.. 

46 

48 

54 

60 

69 

76 

79 

78 

73 

63 

54 

47 

62 

Winnemucca,  Nev 

29 

33 

40 

47 

54 

63 

72 

71 

60 

49 

38 

31 

49 

1  The  figures  cover  the  33-year  period.  1873  to  1905,  inclusive.    Those  for  stations  not  having  that  length 
of  record  have  been  corrected  accordingly,  r 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


517 


PRECIPITATION:  NORMAL  MONTHLY  AND  ANNUAL 
AT  SPECIFIED  STATIONS.1 

[Source:  The  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture.] 


Station. 

OS 

£ 

j 

T* 

i 

! 

>, 

*< 

September. 

October. 

j 

December. 

{ 

Abilene  Tex          ...        

0.9 

i  i 

1.4 

2.3 

3.7 

3  ? 

2.4 

?  0 

3.1 

?  3 

1  ? 

1.1 

24.7 

Albany  ,  N.  Y  

2.6 

2.5 

2.7 

2.4 

3.0 

3.8 

3.9 

4.0 

3.2 

3.0 

2.8 

2.6 

36.4 

Amarillo,  Tex  

\tlanta  Ga 

5  3 

4  6 

5  8 

3  6 

3  1 

3  9 

4.7 

4  5 

3  5 

?  3 

3  4 

4.5 

49  4 

Bismarck.  N.  Dak  

.5 

•i 

1  0 

1.9 

2.5 

3  5 

2.1 

?  0 

1.2 

1  0 

7 

.6 

17.6 

Boise  Idaho      .,  

1  9 

1.4 

1.4 

1.2 

1.3 

9 

.2 

? 

.4 

1  3 

• 

1.7 

12.7 

Boston  Mass 

3  g 

3  4 

4  1 

3.6 

3.5 

3.0 

3.4 

4  0 

3.2 

3  9 

4.1 

3.4 

43.4 

Buffalo'  N  Y 

3  3 

2  8 

2  6 

2  4 

3  1 

3  1 

3  4 

3.0 

3  2 

3  5 

3  4 

3.4 

37  3 

Charlotte  N  C 

4  3 

4  4 

4.6 

3  4 

3  9 

4  5 

5  5 

5  6 

3  2 

3  ? 

2  9 

3  9 

49  2 

Chicago,  111           

2.0 

?  ? 

?  6 

2.9 

3.4 

3  7 

3.6 

?  P 

3.0 

2  6 

?  5 

2.1 

33.3 

Cleveland,  Ohio                  . 

2.4 

?  6 

?  8 

2.3 

3.2 

3  7 

3.6 

3  ? 

3.2 

?  7 

?  8 

2.6 

35.0 

Denver  Colo 

4 

.5 

1.0 

2.2 

2.5 

1  <> 

1.6 

1  3 

.9 

i  n 

| 

.6 

14.0 

Des  Moines  Iowa 

1  2 

1  i 

1  6 

3.0 

4  6 

5  0 

3  9 

1  6 

S.I 

?  7 

1.5 

1.3 

32.4 

Dodge,  Kans  

5 

7 

9 

1.9 

3.3 

3  3 

3.4 

?.  6 

1.8 

1,4 

6 

.6 

20.8 

Dubuque,  Iowa  

1.5 

1  4 

?  ? 

2.9 

4.3 

4  6 

4.3 

3  0 

3.6 

?,  7 

1  8 

1.7 

34.0 

Dulutn,  Minn  

1.0 

1.0 

1.6 

2.1 

3.5 

4  5 

3.6 

3  A 

3.6 

?  7 

1  6 

1.2 

29.9 

Eastport,  Me  

'3.8 

3.6 

4.3 

2.9 

3.8 

3.2 

3.4 

3.3 

3.0 

3.8 

4.1 

4.0 

43.3 

El  Paso,  Tex  

Fresno  Cal 

1  6 

1  3 

1  8 

7 

6 

1 

o 

.0 

3 

.7 

.6 
1  0 

1  5 

9.8 
9  7 

Galveston,  Tex  

3  6 

3  1 

?  9 

3.1 

3.2 

4  8 

4.0 

5  n 

5.4 

4  2 

4  0 

3.7 

47.1 

Green  Bay,  Wis  

1  7 

1.6 

2  4 

2.4 

3.6 

3  6 

3.5 

s  i 

3.1 

?  4 

?  0 

1.8 

31.1 

Harrisburg  Pa 

2  8 

2  7 

3  1 

2  5 

3  7 

3  6 

3.9 

4.2 

2.8 

3  0 

2.4 

2.6 

37.3 

Havre,  Mont  

.7 

5 

5 

1.0 

2.1 

?  8 

1.9 

1  3 

1.0 

.5 

8 

.6 

13.7 

g 

7 

7 

1  i 

2  0 

2  1 

1  i 

7 

1  i 

.8 

7 

g 

12.8 

Huron,  S.  Dak  

.5 

.4 

1  0 

2.6 

2.9 

3  8 

2.9 

?  6 

1.7 

1  3 

6 

.6 

21.1 

Indianapolis,  Ind  

2  8 

3  1 

4  0 

3.5 

3.9 

4.3 

4.1 

3  3 

3.0 

?  8 

?  5 

3.0 

41.5 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

3  1 

3  4 

3  5 

2  7 

4  2 

5  5 

6  2 

6  ? 

8.0 

5  1 

2  2 

3.0 

53.2 

Jupiter  Fla 

3  6 

3  0 

3  1 

2  6 

4  8 

6  9 

5  4 

5  8 

9  6 

9  5 

3  0 

2  9 

60  2 

Kansas  City.  Mo  

1.1 

1  6 

?  8 

3.3 

5.1 

4.7 

4.8 

4  8 

3.8 

?  2 

18 

1.4 

37.4 

Knoxville,  Tenn  

5  0 

4.9 

5  6 

4.6 

3.7 

4.2 

4.2 

4  0 

2.8 

fl  6 

1  6 

4.2 

49.4 

Lander,  Wyo    

4 

.6 

1  6 

2.5 

2.9 

1.1 

.9 

5 

1.0 

1  0 

fi 

.7 

13.8 

Little  Rock,  Ark  

4  g 

4  2 

4  9 

4  5 

5  1 

41 

4  0 

3.6 

3.3 

?,  6 

4  6 

4.2 

49.9 

Los  Angeles  Cal  .  . 

2  8 

2  9 

3  0 

1  i 

5 

1 

.0 

-0 

.1 

8 

1  5 

2.9 

15  6 

Louisville  Ky 

3  9 

3  8 

4  3 

4  i 

3  6 

4  2 

3  7 

3  5 

2  6 

2  6 

4  2 

3  7 

44  3 

3  7 

3  5 

3  8 

3  2 

4  0 

3  9 

4.0 

4.2 

3  6 

3  4 

2  8 

3  3 

43  4 

5  1 

6  5 

6  4 

4.2 

3  8 

4  2 

4.  7 

4  2 

2  9 

2  4 

3  1 

4.5 

51  2 

New  Orleans,  La  

4.6 

4,5 

5  3 

4.9 

3  9 

6  2 

6  5 

5.6 

4.8 

?  9 

3  8 

4  5 

57  4 

New  York,  N  Y  

3  g 

3  7 

4.1 

3  3 

3  2 

3  3 

4.5 

4.5 

3  6 

3  7 

3  4 

3  4 

44  6 

Northfield,  Vt 

2.5 

2.3 

2  8 

2  i 

2.8 

3  2 

3  7 

3  9 

2  8 

2  5 

2.6 

2.7 

33  8 

North  Platte.  Nebr  
Oklahoma  Okla 

.5 
1  3 

.4 

1  0 

.9 
2  4 

2.2 
2.8 

3.1 
5  8 

3.2 
3.  1 

2.7 
3  6 

2.5 
3  2 

1.5 
2  8 

1.2 
1  8 

.4 

2  2 

.5 
1  7 

18.9 
31  7 

Omaha,  Nebr  
Oswego.N.  Y  

.6 

3  2 

.8 
2  6 

1.4 

2  g 

3.0 
2  3 

4.5 

2  8 

5.0 
3  4 

4.3 
3  2 

3.6 

2  7 

3.0 
2  g 

2.4 
3  3 

1.1 
3  4 

.9 
3  6 

30.7 
36  2 

Palestine,  Tex 

3  g 

3  4 

3  5 

4.  1 

4.9 

4.  0 

3  0 

2.2 

3  2 

3  6 

3  6 

3  7 

43  0 

Parkersburg,  W.  Va  
Phoenix,  Ariz  

3.2 
1.2 

3:2 
.7 

3.8 
.5 

2.9 
.4 

3.5 

(i) 

4.6 
1 

4.7 
1.1 

3.5 

1.0 

2.7 
1  0 

2.4 
.4 

2.8 
1  0 

2.8 
.6 

40.2 
7  9 

Port  Huron,  Mich  

1  9 

2  2 

2  4 

2  1 

k  i 

3  2 

2  7 

2  6 

2  7 

?  7 

2  7 

2  2 

30  6 

Portland,  Oreg  

6  5 

5  7 

5  2 

3  0 

2  4 

1  8 

5 

6 

1  8 

3  7 

6.5 

7  3 

45  1 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak  
RedBlun<Cal  
St.  Louis,  Mo 

.4 

3.9 
2  3 

.5 
3.6 
2  g 

1.0 
3.8 
3  4 

2.3 
1.8 
3  5 

2.9 
1.3 
4-  2 

3.6 
.5 
4.5 

2.6 
.0 
3  4 

2.1 

(l) 
2  7 

1.3 
.8 
2  9 

1.1 
1.6 
2  4 

.5 
3.2 
2  9 

.5 
4.5 
2  2 

18.7 
25.0 
37  2 

St.  Paul,  Minn  ... 

9 

g 

1  6 

2.3 

3  6 

4  4 

3  4 

3  5 

3  4 

2  3 

1  3 

1  i 

28  7 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  
San  Antonio,  Tex  
San  Francisco,  Cal  
Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex  
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich  
Seattle,  Wash 

1.4 
1.7 
4.3 
.6 
2.2 
4.  5 

1.4 
1.8 
3.7 
.8 
1.4 
3  9 

2.» 
1.7 
3.1 
.7 
1.8 
3  6 

2.3 
2.9 
1.8 
.9 
2.1 
2  7 

2.0 
3.0 
.8 
1.1 
3.2 
2  3 

.8 
3.1 
.2 
1.0 
2.8 
1  7 

.5 
2.2 
(') 
2.7 
2.8 

.8 
2.7 
.0 
2.4 
3.1 
5 

.8 
2.9 
.3 
1.6 
3.5 
1  9 

1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
1.1 
3.3 
2  9 

1.4 
1.8 
2.5 
.8 
2.9 
5  9 

1.3 
1.6 
4.2 
.8 
2.3 
6.0 

16.0 
26.8 
22.3 
14.5 
31.4 
36  6 

Shreveport,  La  

4  4 

3  6 

4  5 

4^6 

4.2 

3  6 

3  7 

2  2 

3  2 

3  2 

4  1 

4.  4 

45  7 

Spokane,  Wash  
Springfield,  111  
Springfield,  Mo 

2.3 
2.2 
2.7 

1.9 
2.8 
2  3 

1.5 
3.1 
4  1 

1.3 
3.3 
3  9 

1.6 
4.5 
5  6 

1.6 
4.3 
5  2 

.7 
2.9 
4  g 

.5 

2.8 
4  3 

1.0 
3.4 
3  8 

1.5 

2.6 
2  8 

2.3 
2.7 
2  g 

2.6 
2.4 
2  7 

18.8 
37.0 
44  6 

Tampa,  Fla  

2.8 

3  3 

2  8 

18 

2  9 

8  3 

8  4 

8  6 

7  4 

3  0 

1  7 

2  0 

53  1 

Vicksburg,  Miss... 

5  7 

4.6 

6  2 

1  5  2 

4  3 

4.5 

4.  4 

3  5 

3  3 

2  8 

4  2 

5  0 

53  7 

Walla  Walla,  Wash  
Washington,  D.  C  . 
Williston,  N.  Dak  

2.0 
3.4 

6 

1.6 
3.4 
5 

1.9 
3.8 
7 

1.7 
3.2 
1  2 

1.8 
3.8 
2  3 

1.2 
4.2 
3  6 

.4 
4.6 
2  0 

.4 

4.4 
1  3 

.9 
3.6 
9 

1.5 
3.1 
g 

2.1 
2.7 
g 

2.1 
3.2 
7 

17.7 
43.5 
15  1 

Wilmington,  N  C 

3  5 

3  4 

3  6 

2  9 

4  0 

5  6 

7  0 

6  5 

5  3 

3  7 

2  4 

3  1 

51  0 

Winnemucca.  Nev  

1  0 

g 

1  0 

9 

1  0 

6 

2 

2 

3 

5 

7 

1  0 

8.  4 

>  The  figures  represent  inches  and  cover  the  36-year  period,  1871  to  1906,  inclusive.    Stations  not  having 
that  length  of  record  have  been  corrected  accordingly. 
*  Indicates  trace  of  precipitation. 


518 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WHEN  STARS  ARE  ADDED  TO  OUR  FLAG. 


We  have  met  the  opinion  that  a  star  was 
added  immediately  upon  the  proclamation  of 
the  President  that  a  State  was  admitted  to 
the  Union.  To  make  certain  of  the  fact  we 
referred  the  question  to  the  Librarian  of  the 
War  Department  and  have  received  from  him 
a  reference  to  the  law  upon  the  subject.  It 
is  found  in  U.  S.  Statutes  at  Large,  3:415, 
act  of  April  4,  1818,  and  enacts  that  the  star 
for  a  new  state  shall  be  added  to  the  flag  .upon 
the  fourth  of  July  succeeding  the  admission  of 


the  state.  In  accordance  with  this  law  two 
stars  have  been  added  to  the  flag  on  July  4, 
1912,  making  48  stars.  They  have  been  placed 
in  six  rows  of  eight  stars  each.  The  last  states 
to  be  admitted  to  the  Union  were  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico.  Their  Statehood  bill  was  signed 
by  the  President  on  August  21,  1911,  subject 
to  certain  changes  in  their  constitutions.  The 
proclamation  of  the  President  has  been  made 
admitting  these  states  and  their  stars  became 
part  of  the  flag  on  July  4,  1912. 


DIMENSIONS  OF  PRINCIPAL  DOMES. 


Diameter.  Height. 

Pantheon,  Rome,  Italy.    142       ft.  143       ft. 

Cathedral,  Florence....    139        "  310 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 139        "  330 

Capitol,       Washington, 
TT.  S.  A.t 124M    " 


Diameter.     Height. 

St.    Sophia,    Constanti- 
nople     115       ft.     201       ft. 

Baths   of   Caracalla, 

(Ancient  Rome) 112        "      116 

St.  Paul's.  London 112        "      215        " 


BOILER  OF  MOST  POWERFUL  LOCOMOTIVE  IN  THE  WORLD. 
This  locomotive  can  haul  155  loaded  50-ton  capacity  freight  cars  at  10  miles  per  hour. 
It  has  16  driving  wheels.      Locomotive  and  tender  weigh  752,000  pounds.    The  firebox  is  large 
enough  to  hold  a  Dinkey  switching  locomotive.     Built  for  the  Virginian  Ry.  Co. 


Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn   &  Co.,    Inc. 

THE  ROOSEVELT  DAM. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


MACHINE   ELEMENTS   AND 
MECHANICAL   MOVEMENTS 


MACHINE  ELEMENTS 


The  Machine  Element3  or  Powers  are  the 
Lever  and  the  Inclined  Plane.  Every  ma- 
chine when  analyzed  is  found  to  be  made  up 
of  these  elements,  either  singly  or  in  com- 
bination; for  example,  pulleys,  gear  wheels, 
etc.,  are  forms  of  levers,  while  screws,  cams, 
etc..  are  forms  of  inclined  planes. 

There  are  four  distinct  types  of  levers,  as 
shown  in  our  illustration. 

1st.  The  Common  Lever,  consisting  of  a 
straight  inflexible  bar  movable  9n  a  fulcrum. 
The  section  of  the  bar  extending  from  the 
fulcrum  to  the  point  where  the  power  is  ap- 
plied is  called  the  Power  Arm,  and  the  section 
extending  from  *he  fulcrum  to  the  point 
where  the  weight  is  applied  is  called  the 
Weight  Arm. 

2d.  The  Angular  or  Bell  Crank  Lever.  This 
is  distinguished  from  the  Common  Lever  in 
having  its  power  arms  disposed  at  an  angle 
to  the  weight  arms. 

3d.  The  Wheel  and  Axle,  or  Revolving 
Lever.  A  wheel  and  axle  or  two  concentric 
wheels  take  the  place  of  the  power  and  weight 
arms.  The  weight  is  attached  to  a  rope  coiled 
on  one  of  the  wheels,  and  the  power  is  at- 
tached to  a  rope  coiled  on  the  other  wheel. 
The  relation  of  this  lever  to  the  common  lever» 
is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  it  will  be 
evident  that  this  relation  remains  constant 
even  when  the  wheels  are  revolving. 

4th.  The  Pulley-  Another  type  of  revolv- 
ing lever,  but  differing  from  the  wheel  and 
axle  type  in  that  a  single  wheel  is  used  and 
the  fulcrum  is  not  necessarily  always  at  the 
center  of  the. wheel. 

Each  of  these  types  of  the  simple  lever  is 
capable  of  three  different  arrangements  usu- 
ally termed  "Orders."  In  the  First  Order 
the  fulcrum  lies  between  the  weight  and  the 
power.  In  the  Second  Order  the  weight  lies 
between  £he  fulcrum  and  the  power.  In  the 
Third  Order  the  power  lies  between  the  ful- 
crum and  the  weight.  The  second  order  gives 
the  longest  power  arm  relative  to  the  weight 
arm,  and  consequently  is  the  most  powerful 
lever  of  the  three.  The  formulae  for  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  power  required  to  bal- 
ance a  given  weight,  are  given  at  the  bottom 
of  the  illustration.  In  measuring  the  arms 
of  the  angular  levers  the  measurements 
should  not  be  taken  along  the  length  of  the 
arms,  but  in  the  horizontal  plane  as  shown, 
because  this  measurement  represents  the  true 
theoretical  length  of  the  lever  arm.  As  the 
lever  is  moved  about  the  fulcrum,  the  ratio 
of  the  power  arm  to  the  weight  arm  changes 
as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  first  order 
of  angular  levers,  because  the  arm  that  is  ap- 
proaching the  horizontal  plane  is  increasing 
in  length,  while  the  other  which  is  moving 
toward  the  vertical  plane  is  decreasing  in 


length.  The  same  Is  true  in  a  modified  form 
of  the  second  and  third  orders  of  angular 
levers. 

In  the  case  of  the  pulleys  the  power  and 
weight  arms  bear  a  definite  relation  to  each 
other.  No  matter  what  their  size  may  be, 
the  power  arm  will  always  be  of  the  same  length 
as  the  weight  arm  in  pulleys  of  the  first  order, 
consequently  the  power  must  be  equal  to  the 
weight  in  order  to  keep  the  lever  in  equilib- 
rium. In  pulleys  of  the  second  order  the 
power  arm  will  be  twice  the  length  of  the 
weight  arm,  consequently  the  power  must  be 
equal  to  half  of  the  weight  in  order  to  keep 
the  lever  in  equilibrium;  and  in  pulleys  of 
the  third  order  the  power  arm  will  be  half  the 
length  of  the  weight  arm,  consequently  the 
power  must  equal  twice  the  weight  in  order 
to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  lever. 

The  compound  levers  consist  of  two  or  more 
simple  levers  bf  the  same  or  different  orders 
coupled  together,  either  for  the  purposes  of 
convenience  or  to  increase  the  power. 

Of  the  two  compound  common  levers  illus- 
trated, Figure  1  shows  two  common  levers 
of  the  first  order  coupled  together,  and  Fig- 
ure 2  represents  a  common  lever  of  the  first 
order  coupled  to  a  common  lever  of  the  sec- 
ond order. 

The  compound  revolving  lever  illustrated 
is  a  combination  of  a  wheel  and  axle  of  the 
second  osder,  operating  a  pulley  of  the  second 
order.  This  compound  lever  is  also  called  a 
"Chinese  windlass,"  owing  to  its  early  use 
by  the  Chinese  for  lifting  heavy  weights,  such 
as  draw-bridges,  ete. 

The.  com  pound  pulleys  or  tackle  shown  are 
various  combinations  of  pulleys  of  the  same 
or  different  orders.  As  in  the  case  of  the  sim- 
ple pulleys,  the  weight  and  power  arms  bear 
a  constant  relation  to  each  other,  and  it  is 
therefore  possible  to  give  the  numerical  value" 
of  the  power  in  terms  of  the  weight,  or  vice 
versa,  afforded  by  the  different  types  of  tackle, 
regardless  of  the  size  of  the  individual  pulleys 
they  comprise.  The  following  simple  formula 
is  applicable  to  all  tackle  in  which  a  continu- 
ous length  of  rope  is  used,  as  in  Figures  1,  2, 
and  3:  Power  equals  weight  divided  by  the 
number  of  rope  parts  supporting  the  weight. 
In  Figure  3,  for  instance,  there  are  five  such 
parts,  not  counting  of  course  the  part  on 
which  the  power  is  applied.  Figures  4  to  9 
are  all  rather  complex,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  power  is  transmitted  to  the  weight  through 
one  or  more  movable  pulley  blocks  connected 
by  separate  ropes.  Figures  4  and  5  show 
tackle  arrangements  called  Spanish  burtons. 
A  general  formula,  applicable  to  any  number 

TT7 

of  pulleys  arranged  as  in  Fig.  6,  is  P  =  ^  _• 


519 


520 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


.Li. 


! 

1  i 

1.1 


IIP 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  -BOOK. 


521 


*h 

I 

^ 


I 


K 


_JL 


ft-KD 

1 


...L 


X 


J 


\ 


IT 


522 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


in  which  P  represents  'the  power,  W  the 
weight,  and  n  the  number  of  ropes  used.  The 
general  formula  for  the  arrangement  shown 

TT7' 

in  Figure  7  is  P  =  — .  The  general  formula 
for  the  arrangement  shown  in  Figure  8  is 
•P—  •=•  The  general  formula  for  the  arrange- 


ment shown  in  Figure  9  is  P 


W 


There  are  three  general  classes  of  inclined 
planes,  the  simple  inclined  plane,  the  wedge 
or  movable  inclined  plane,  and  the  screw  or 
revolving  inclined  plane.  There  are  three 
general  types  of  simple  inclined  planes,  as 
illustrated.  1st.  That  in  which  the  power 
acts  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  inclined 
face  of  the  inclined  plane.  2d.  That  in 


which  the  power  acts  parallel  with  the  base 
of  the  inclined  plane.  3d.  That  in  which  the 
power  acts  at  an  angle  both  to  the  face  and  to 
the  base  of  the  inclined  plane.  The  formulae 
for  determining  the  mechanical  advantage 
secured  by  the  different  forms  of  incline.d 
planes  are  given  in  the  illustration.  In  ttie 
third  type  of  inclined  plane  the  relation  of 
power  to  weight  changes  as  the  weight  is 
drawn  up  the  plane,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  angle  B  becomes  gradually  larger. 

There  are  two  types  of  wedges,  the  single 
wedge  and  the  double  wedge.  The  latter  is. 
the  more  common  type. 

Under  revolving  inclined  planes  we  have 
the  screw  together  with  the  cam  (not  illus- 
trated here),  which  are  more  commonly  used 
in  machinery  than  any  other  type  of  inclined 
plane. 


MALLET  ARTICULATED  LOCOMOTIVE  FOR  THE  VIRGINIAN  RY.  CO. 

This  is  a  fine  type  of  locomotive.  It  develops  a  tractive  force  of  97,200  pounds,  and  is 
capable  of  hauling  a  train  of  twenty  cars,  weighing  78  tons  each,  with  a  caboose,  up  a  com- 
pensated grade  of  two  and  seven  hundredths  per  cent.  The  boiler  is  of  the  separable  type 
with  a  feed-water  heater  in  the  front  section.  This  locomotive  is  capable  of  traversing  23° 


PIPING  ARRANGEMENT  OF  BALDWIN  MALLET  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Note   flue   leading  through   feed-water  heater. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


523 


MECHANICAL  MOVEMENTS 


TOOTHED     GEAR. 

1.  SPUR    GEARS. — The    ordinary    form    of 
toothed-wheel.     The    smaller    of    two    inter- 
meshing  gear-wheels  whether  a  spur-  or  bevel- 
wheel  is  called  a  Pinion. 

2.  GEAR  WITH  MORTISED  TEETH. — This  is 
what   is    ordinarily    known    as    a   Cog-wheel 
among  machinists.     The  wheel  is  ordinarily 
made  of  iron  and  the  teeth  of  wood. 

3.  STEP  GEAR.— The    face   of  this  gear  is 
divided  into  sections  with  the  teeth  of  the 
different  sections  arranged  in  steps;  that  is, 
one   in    advance    of    the    other.     Step   gear- 
wheels  are   useful  •  in    heavy   machinery,   as 
they  give  a   practically   continuous   bearing 
between  the  intermeshlng  teeth  of  the  gear- 
wheels. 

4.  OBLIQUE    TOOTHED    GEAR. — The    teeth 
are  cut  diagonally  across  the  working  face  of 
the  wheel  so  as  to  give  the  gear-wheel  a  side 
thrust.     In  a  double  oblique  toothed-gear,  usu- 
ally called  a  V-toothed  gear,  the  thrust  in 
one    direction,  is    neutralized    by    an    equal 
thrust  in  the  opposite  direction.     As  in  the 
stepped-gear  it  gives   a  continuous  bearing 
of  the  teeth. 

5.  INTERNAL.  OR    ANNULAR    GEAR. — The 
teeth  are  formed  on  the  inner  periphery  of  a 
ring.     This  type  of   gear  is  used   in  heavy 
machinery,  because  it  offers  a  greater  hold 
for  the  teeth  of  the  driving  pinion.     There  is 
less  sliding  friction  between  the  teeth  than  in 
the  usual  outside  spur-gear  and  pinion. 

6.  STAR  WHEEL  GEARS.— The  teeth  are  ?o 
formed  as  to  permit  an  appreciable  separation 
of   the  gear-wheels  without  preventing  them 
from    properly    meshing  one  with  the  other. 
These  gears  are  used  on  wringing  machines,  etc. 

7.  ELLIPTICAL  GEARS. — Due -to  their  ellip- 
tical form,  while  the  driving-gear  rotates  at 
constant  speed,  the  other  gear  will  be  rotated 
at  a  variable  speed.      That  is,  its  motion  will 
first  be  accelerated  and  then  retarded.     They 
are  used  in  some  machines  to  produce  a  slow 
powerful  stroke  followed  by  a  quick  return. 

8.  ANGULAR  GEARS. — These  gears  have  a 
rectangular   form    and,    as    in    the   elliptical 
gears,  they  serve  to  transform  uniform  rotary 
movement   into   variable   rotary  movement. 
However,  this  movement  is  more  jerky  than 
that  produced  by  elliptical  gears.     Angular 
gears  are  very  seldom  used. 

9.  LANTERN  GEAR. — The  teeth  consist  of 
pins  which  lie  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
gear-wheel,  and  are  -secured  at  their  ends  in 
two  disks  or  gear   heads.     The  pins  are  so 
spaced  as  to  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur- 
gear.     The  lantern-gear  permits  limited  slid- 
ing movement  of  the  spur-gear  along  its  axis. 
It  can  be  very  cheaply  made,  but  is  used  chiefly 
for  light  work,  such  as  clock  mechanism,  etc. 


10.  CROWN  GEAR. — The  teeth  project  per- 
pendicularly from  a  side  face  of  the  wheel 
instead  of  lying  in  the  plane  of  the  wheel. 
When  in  mesh  with  the  teeth  of  a  spur-gear 
or  a  lantern-gear,  it  forms  a  cheap  method  of 
transmitting  power  from  one  shaft  to  another 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.     Crown  gears 
are  useful  for  light  work,  and  were  common 
in  old  clock  mechanisms.     They  used  to  be 
known  as  Contrate  wheels. 

11.  BEVEL  GEARS. — The  ordinary  gear  for 
transmitting  power  from   one  shaft   to  an- 
other at  an  angle  thereto.     When  the  wheels 
are  of  the  same  size  and  operate  on  shafts, 
lying  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  one  with  the 
other,  they  are  called  Miter  gears. 

12.  WORM  OR  SCREW  GEAH.— An  endless 
screw    engages    a    spur-gear     with     spirally 
disposed  teeth.     The  screw  is  called  a  worm, 
and  the  spur-gear  a  worm-wheel.     A  much 
diminished  but  very  powerful  motion  is  com- 
municated from  the  worm  to  the  worm-wheel. 
It  is  used  in  heavy  machinery. 

13.  CUBVED  WORM    GEAR. — The    working 
face  of  the  worm  is  curved  so  that  a  number 
of  teeth   will   be   in  mesh  with  the  worm- 
wheel,  thus  giving  greater  strength.     It  is  a 
difficult  matter   to   cut   the   thread   of   thii* 
worm  correctly  owing  to  its  varying  pitch. 
The  gear  is  called  the  saw-tooth  gear  when 
the  teeth  and  thread  are  V-shaped,  as  illus- 
trated. 

14.  SPIRAL     OR     HELICAL     GEARS. — The 
teeth   are   spirally  disposed   on   the   working 
faces  of  the  wheels  so  that  they  will  transmit 
motion  to  shafts  lying  at  right  angles  one 
with  the  other. 

15.  SKEW    GEARS. — The    gears    rotate    on 
shafts  which  lie  in  different  planes  and  at  an 
angle  with  each  other.     The  drawing  shows 
a  skew  spur-gear  meshing  with  a  bevel-gear. 
The.  same  term   would   apply  to  two  bevel 
gears  lying  in  different  planes  and  at  angles 
to  each  other. 

16.  RACK    AND    PINION. — A  spur-gear  en- 
gages a  toothed  bar.      Rectilinear  motion  is 
by    this   mechanism    transformed    to   rotary 
motion  or  vice  versa.      It  is  quite  common 
in  heavy  machinery  to  find  a  worm  meshing 
with  and  driving  a  rack. 

17.  SPHERICAL     OR     GLOBOID    GEAR.  —  A 
spiral  thread  is  cut  on  a  spherical  body  and 
meshes  with  the  spiral  teeth  of  the  spur  pin- 
ion.   The  latter  is  so  mounted  that  it  may  be 
swung  to  different  positions  on  the  spherical 
gear,  without  varying  its  speed  of  rotation. 

18.  GEAR     WITH     ROLLER     TEETH. — The 
teeth  project  from  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel, 
and  consist   of  pins    carrying  rollers.      This 
construction  is  used  to  reduce  friction. 

19.  PIN  WHEEL. — The  flat  face  of  the  gear 
is  studded  with  pins  which  are  adapted  to 


524 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


mesh  with  slots  formed  in  the  edge  of  a 
pinion.  The  pinion  is  so  mounted  that  it  can 
be  moved  toward  or  from  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  to  vary  its  speed  of  rotation.  When 
the  pinion  is  moved  past  the  center  of  the 
pin  wheel  its  direction  of  rotation  is  reversed. 

20.  SPIRAL  HOOP  GEAR.— A  spiral  thread  is 
formed  on  the  flat  face  of  the  wheel  and  this 
meshes  with  a  worm-wheel.     The  latter  is 
moved  forward  one  tooth  at  each  complete 
rotation   of  the  spiral   hoop.     This  gives  a 
powerful  drive,  though,  of  course,  at  a  greatly 
diminished  speed. 

21.  INTERMITTENT  GEAR  OR  GENEVA  STOP. 
— The  driving-wheel  is  provided  with  a  single 
tooth  adapted  to  engage  one  of  a  series  of 
notches  in  the  other  wheel.     At  each  com- 
plete rotation  of  the  driving-wheel  the  other 
wheel  is  moved  forward  one  notch  but  no 
more,  due  to  the  concave  space  between  the 
notches  which  fits  closely  against  the  circum- 
ference of  the  other  wheel.     In  the  Geneva 
stop  one  of  these  spaces  is  formed  with  a 
convex   outline, -as   illustrated.     When    this 
space  is  reached  both  wheels  are  prevented 
from  further  rotation  forward.     The  Geneva 
stop  is  used  on  watches  to  prevent  winding 
up  the  main  spring  too  tightly. 

22.  INTERMITTENT  BEVEL,  GEAR  OR  MITI- 
L.ATED  GEAR. — The  teeth  are  formed  only  at 
intervals    on    the    face    of    the    gears.     The 
space  between  the  teeth  in  the  driving-gear  is 
convex,  and  that  between  the  teeth  in  the 
other  gear  is  concave,  so  that  when  the  teeth 
are    not    in    mesh    with    each    other   these 
convex  and  concave  portions  fit-  into  each 
other  and  prevent  the  driven  gear  from  mov- 
ing forward  under  its  own  momentum. 

23.  VARIABLE    GEARS. — The    gear    wheels 
are  made  up  of  gear  sectors  of  different  radial 
length,  which  produce  suddenly  varying  mo- 
tions of  the  driven  gear  due  to  the  varying 
leverage  between  the  wheels.     The  segments 
are  arranged  on  different  planes  so  as  not  to 
interfere  one  with  the  other. 

24.  SCROLL,    GEARS. — The    gears    have    a 
scroll  form  which  produces  a  gradually  in- 
creasing   or    decreasing    speed    during    each 
rotation.     These  gears  are  also  called  cam 
gears. 

25.  ELLIPTICAL  BEVEL  GEARS. — They  pro- 
duce variable  motion  of  a  shaft  lying  at  right 
angles   to   the   driving  shaft.     This  gear   is 
used  on  bicycles  to  give  increased  power  on 
the  downstroke  of  the  pedal  and  a  quick 
movement  on  the  return. 

26.  VARIABLE  PIN  WHEEL. — A  cone  is  pro- 
vided with  pins  arranged  spirally  thereon,  and 
these  mesh  with  teeth  formed  on  the  other 
cone.     When  one  cone  is  rotated  at  a  con- 
stant speed  the  other  moves  with  a  gradually 
increasing  or  decreasing  speed  during  each 
rotation. 

27.  CAM-TOOTHED      PINION. — The      pinion 
consists    of    two  oppositely  disposed  heart- 
shaped  teeth,  mounted  side  by  side,  on  a 
shaft.     The    gear-wheel     with     which     they 
mesh  has  teeth  alternately  arranged  on  oppo- 
site  side   faces.     Due   to    the    form    of   the 
pinion  teeth,  the  gear-wheel  is  locked  after 
being  moved  forward  by  one  tooth  until  the 
other   tooth   comes   into  mesh  with  a  tooth 
on  the  other  face  of  the  wheel. 

28.  BEVEL  SCROLL  GEAR. — The  gear-wheel 
consists  of  a  bevel  spiral  scroll  which  meshes 
with  a  bevel  pinion.     As.  the  spiral  scroll 


rotates  it  causes  the  pinion  to  slide  forward 
on  its  shaft,  and  thus  varies  its  speed. 

FRICTION  GEAR. 

29.  FLAT-FACED  FRICTION  GEAR. — A  com- 
mon type  of  friction  gear.     The  wheels  are 
usually  faced  with  rubber  or  leather  to  in- 
crease the  frictional  hold  between  the  wheels. 
One  of  the  wheels  is  journaled  in  bearings 
which   can    be    adjusted    toward    the    other 
wheel  so  as  to  increase  the  frictional  engage- 
ment. 

30.  GROOVED  FRICTION  GEAR. — The  faces 
of  the  wheels  are  grooved  so  as  to  increase  the 
bearing   surface.     The    best   results   are   ob- 
tained by  pressing  the  wheels  but  slightly  into 
engagement  with  each  other,  as  this  produces 
little  loss  of  power  by  friction. 

31.  ADJUSTABLE    FRICTION    PINION. — The 
pinion  is  formed  of  a  disk  of  rubber  or  other 
flexible  material  held  between  two  washers. 
When  these  washers  are  tightened  together 
they   press   out   the   rubber   between    them, 
crowding  it  into  closer  contact  with  the  V- 
groove  of  the  gear  with  which  it  engages. 

32.  BEVELED    FRICTION   GEAR. — Two  cone 
frustums  are  used  to  convey  motion  from  one 
shaft  to  another  at  right  angles  thereto. 

33.  FRICTION    DRUMS.— The    drums    have 
concave  faces  which  permit  them  to  transmit 
motion  one  to  the  other  while  lying  at  an 
acute  angle  with  each  other. 

34  to  40.  VARIABLE  SPEED  FRICTION 
GEAR. — 34,  a  pinion,  engages  the  flat  face  of 
the  friction  disk.  Variable  motion  is  pro- 
duced by  moving  the  pinion  across  the  face 
of  the  disk.  When  the  center  of  the  disk  is 
reached  no  motion  is  transmitted.  Beyond 
the  center  the  direction  of  motion  transmitted 
is  reversed.  35.  Motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  friction  disk  to  another  lying  parallel,  but 
not  in  alignment  therewith,  through  an  inter- 
mediary pinion.  This  pinion  can  be  moved 
vertically  to  engage  different  points  on  the 
friction  disks,  and  thus  produce  any  desired 
variation  in  the  speed  transmitted.  36.  Two 
convex  friction  disks  are  so  arranged  that  one 
may  be  swung  through  an  angle  bringing  dif- 
ferent points  on  its  surface  into  contact  with 
the  face  of  the  other  disk.  In  this  manner 
the  speed  of  the  motion  transmitted  is  varied. 
This  gear  is  used  on  sewing-machines.  37. 
Two  parallel  friction  disks  are  each  provided 
with  an  annular  concavity.  Motion  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  disk  to  the  other  by  a  friction 
pinion  mounted  between  the  disks,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  can  be  rotated  to  engage  differ- 
ent points  on  the  surfaces  of  the  concavities, 
thereby  varying  the  speed  transmitted. 
38.  A  cone  with  concave  face  is  engaged  by  a 
pinion  which  may  be  swung  about  a  center 
to  engage  different  points  on  the  face  of  the 
cone.  39.  Two  cones  with  concave  faces  are 
mounted  on  shafts  running  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  Motion  is  transmitted  from  one 
cone  to  the  other  through  a  friction  pinion 
mounted  to  swivel  so  as  to  engage  different 
points  on  the  faces  of  the  cones.  40.  Two 
friction  cones  are  mounted  on  parallel  shafts, 
and  between  them  runs  a  friction  pinion  hav- 
ing two  faces,  one  engaging  the  upper  cone 
and  the  other  engaging  the  lower  cone.  This 
provides  a  broad  bearing  surface.  The 
pinion  may  be  moved  to  different  positions 
along  the  faces  of  the  cones,  and  thereby  pro- 
duce changes  in  the  speed. 


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CHAIN  ^GEAR. 

41.  SPROCKET  WHEEL. — The  wheel  is  pro- 
vided with  teeth  adapted  to  fit  in  between  the 
links  of  a  chain.      The  chain  may  be  of  the 
ordinary  oval  welded  link  type  or  of  the  flat 
riveted  type  used  on  bicycles. 

42.  LINK-BELT     WHEEL. — The     chain      is 
made  up  of  square  links  which  are  engaged 
by  ratchet-shaped  teeth  on  the  chain  wheel. 

43.  POCKET  WHEEL. — The  wheel  is  formed 
with  pockets  into  which  the  links  of  the  chain 
are  adapted  to  fit. 

44.  SIDE-TOOTHED  WHEEL. — The  wheel   is 
formed  with  two  sets  of  teeth  between  which 
the  chain  travels.     The   teeth   bear  against 
the  ends  of  the  outer  links  of  the  chain. 

45.  SIDE     AND    CENTEH    TOOTHED    CHAIN 
WHEEL. — This  wheel  is  similar  to  that  shqwn 
in  Fig.  44,  but  has  in  addition  a  row  of  teeth 
along  the  center  which  bear  against  the  cen- 
ter link  of  the  chain. 

46.  TOOTHED-LINK   CHAIN  AND   WHEEL. — 
The  links  are  formed  with  projecting  teeth 
which  fit  into  notches  on  the  rim  of  the  chain 
wheel. 

47.  "SILENT"  CHAIN  AND  WHEEL. — This  is 
a  special  type  of  chain  in  which  each  link  is 
formed  with  a  tooth  at  each  end.     The  teeth 
of  adjacent  links  coact  to  completely  fill  the 
spaces  between  the  teeth  of  the  chain  wheel. 
The   construction   is   such   as   to   produce   a 
noiseless  operation  of  the  chain  gear  even  at 
high  speeds. 

48.  DETACHABLE  TOOTHED-LINK  BELT  AND 
WHEEL. — Each  link  is  formed  with  a  tooth, 
which  meshes  with  the  teeth  of  the  chain 
wheel.     The  construction  of  each  link  is  such 
that  it  may  be  readily  slipped  into  or  out  of 
engagement  with  the  next  link  of  the  chain. 

ROPE    GEAR.    • 

49.  V-PULLEY., — The  ordinary  type  of  pul- 
ley for  round  ropes  or  cables.     Owing  to  the 
V-shaped  construction  of  the  pulley  groove., 
the    rope    wedges    tightly    into    engagement 
with  the  pulley. 

50.  PULLEY  WITH  FLEXIBLE  FILLING.— In 
order  to  secure  f notional  engagement  of  the 
cable  with  this  pulley,  the  pulley  groove. is 
provided   with   rubber,   leather,   wooden,   or 
other  filling. 

51.  PULLEY    WITH    RIBBED    GROOVE. —  In 
this  construction  of  pulley  the  required  grip 
is  produced  by  forming  ribs  in  the  bottom  of 
a  pulley  groove. 

52.  PULLEY    WITH    GRIPPING    LUGS. — The 
flanges  of  this  pulley  are  formed  with  lugs 
which  kink  the  rope  or  cable  as  shown,  thus 
producing  the  required  grip. 

53.  ROPE  SPROCKET-WHEEL. — An  old  form 
of  rope  gear  used  in  hoists  and  the  like. 

54  and  55.  GRIPPING  PuLLEYS.^Gripping 
arms  are  provided  which  grip  the  cable  at  the 
point  where  the  cable  presses  into  the  pulley. 
In  54  the  gripping  arms  are  wedged  inward 
by  the-  side  walls  of  the  pulley  groove  when 
pressed  downward  by  the  cable.  These  arms 
are  normally  h  Id  up  by  coil  springs.  In  55 
the  cable  is  gripped  by  the  toggle  movement 
of  hinged  clips  placed  at  intervals  along  the 
periphery  of  the  pulley. 

58,  CABLB  SPROCKET- WHEKL. — The  cable 
in  provided  with  clamt>a  which  enter  sockets 
formed  in  the  cable  wheel.  This  is  a  forni  of 
cable  gear  commonly  used  at  present  in  ele* 
,  rating  {ind  e9nyeyirwf  machinery. 


CLUTCHES. 

57.  COMMON  JAW  CLUTCH. — One  member 
of  the  clutch  is  mounted  to  slide-on  a  feathered 
shaft,  and  the  other  member  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  machinery  is  normally  sta- 
tionary on  this  shaft.  When  the  slidable 
member  is  moved  forward  the  teeth  on  its 
forward  edge  intermesh  with  the  teeth  of  the 
other  member,  setting  the  machinery  in  mo- 
tion. The  sliclable  member  is  moved  forward 
by  means  of  a  forked  lever  which  is  hinged  to 
a  split  collar  mounted  loosely  between  flanges 
on  the  clutch  member. 

53.  CLAW  CLUTCH.— The  slidable  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  body  portion  with 
two  claw  arms  which,  when  moved  forward, 
are  adapted  to  engage  opposite  sides  of  a  bar 
on  the  other  member  of  the  clutch. 

59.  LEVER  CLUTCH. — The  slidable  member 
is  provided  with  a  lever  loosely  hinged  to  its 
forward    end.     The    other    member    of    the 
clutch  consists  of  a  disk  formed  with  ratchet 
teeth  on  its  face.     These  are  engaged  by  the 
hinged  arm  when  the  shaft  rotates  in  one 
direction,    but   the   arm    moves   freely   over 
them  when  rotated  in  the  opposite  direction. 

60.  KNEE   AND    ROSE    CLUTCH. — A   crank 
arm  is  attached  to  the  slidable  member  of  the 
clutch,  and  engages  a  pin  on  an  arm  loosely 
hinged  to  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

61.  RATCHET  CLUTCH. — The  clutch  mem- 
bers are  formed  with  ratchet  teeth,  so  that 
when  the  motion  of  the  driving  shaft  is  re- 
versed,  the  members   will  be   disengaged. 

62.  PIN  CLUTCH. — The  slidable  member  is 
provided  with  radial  arms  formed  with  pins 
at  their  outer  ends  which  are  adapted  to  enter 
sockets  formed  along  the  periphery  of  a  disk 
on  the  opposite  member  of  the  clutch. 

63.  FRICTION     DISK     CLUTCH. — The     two 
clutch  members  are  each  formed  with  disks 
preferably  faced  with  rubber  or  leather,  so 
that  when   pressed   together   their  frictional 
engagement  will  cause  a  transmission  of  mo- 
tion from  the  rotating  disk  to  the  other. 

64.  FRICTION    GROOVE    CLUTCH. — One    of 
the  clutch  members  is  formed  with  a  groove 
in  its  face  to  receive  the  lip  of  the  other  mem- 
ber which  is  cup-shaped.     Both  the  lip  and 
the   side   walls    of    the    groove   are    slightly 
tapered  to  insure  a  close  fit,  even  after  the 
parts  have  been  partly  worn  away  by  friction. 

65.  STUD   CLUTCH. — Engagement    between 
the  two  members  of  the  clutch  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  stud    on   each  disk   adapted    to 
enter  a  notch  formed  in  the  periphery  of  the 
opposing  disk. 

66.  FRICTION   BAND    CLUTCH. — One  mem- 
ber of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  pulley  provided 
with  a  steel  band    which   encircles  and   fits 
tightly  on  its  periphery.     The  other  member 
of  the  clutch  consists  of  a  lever  provided  with 
pins  at  its  outer  ends,  which  are  adapted  to 
engage  the  steel  band.      Since  this  band  is  not 
fastened   to    the    pulley,  any   shock    due    to 
suddenly  throwing  the  clutch  members  into 
engagement  will  be  taken  up  by  the  steel  band 
slipping  on  the  face  of  the  pulley. 

67.  FRICTION   CONE   CLUTCH.— The   clutch 
is  made  up  of  two  cones,  one  adapted  to  fit 
into  the  other.     The  frictional  engagement 
causes  one  to  drive  the  other, 

63,  SBLT-rtELBAewa  CLUTCH.— The  clutch 
disks  are  provided  with  inclined  teeth,  so  that 
In  rase  the  resj^anpe  iq  the,  driven 


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creases  beyond  a  certain  degree,  the  clutch 
members  will  automatically  move  apart. 

69.  CAM  CLUTCH. — One  9f  the  members  is 
cup  shaped,  and  within  this  the  other  mem- 
ber operates.     The  latter  comprises  a  number 
of  cam-shaped  arms  hinged  to  a  body  portion, 
and  so  arranged  that  when  moved  in  one 
direction   they   will   bind   against   the   inner 
wall  of  the  drum,  but  when  moved  in  the  op- 
posite direction  they  will   be  automatically 
disengaged  therefrom. 

70.  V-GROOVED  CLUTCH. — The  clutch  disks 
are  formed  with  annular  V-grooyes  adapted 
to  fit  into  each  other,  and  thus  increase  the 
friction  surface  of  the  clutch  members: 

71.  EXPANSION     CLUTCH.  —  The     slidable 
member  is,  .provided  with  a  number  of  mov- 
able ring  segments  connected  by  radial  arms 
to  the  main  body  of  the  clutch  and  adapted 
to  bear  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  drum 
or  cup  which  constitutes  the  other  member  of 
the  clutch.     When   the   slidable  member   is 
moved  forward,  by  reason  of  the  toggle  ac- 
tion  of  the  radial   arms,  the  segments   are 
brought  into  frictional  engagement  with  the 
other  member  of  the  clutch. 

72.  COIL-GRIP     CLUTCH.  —  The     movable 
member  of  the  clutch  is  formed  with  a  num- 
ber of  coils  of  steel  in  which  there  is  a  central 
conical   opening.     This    is   moved   over   the 
cone  which  constitutes  the  opposite  member 
of   the  clutch,  producing  the  required  fric- 
tional engagement  of  the  two  members. 

ANGLE    SHAFT    COUPLINGS    AND 
UNIVERSAL  JOINTS. 

73.  CRANK   AND  HINGED-PIN  COUPLING. — 
A  coupling  for  shafts  which  lie  at  an  angle  to 
each  other.     One  shaft  carries  a  hinged  pin 
which  fits"  into  an  opening  in  the  outer  end 
of,  a  crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft. 

74.  DOUBLE-SLEEVE    ANGLE    COUPLING. — 
Each  shaft  carries  a  crank  arm  provided  with 
a  pin  at  its  outer  end,  which  lies  parallel  with 
its  respective  shaft.     The  two  pins  enter  a 
coupling  device  consisting  of  two  sleeves  in- 
tegrally formed,  but  lying  at  an  angle  with 
each  other  which    corresponds  to  the  angle 
formed  by  the  shafts.     Through  this  double- 
sleeve  coupling,  motion  is  transmitted  from 
one  shaft  to  the  other,  the  pins  sliding  back 
and  forth  in  the  sleeve  openings. 

i  75.  CROSS-BAR  ANGLE  COUPLING. — This  is 
used  for  coupling  two  parallel  but  offset 
shafts.  Each  shaft  carries  a  yoke  piece  pro- 
vided with  sleeves  at  its  outer  ends.  The 
coupling  member  is  a  cross-shaped  piece,  its 
arms  fitting  into  the  sleeves  of  the  yoke 
pieces,  and  permitting  the.  necessary  lateral 
play  as  the  shaft  rotates.  This  form  of 
coupling  is  also  applicable  to  shafts  which  lie 
at  an  angle  with  each  other. 

76.  PIN    AND    SLOT    COUPLING. — A    crank 
pin  carried  by  one  shaft  engages  a  slot  in  a 
crank  arm  carried  by  the  other  shaft.     The 
motion  transmitted   is  variable,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  leverage  varies  as  the  pin  moves 
up  and  down  in  the  slot. 

77.  RING-GIMBAL  UNIVERSAL  JOINT — The 
ends   of  the  shafts  are   provided  with  yoke 
members  whose  arms  are  pivoted  to  a  ring- 
gimbal,  the  pivot  pins  of  the  two  yoke  pieces 
lying  at   right  angles  to  each  other.     This 
coupling   will   communicate   motion   at   any 
angle  under  45  degs.     For  angles  of  over  45 
degs.  a  double-link  universal  joint  is  used. 


78.  DOUBLE-LINK    UNIVERSAL    JOINT. — A 
link  forked  at  each  end  is  hinged  to  two  rings, 
which  are  mounted  in  the  yoke  pieces  on  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.     In  place  of  rings  cross 
pieces  such  as  shown  in  the  illustration  are 
often  used. 

79.  HOOKE'S     ANGULAR     COUPLING. — The 
shafts   are    connected   by   two   double   links 
which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram.      Intermediate  of  the  shafts  the  links 
are  connected  with  ball-and-socket  joints. 

80.  BALL-AND-SOCKET  UNIVERSAL  JOINT. — 
Socket  pieces  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  the 
shafts,   and-  these  are   provided  with  metal 
bands  which  encircle  the  ball  that  constitutes 
the    coupling    member.     The    bands    enter 
grooves  in  the  ball  which  lie  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 

81.  "ALMOND"     ANGULAR    COUPLING. — A 
side  view  of  the  coupling  is  shown  at  1  and  a 
plan  view  at  2.     Between  the  shafts  to  be 
coupled  is  a  fixed  stud  on  which  a  bell  crank 
is  mounted  to  turn.     The  bell  crank  is  per- 
mitted  to   slide  axially   on   the  stud.     The 
bell  crank  is  connected  at  the  ends  by  ball- 
and-socket  joints  with  links  attached  to  the 
ends  of  the  shafts.     Now,  as  the  power  shaft 
rotates,  rotary  motion  will  be  communicated 
to  the  other  shaft  through  the  bell  crank, 
which  will  rock  and  also  slide  axially  on  the 
stud. 

82.  FLEXIBLE  SHAFT. — Two  shafts  are  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  shaft  consisting  of  a  coil 
spring,  or  a  metal  tube  in  which  a  helical  saw- 
slot  has  been  cut.     This  flexible  shaft  will 
permit    transmission    of   motion    through   a 
wide  angular  range. 

83.  LINKED    FLEXIBLE   SHAFT. — The   flex- 
ible shaft  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  links 
coupled   together   with   universal   joints.     A 
coil  spring  fits  loosely  over  the  links  and  pre- 
vents  them    from    kinking.     This   spring   in 
turn  is  covered   with  a  flexible  tube.     The 
shaft  will  transmit  motion  about  almost  any 
curve  or  angle.     It  can  be  used  for  heavy 
work. 

84.  RIGHT-ANGLE  COUPLING. — The  ends  of 
the  shafts  are  formed  with  heads  in  which  are 
drilled  a  number  of  sockets.     A  series  of  rods, 
each  bent  to  form  a  right  angle,  enter  these 
slots  and  form  the  coupling  links  between  the 
shafts.     As  the  shafts  rotate  these  rods  slide 
in  and  out  of  their  sockets. 

RATCHET     MOVEMENTS. 

85.  The  teeth  of  a  ratchet  wheel  are  en- 
gaged  by  a  pawl  hinged  to  a  rocking  arm. 
The   ratchet   wheel   is   rotated  only   on   the 
forward  stroke  of  the  arm. 

86.  A  rocking  lever  carries  two  pawls;  one 
on   each  side  of  its  fulcrum.      The  wheel  is 
rotated  both  by  the  downward  and  the  return 
stroke  of  the  lever;    for  while  one  pawl  is 
rotating  the  wheel,  the  other  swings  to  posi- 
tion to  take  a  new  hold  on  the  ratchet  wheel. 
The  potation  of  the  \ratchet  wheel  is  thus 
kept  nearly  constant. 

87.  A   ratchet    crown-wheel   or  rag-wheel 
is    engaged   by    pawls    depending   from   two 
arms   loosely    pivoted   on    the   axle   of   the 
ratchet-wheel.     These    two    arms    are    con- 
nected  by  links  to  a  common   power  arm. 
Rectilinear  reciprocating  movement  of  the 
latter  in  the  line  of  the  arrow  produces  an 
almost    constant    rotation    of    the    ratchet- 
wheel. 


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88.  The  action  of  this  ratchet  mechanism 
is   very  similar  to  that  shown  in   Fig.    86, 
except    that    the    pawls    are    hooked    and 
ratchet-wheel  is  rotated  by  an  alternating 
pulling  rather  than  pushing  action  of  the 
pawls. 

89.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  principle 
oictured  in   Fig.    88,   and  shows   a  rocking 
lever   with   two    pawls    hinged    thereon   en- 
gaging a  ratchet  rack. 

90.  Another  modification  of  the  principle 
shown  in  88.     The  rocking  lever  is  mounted 
on  a  fixed  stud  and  is  provided  at  the  center 
with  a  pin  which  enters  a  slot  in  a  ratchet 
bar.     The    latter    is    formed    with    ratchet 
teeth  on  its  opposite   edges  which  are  en- 
gaged   by    hooked    pawls    pivoted    on    the 
rocking  lever.     These  pawls  are  crossed,  as 
shown,  so  that  they  will  be  kept  by  grav- 
ity in  constant  engagement  with  the  ratchet 
teeth.     Now,  when  the  lever  is  rocked  the 
pawls  will  alternately  act  to  lift  the  ratchet 
bar. 

91.  A     common     construction     used     for 
rotating   a   ratchet-wheel    against   a   spring 
resistance.     A    dog    mounted    on    a    fixed 
pivot  drops  by  gravity  or  by  spring  pressure 
against    the    ratchet    teeth    and    holds    the 
wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl  is  being 
swung  back  for  a  fresh  hold  on  the  ratchet- 
wheel, 

92.  This  shows  the  method  of  rotating  an 
ordinary    spur   gear-wheel   by   means    of   a 
pawl.     The  pawl  is  provided  with  a  tooth 
at   its   outer  end   which    fits    between   the 
teeth  of  the  gear.     The  pawl  is  hinged  to 
the    lower    arm    of    the    bell-crank    lever 
mounted  on  the  gear  shaft.     The  operating 
lever  also-mounted  on  this  shaft  is  permitted 
a  certain  amount  of  play  between  two  pins 
on  the  shorter  arm  of  the  bell  crank-lever. 
A  rod  connects  the  operating  lever  with  the 
pawl.     When  the  lever  is  raised  it  first  lifts 
the  pawl  out  of  engagement  with  the  gear, 
then,  coming  in  contact  with  the  upper  pin 
on  the  bell  crank-lever,  it  moves  the  pawl 
and  bell  crank  back  to  the  desired  position. 
On  lowering  the  operating  lever  the  pawl  is 
first  brought  into  engagement  with  the  gear 
and  then  the  lower  pin  on  the  bell  crank  is 
encountered,  and  the  gear  is  caused  to  ro- 
tate.    This   arrangement   prevents   wearing 
away  of  the  teeth — a  common  defect  in  the 
ordinary  type  of  ratchet  mechanism. 

93.  The  pawl  is  kept  in  contact  with  the 
ratchet-wheel  by  the  weight  of  the  lever  on 
which   it   is   formed  -   By    pulling   the   rope 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  lever  the  pawl 
will  be  drawn  out  of  engagement  with  the 
ratchet-wheel,  and  the  latter  will  be  turned 
by  friction  of  the  rope  on  the  wheel  hub. 

94.  A    reversible    spur-gear    rctchet    me- 
chanism.    Mounted    on     the     shaft     which 
carries    the  spur-gear  is  a  bell  crank-lever. 
This   at   one   end    carries   a   double-toothed 
pawl,  one  of  which  teeth  meshes  with  the 
teeth  of  the  gear.     The  pawl  is  so  shaped 
that  it  will  withdraw  the  tooth  from  engage- 
ment   with    the    gear    teeth    on    the    return 
stroke  of  the  lever.     When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  pawl  is 
moved  over  to  the  position  shown  in  dotted 
lines,  bringing  its  other  tooth  into  engage- 
ment with  the  gear  teeth. 

95.  The    ratchet-wheel    is    intermittently 
rotated  by  the  oscillation  of  a  iever  which 
carries  a  spring-pressed  pawl.     On  the  up- 


ward stroke  the  ratchet  is  turned  by  the 
pawl  which  is  backed  by  a  shoulder  on  the 
lever.  On  the  return  stroke  a  dog  holds  the 
ratchet-wheel  from  turning  while  the  pawl 
snaps  past. 

96.  Ratchet  teeth  are  formed   on  a  ball 
which  rests  in  a  socket  formed  at  the  end  of 
a  lever.      A   spring   pawl   on  this  lever  en- 
gages the  ratchet  teeth  at  any  position  of 
the  lever.     This   construction   is   useful  for 
ratchet  braces  which  have  to  be  operated  in 
inconvenient  places. 

97.  A  device  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibratory  motion.     A  spring-pressed  pin 
engages   the  teeth  of    a  revolving     crown- 
wheel    ratchet,    and    is  thereby  caused  to 
vibrate. 

98.  A     device      for      converting     recipro- 
cating    motion      into     intermittent     rotary 
motion.     The  crown-wheel  ratchet  is  inter- 
mittently rotated  by  a  reciprocating  lever 
carrying  a  pawl  which  engages  the  ratchet 
teeth. 

99.  Internal     ratchet     used     on     ratchet 
braces,    etc.     The    drill    spindle     carries   a 
number  of  spring-pressed  pawls  which  bear 
against  the  internal  ratchet  teeth  formed  in 
the  handle  of  the  brace. 

100.  Ball  ratchet  device   for   lawn  mow- 
ers, etc.     In  the  hub  of  a  wheel  is  a  groove  in 
which  a  ball  is  carried.     A  spring  presses  this 
ball  down  against  a  shaft  on  which  the  wheel 
turns.     When  the  wheel  rotates  forward,  the 
ball  wedges  in  between  the   shaft  and   tho 
groove,  causing  the  shaft  to  turn  with  the 
wheel.     When  the    direction    of   rotation  is 
reversed,  the  ball   is  forced  up  against  the 
spring,  releasing  the  shaft. 

ESCAPEMENTS. 

101.  RECOIL  ESCAPEMENT. — This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  escapement  used  on  clocks.     The 
pallets    carried    by    the    pendulum    are    so 
mounted  that  when  a  tooth  of  the  escape 
wheel,  which  is  driven  by  the  clock-train,  is  just 
escaping  from  one  of  the  pallets,  another  tooth 
falls  on  the  other  pallet  near  its  point.     As  the 
pendulum  swings  on,  however,  the  taper  face 
of  the  pallet  bearing  against  the  tooth  causes 
the  escape  wheel  to  turn  slightly  backward. 
As  the  pendulum  swings  back,  it  receives  an 
impulse  from  the  escape  wheel  which  is  greater 
by  reason  of  this  recoil.     The  principal  value 
of  the  recoil,  however,  is  to  overcome  any  un- 
evenness  in  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  train, 
which  might  otherwise  stop  the  clock. 

102.  DEAD-BEAT  ESCAPEMENT. — A  form  of 
escapement  used  on  the  best  clocks.   The  teeth 
of  the  escape  wheel  fall  "dead"  upon  the  pal- 
lets, that  is,  the  pallets  are  so  cut  that  as  the 
pendulum  continues  to  swing  they  slide  on 
the  teeth  without   turning  the  escape  wheel 
backward.     The  ends  of  the  pallets  are  formed 
with  inclined  faces,  termed  "impulse  faces," 
against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
bear  when  giving  impulse  to  the  pendulum. 
The  value  of  this  .escapement  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  gives  a  very  even  beat  of  the  pendulum 
even  when  there  is  a  slight  variation  in  the 
force  exerted  by  the  clock  train. 

103.  LEVER   ESCAPEMENT. — This  is  an  es- 
capement used  on  watches.     The  anchor  on 
which  the  pallets  are  carried  is  secured  to  a 
lever,  formed  with  a  notch  in  one  end.     This 
notch  is  engaged  by  a  pin  on  the  arbor  of  the 
balance  wheel.     The  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel 
alternately  bear  against  the  inclined  faces  of 


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the  pallets  and  oscillate  the  lever,  which  turns" 
the  balance  wheel  alternately  in  opposite 
directions. 

104.  VEKGE  ESCAPEMENT. — A  form  of  es- 
capement used  in  old-fashioned  matches.    The 
escape  wheel  is  a  crown  wheel,  and  its  teeth, 
on  opposite  sides,  are  engaged  by  two  pallets, 
carried  on  the  shaft  of  the  balance  wheel.    The 
escapement  teeth,  acting  alternately  on  the 
pallets,  lift  and  clear  them,  thus  rocking  the 
shaft  and  balance  wheel,  which  governs  the 
frequency  of  the  escape. 

105.  STAR  WHEEL  ESCAPEMENT. — The  es- 
cape has  but  few  teeth  and  is,  therefore,  called 
a  star  wheel.    The  pallets  act  on  teeth  that 
lie  diametrically  opposite  each  other.     This 
escapement  has  a  dead-beat  action. 

106.  CROWN  TOOTH  ESCAPEMENT. — An  old 
form  of  recoil  escapement,  in  which  a  crown 
escape  wheel  is  used.     The  pallets  are  mount- 
ed to  engage  opposite  sides  of  the  wheel.    This 
type  is  objectionable,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  pendulum  must  oscillate  through  a  very 
wide  angle  in  order  to  permit  the  teeth  to 
escape  from   the   pallets,   which   requires   a 
greater  pressure  in  the  clock-train  and  heavier 
parts  and  produces  greater  friction  on  the 
pallets. 

107.  LANTERN  WHEEL  ESCAPEMENT. — An 
old-fashioned  type  of  escapement,  in  which 
the  escape  wheel  is  a  lantern  wheel,  and  the 
pallets  are  two  plates  set  at  angles  on  a  rock- 
ing arm. 

108.  PIN-WHEEL    ESCAPEMENT. — A    dead- 
beat  escapement  used  in  many  of  the  best 
turret  clocks.     The  escape  wheel  is  formed 
with  pins  which  drop  on  to  the  "dead"  faces 
•of  the  pallets,  but  give  impulses  to  the  pen- 
dulum by  sliding  off  the  inclined  "impulse" 
faces  of  the  pallets..     It  is  found  best  in  prac- 
tice to  cut  the  "dead"  faces  so  as  to  give  a 
very  slight  recoil, 

109.  OLD-FASHIONED   CROWN   WHEEL   ES- 
CAPEMENT.— This,  in  appearance,  is  quite  sim- 
ilar to  the  escapement  shown  in  Figure  106, 
but  is  different  in  action.     The  inclined  faces 
of  the  teeth,  which  are  very  long,  act  to  lift 
the  pallets. 

110.  RING  ESCAPEMENT. — A  form  of '  'dead- 
beat"  escapement.     The  pallets  are  formed 
on  the  inside  of  the  ring,  within  which  the 
escape  wheel  turns. 

Ill  and  112.  GRAVITY  ESCAPEMENTS. — A 
type  of  escapement  in  which  the  impulse  from 
the  escape  wheel  is  not  given  directly  to  the 
pendulum,  but  through  the  medium  of  two 
weights,  usually  the  arms  on  which  the  pallets 
are  carried  and  which  are  alternately  lifted  by 
the  escape  wheel  and  dropped  against  the  pen- 
dulum. Figure  111  shows  the  four-legged 
gravity  escapement  used  on  turret  clocks. 
The  escape  wheel  is  formed  with  four  legs  or 
teeth,  and  carries  eight  pins,  four  on  one  face 
of  the  hub  and  four  on  the  other.  The  pal- 
let arms  are  pivoted  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
point  from  which  the  pendulum  swings.  The 
pallets  which  are  formed  on  these  arms  are 
arranged  to  lie  one  on  one  side  and  the  other 
on  the  other  side  of  the  escape  wheel.  The 
pallet  arms  are  each  provided  with  a  stop 
piece  against  which  the  teeth  of  the  escape- 
ment will  alternately  rest.  In  the  illustra- 
tion, a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  is  resting 
against  the  stop  on  the  right-hand  arm.  As 
the  pendulum  swings  toward  the  right,  the 
tooth  will  escape  from  the  stop,  permitting 
the  wheel  to  rotate  until  it  encounters  the 


stop  on  the  left-hand  arm,  at  the  same  time 
a  pin  on  the  wheel  engages  the  end  of  the 
pallet  at  the  left,  and  lifts  the  pallet  arm.  In 
the  meantime  the  right-hand  pallet  arm  swings 
with  the  pendulum  to  the  end  of  its  stroke, 
but  falls  with  it  on  the  return  stroke  until 
stopped  by  a  pin  on  the  escape  wheel.  It 
will  be  evident  that  the  angle  through  which 
the  pallet  arm  falls  with  the  pendulum  is 
greater  than  that  through  which  it  is  lifted  by 
the  pendulum,  and  it  is  this  difference  in 
travel  which  gives  impulse  to  the  pendulum. 
Figure  112  shows  a  double,  three-legged  es- 
capement which  is  used  for  very  large  clocks. 
Two  three-legged  escape  wheels  are  used  with 
three  lifting  pins  held  between  them  like  the 
pins  of  a  lantern  wheel.  The  pallets  operate 
between  the  wheels.  A  stop  piece  is  placed  on 
one  of  the  pallet  arms  for  the  forward  wheel, 
and  the  other  arm  carries  a  stop  for  the  rear 
wheel.  The  teeth  of  one  wheel  are  set  60 
degrees  in  advance  of  the  other.  The  action 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  four-legged  escape- 
ment. A  tooth  of  the  forward  wheel  is  shown 
resting  on  its  stop.  When  this  is  released  by 
the  swinging  pendulum,  the  wheels  rotate, 
lifting  the  left-hand  pallet  until  a  tooth  of  the 
rear  wheel  engages  its  stop.  The  right  pallet 
arm,  however,  continues  to  be  lifted  by  the 
pendulum,  and  then  falls  with  it,  giving  it 
impulse  until  arrested  by  a  lifting  pin,  only 
to  be  lifted  again  when  the  pendulum  releases 
the  rear  wheel  from  its  stop. 

GEARING. 

113.  A  means  for  changing  rectilinear  recip- 
rocating motion  to  rotary  reciprocating  motion 
and  vice  versa.     Two  intermeshing  pinions 
engage  internal  racks  formed  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  frame. 

114.  Means  for  changing  rotary  motion  to 
rectilinear  reciprocating  motion.     A  rotating 
sector  or  pinion  formeoT  with  teeth  on  only  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  imparts  reciprocating 
motion  to  a  rack  frame  by  first  engaging  the 
teeth  at  one  side  of  the  rack,  and  then  the 
teeth  on  the  other  side  of  the  rack.     See  Fig- 
ure 115  for  gravity  return. 

115.  Another  method  of  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  reciprocating  motion. 
A  rotating  sector  engages  the  teeth  of  a  rack 
during  a  part  of  its  rotation  and  thereby  lifts 
the  rack,  but  as  soon  as  the  rack  clears  the 
sector  teeth,  it  drops  by  gravity,  ready  to  be 
lifted  up  when  it  again  encounters  the  teeth 
of  the  sector.     See  Figure  114  for  power  re- 
turn. 

116  A  movement  designed  as  a  substitute 
for  a  crank.  The  rack  frame  is  formed  with 
internal  racks  on  opposite  sides,  but  these 
racks  lie  in  different  planes.  Two  separate 
pinions  are  employed  which  mesh  respectively 
with  these  racks.  The  pinions  are  mounted 
loosely  on  a  shaft,  but  carry  pawls  which  en- 
gage with  ratchet  wheels  secured  to  the  shaft. 
On  the  forward  stroke  of  the  rack  frame  the 
pinions  will  both  be  rotated  but  in  opposite 
directions.  However,  due  to  their  ratchet 
and  pawl  connection  with  the  shaft,  only  one 
pinion  turns  the  shaft.  On  the  return  stroke 
the  rotation  of  the  pinions  will  be  reversed 
but  the  shaft  will  continue  to  rotate  in  the 
same  direction,  driven  this  time  by  the  other 
pinion  of  the  pair. 

117.  Sun  and  Planet  gearing.  A  gear 
wheel,  called  the  "sun"  wheel,  rotating  on  a 
fixed  center,  is  engaged  by  a  gear  wheel  called 


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the  planet  wheel,  which  revolves  a)>out  the 
sun  wheel.  This  construction  was  used  by 
James  Watt  in  one  of  his. steam  engines  as  a 
substitute  for  a  crank.  The  planet  wheel  was 
rigidly  secured  to  the  connecting  rod  and  con- 
nected by  an  arm  to  the  center  of  the  sun  wheel . 
At  each  complete  revolution  of  the  planet 
wheel  about  the  sun  wheel,  the  latter  was 
caused  to  rotate  twice. 

118  and  119.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  irregular  reciprocal  motion.  In 
118  two  intermeshing  spur  gears  are  provided 
with  crank  arms  connected  by  a  working 
beam.  If  the  gears  are  of  equal  size  the  mo- 
tion transmitted  to  the  rod  secured  to  the 
working  beam  will  be  uniform.  If,  however, 
the  gears  are  of  different  sizes,  the  nation  of 
this  rod  will  vary  greatly.  In  119  a  still  more 
complex  movement  is  produced,  since  there 
are  three  intermeshing  gear  wheels  of  unequal 
sizes  and  two  connected  working  beams. 

120.  Irregular  oscillatory  motion  is  given 
to  a  hinged  arm  by  pivoting  at  its  outer  end 
a  cam-shaped  gear  wheel  which  is  rotated  by 
a  continuously  driven  pinion.     Any  desired 
motion  of  the  arm  may  be  produced  by  vary- 
ing the  shape  of  the  cam  gear. 

121.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion    into    variable    rotary    motion.     An 
elliptical  gear  rotates  at  uniform  speed  and 
drives  a  spur  pinion.     The  latter  is  secured  to 
a  shaft  which  slides  between  the  arms  of  two 
forked  levers.     A  spring  keeps  the  pinion  in 
mesh  with  the  elliptical  gear. 

122.  Means  fo*  converting  constant  rotary 
motion  into  intermittent  rotary  motion.     The 
driving  wheel  is  formed  with  teeth  through  a 
portion  of  its  periphery  equal  to  the  toothed 
periphery  of  the  pinion.     The  latter  is  cut 
away  at  one  place  to  fit  the  plane  portion  of 
the  driving  wheel.     This  prevents  the  pinion 
from  rotating  until  a  pin  on  the  wheel  strikes 
a  projecting  arm  on  the  pinion  and  guides  the 
teeth  of  the  gears  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

123.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  rotary  motion.     A  crown 
wheel  eccentrically  mounted  is  driven  by  a 
pinion  rotating  at  uniform  speed.     The  point 
of  engagement  of  the  crown  wheel  with  the 
pinion  varies  radially,  causing  the  wheel  to 
rotate  at  a  variable  speed. 

124.  "The  mechanism  is  so  arranged  as  to  im- 
part planetary  movement  to  a  pinion.     An 
internal   gear-  wheel   formed   with   a   pulley 
groove  in  its  periphery  is  mounted  to  rotate 
on  a  sleeve  which  carries  a  spur  gear  at  one 
end   and   a   pulley  at   the   other.     The  gear 
wheels  are  belted  to  a  driving  pulley  in  such 
manner  as  to  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 
A  spur  pinion  which  fits  in  between  the  teeth  of 
the  two  gears  is  rotated  thereby  on  its  own 
axis  and  revolves  about  the  center  of  the  two 
gears  at  a  speed  which  is  the  differential  of 
the  speeds  of  the  two  gears. 

125.  The  construction  here  shown  is  adapted 
to  produce  a  slow  forward  movement  of  a  rack 
with  a  quick  return.     The  rack  is  mounted  to 
slide  longitudinally  and  is  driven  by  a  toothed 
sector.     The  latter  is  provided  with  a  slotted 
arm  which  is  engaged  by  a  pin  or?  a  rotating 
disk.     The  forward  movement  will  take  place 
while  the  pin  is  passing  through  the  larger 
arc  subtended  by  the  two  dotted  racial  lines 
shown,  and  there  turn  while  the  pin  is  pass- 
ing through  the  smaller  arc. 

126.  A  means  for  converting  reciprocating 
motion  into  continuous  rotary  motion.     A 


double-faced  reciprocating  rack  engages  first 
one  and  then  the  other  of  a  pair  of  toothed 
sectors.  The  sectors  are  mounted  on  a  pair 
of  shafts,  disposed  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
rack.  The  shafts  carry  pinions  which  engage 
opposite  sides  of  the  central  gear  wheel.  The 
rotary  motion  alternately  imparted  to  the 
sectors,  is  conveyed  through  these  pinions  to 
the  gear  wheel,  each  pinion  alternately  acting 
to  drive  the  wheel  when  its  respective  sector 
is  in  mesh  with  the  rack,  and  then  to  be 
driven  by  the  gear  wheel  until  its  sector  is 
brought  again  in  mesh  with  the  rack.  Thus 
a  continuous  rotary  motion  is  produced. 

127  Mechanism  for  converting  uniform 
rotary  motion  into  irregular  rotary  motion. 
Mounted  eccentrically  on  the  driving  shaft  is 
a  gear  wheel  which  transmits  motion  to  an- 
other gear  wheel  through  an  intermediate 
pinion.  Pivoted  to  the  centers  of  the  two 
gear  wheels  are  two  links  whose  outer  ends 
are  connected  by  a  hinge  pin  on  which  the 
pinion  rotates  These  links  serve  to  hold  the 
pinion  constantly  in  mesh  with  the  gears,  no 
matter  what  the  position  of  the  eccentric  is. 

128.  Means  for  converting  uniform  rotary 
motion  into  variable  reciprocating  motion.  A 
rack  frame  mounted  to  slide  longitudinally  is 
driven  by  an  eccentric-toothed  sector.  The 
racks  are  placed  at  an  angle  with  the  line  of 
movement  and  are  provided  with  jaws  at  each 
end  adapted  to  mesh  with  pins  projecting 
above  the  face  of  the  sector.  As  the  sector 
rotates  it  transmits  a  gradually  accelerated 
longitudinal  movement  to  the  rack  frame 
until  the  outer  pin  engages  the  jaw  at  the  end 
of  the  rack.  The  rack  frame  is  then  driven 
by  this  pin  until  the  opposite  rack  is  engaged 
by  the  sector  teeth. 

129  to  132.  MANGLE  GEARS.— So-called  be- 
cause of  their  use  on  mangle  machines.  129. 
The  larger  wheel  is  formed  with  a  cam  groove 
which  guides  the  pinion.  The  shaft  of  the 
latter  is  ordinarily  provided  with  a  universal 
joint,  which  permits  it.  to  move  vertically  and 
thus  keep  in  mesh  with  the  crown  teeth 
formed  on  the  large  wheel.  The  pinion 
meshes  first  with  the  outer  and  then  with  the 
inner  ends  of  the  teeth  on  the  larger  gear, 
driving  thte  latter  first  in  one  direction  and 
then  in  the  other.  130  shows  another  form 
of  the  same  movement.  The  pinion  moves 
radially  in  the  slot  shown  in  dotted  lines,  and 
engages  first  the  outer  and  then  the  inner  line 
of  teeth  on  the  mangle  wheel,  causing  the 
latter  to  rotate  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  the  other.  131.  The  mangle  wheel  is 
formed  with  an  internal  gear,  and  the  pinion 
is  guided  by  se  cam  groove.  This  construc- 
tion and  that  shown  in  Figure  130  produce 
uniform  motion  through  an  almost  complete 
rotation,  and  this  is  followed  by  a  quick  ro 
turn  due  to  the  smaller  radius  of  the  inner 
circle  of  teeth.  132.  In  this  construction,  as  in 
that  of  Figure  129,  the  same  speed  is  main- 
tained in  both  directions  of  rotation.  The 
mangle  wheel  in  Figure  132  is  formed  with 
teeth  on  both  faces;  the  pinion  first  engages 
the  teeth  on  one  face  of  the  wheel,  and  then 
passing  through  the  opening  engages  the 
teeth  on  the  opposite  face,  thus  reversing  the 
direction  of  rotation. 

133  to  137.  DIFFERENTIAL  GEAR. — 133.  Two 
worm  wheels,  one  of  which  has  more  teeth 
than  the  other,  engage  a  single  worm.  Sup- 
pose that  one  wheel  has  100  teeth  and  the 
other  has  101;  then  at  every  complete  rota- 


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tion  of  the  latter  wheel  it  will  be  one  tooth 
behind  the  former  wheel,  and  at  the  end  of 
100  rotations  the  former  would  have  made  a 
complete  rotation  relative  to  the  latter.  If  the 
worm  be  cut  with  a  single  thread  it  would  have 
to  make  100  times  101,  or  10,100  rotations  in 
order  to  produce  this  result.  This  construc- 
tion is  used  on  certain  counting  devices. 
134.  Two  bevel  gears  are  connected  by  a  pair 
of  small  bevel  pinions  mounted  in  a  frame,  as 
shown  in  the  side  elevation  1.  If  the  gear 
wheels  should  be  rotated  at  different  veloci- 
ties the  frame  would  rotate  at  the  mean  veloc- 
ity. 135.  A  rapidly  rotating  shaft  carries  a 
gear  wheel  eccentrically  mounted  thereon. 
The  latter  is  carried  along  into  engagement 
with  a  fixed  internal  gear  or  rack,  and  is  there- 
by rotated  at  a  slow  speed.  186.  Two  con- 
centrically mounted  bevel  gears  of  different 
diameters  engage  with  a  third  bevel  gear. 
The  latter  rotates  at  the  mean  of  the  velocities 
of  the  other  two.  137.  A  hollow  screw  threaded 
into  a  frame  is  formed  with  an  internal  thread, 
of  slightly  different  pitch,  adapted  to  receive  a 
smaller  screw,  which  is  so  mounted  in  the 
frame  that  it  may  slide  longitudinally,  but 
cannot  rotate.  If  the  larger  screw  should 
have  ten  threads  to  the  inch,  and  the  smaller 
screw  eleven,  the  latter  would  move  outward 
one-eleventh  part  of  an  inch  while  the  former 
was  fed  inward  an  inch. 

138.  Uniform  rotary  motion  converted  into 
reciprocating    rectilinear    motion.     A     rack 
frame  arranged  to  slide  longitudinally  is  en- 
gaged by  a  toothed  sector  which  meshes  with 
the  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  rack  to  drive  the 
frame  forward,  and  then  with  the  teeth  on 
the  other  side  to  drive  the  frame  back. 

139.  Variable  speed  gear  for  producing  fast 
and  slow  motion.     It  comprises  two  pairs  of 
toothed  sectors  so  arranged  as  to  properly 
mesh    with   each    other.     The    driving    gear 
shown  at  the  right  is  provided  with  two  arms 
which  carry  studs  at  their  outer  ends.     These 
studs  lie  below  the  lower  face  of  the  gears  and 
engage  studs  formed  on  the  lower  face  of  the 
driven  gear,  as  shown  in  dotted  lines,  thus 
guiding  the  wheels  after  one  pair  of  sectors 
have  moved  out  of  mesh  and  before  the  other 
pair  have  come  into  mesh  with  each  other. 

140.  Mechanism  for  producing  increased  or 
decreased  speed  on  the  same  line  of  shafting. 
A  fixed  bevel  gear  wheel,  A,  meshes  with  two 
bevel  gear  wheels,   B,   which  in  turn   mesh 
with  a  pinion,  E,  carried  on  the  right-hand 
shaft.     The  bevel  wheels,  B,  are  mounted  in 
a  bracket  which  turns  freely  on  the  shaft  of 
pinion,  E.     Each  wheel,  B,  carries  a  pinion, 
C,  which  meshes  with  a  bevel  gear  wheel,  D, 
carried  by  the  left-hand  shaft.     The  change 
of  speed  from  ofte  shaft  to  the  other  is  due 
to  the  planetary  movement  of  the  wheels,  B 
and  C.     When  the  multiple  of  the  teeth  in  A 
and  C  exceeds  that  of  B  and  D    the  shafts 
will  rotate  in  opposite  directions. 

CAMS  AND  CAM  MOVEMENTS. 
141  and  142.  CYLINDER  OR  DRUM  CAMS. — 
In  Figure  141  a  groove  is  formed  in  the  curved 
face  of  a  cylinder  or  drum.  A  roller  on  the 
end  of  a  pivoted  arm  fits  into  this  groove. 
As  the  drum  rotates  the  arm  will  be  swung  to 
various  positions,  gtiided  by  the  groove  in  the 
cam.  In  Figure  142  the  roller  bears  against 
the  rim  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  made  of  such 
shape  as  to  give  the  desired  motion  to  the 
lever.  In  this  form  of  cam,  while  the  roller 


is  positively  moved  down  by  the  cam  rim,  it 
is  raised  up  by  a  spring  on  the  lever,  which 
tends  to  hold  it  constantly  against  the  cam. 
In  the  first  type  of  cam  the  motion  is  positive 
in  both  directions. 

143.  BEVELED  CAM. — This  form  of  cam  is 
used  to  give  motion  to  a  lever  whose  axis  lies 
at  an  angle  with  the  cam-shaft.     The  cam  is 
of  Conical  form   with  curved  edges   against 
which  the  lever  bears.     In  our  illustration  we 
have  shown  a  sliding  rod  in  place  of  a  rocking 
lever.     The  conical  face,   it  will  readily  be 
seen,  must  lie  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the 
rod. 

144.  FACE  CAM. — The  cam  groove  is  cut  in 
the  face  of  a  disk,  and  this  on  being  rotated 
guides  the  movement  of  the    rocking    lever 
which  carries  a  roller  that  enters  this  groove. 

145.  CLOVER-LEAF  CAM. — This  is  a  form  of 
disk  cam  which  gives  a  positive  drive  to  a 
sliding  lever.     The   cam   acts   between   two 
rollers  on  the  lever,  and  is  so  cut  as  to  exactly 
fill  the  space  between  these  rollers  at  all  times. 

146.  HEART  CAM. — Another  lorm   of  disk 
cam.     This  is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  recti- 
linear motion  to  a  sliding  rod  which  bears 
against  its  edge.     To  lay  out  this  cam,  divide 
the  desired  line  of  travel  of  the  rod  into  any 
convenient  number  of  equal  spaces,  starting 
from  the  center  of  the  roller,  and  from  the 
center  of  the  cam  describe  arcs  passing  through 
the  dividing  points.     Twice  the  number  of 
radial  lines  should  be  laid  off  from  the  center 
of  the  cam,  the  lines  being  equally  spaced  an- 
gularly.    The  successive  points  of  intersec- 
tion of  the  radial  lines  and  the  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  centers  for  a  series  of  arcs  with  radii 
equivalent  to  the  radius  of  the  roller.     The 
curve  drawn  tangent  to  these  arcs  will  then 
mark  the  outline  of  the  cam. 

147.  Means  are  here  shown  for  converting 
rotary  motion  into  alternating  reciprocating 
motion  of  two  rods.     The  rods  are  attached 
to  pivoted  levers  carrying  rollers  which  bear 
against    the   edges    of   two    oval    disk    cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft. 

148.  Rotary  motion  is  here  converted  into 
variable  rectilinear  motion.     The  end   of  a 
sliding  lever  rests  on  the  irregular  edge  of  a 
disk  cam,  and  is  there  by  caused  to  move  np 
and  down  following  the  irregularities  of  the 
cam.     The  cam  shown  gives  three  recipro- 
cations of  the  rod  for  each  rotation  of  the  cam 
shaft. 

149.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion  of 
a  shaft  into  rocking  motion  of  a  lever.     The 
lever  is  caused  to  rock  by  a  cam  with  an  ob- 
lique face  on  which  the  roller  of  the  lever 
bears.     This  is  a  modification  of  the  motion 
shown  in  Figure  142. 

150.  Means  for  converting  rocking  motion 
of  a  shaft  into  uniform  rectilinear  motion  of  a 
rod.     The  rod,  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
bearings,  carries  a  pin  which  engages  a  slot  in 
the  cam  on  the  rocking  shaft.     The  cam  slot 
is  so  cut  as  to  give  uniform  motion  to  the  rod. 

151.  Continuous  rotary  motion  of  a  shaft  is 
here  converted  into  intermittent  reciprocating 
motion  of  a  slide.     A  cam  lever  hinged  at  its 
lower  end  to  a  fixed  point  is  connected  by  a 
rod  at  its  upper  end,  to  the  slide..    A  crank 
arm  on  the  rotating  shaft  carries  a  pin  which 
enters  a  curved  slot  in  the  cam  lever.     The 
crank  arm  causes  the  lever  to  rock,  carrying 
the  slide  with  it.     The  cam  slot  'should  form 
an  arc  with  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the  crank 
arm,  so  that  while  the  crank  pin  is  passing 


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thttmgh  this  arc  the'slide  will  remain  station- 
ary. This  motion  is  used  on  certain  types  of 
sewing  machines  and  printing  presses. 

152.  The  type  of  pam  used  on  the  needle 
bars  of  some  sewing  machines.     A  pin  on  a 
rotating  disk  engages  a  slot  in  a  cam  yoke  on 
the  needle  bar.     This  slot  is  formed  with  a 
curve  at  one  place,  which  holds  the  bar  sta- 
tionary, while  the  pin  is  passing  through  it. 
This  causes  the  needle  to  stop  while  the  shut- 
tle passes. 

153.  This  cam  motion  differs  from  that  of 
Figure  152,  in  that  it  causes  the  sliding  bar  to 
stop  midway  of  its  upward  stroke  and  midway 
of  its  downward  stroke.     The  cam  slot  com- 
prises two  parallel  sections  connected  by  two 
curved  sections.     While  the  pin  on  the  rotat- 
ing disk  passes  through  the  curved  sections 
the  bar  is  held  stationary. 

154.  The  cam  here  shown  causes  the  sliding 
bar  to  stop  at  the  end  of  each  stroke.     The 
cam   is.  triangular,   with  curved  faces,   and 
rotates   between   the   two   parallel    working 
faces  of  a  cam  frame  on  the  sliding  bar.    While 
the  outer  face  of  the  cam  engages  the  frame 
the  bar  is  held  stationary.     This  is  a  form  of 
cam  motion  used  in  place  of  an  eccentric  for 
operating  the  valve  of  a  certain  French  engine. 

155.  A  peculiar  variable  intermittent  mo- 
tion of  the  sliding  rod  is  given  by  the  planetary 
action  of  a  cam  mounted  on  a  rotating  disk. 
The  cam  shaft  passes  through  the  disk  and 
carries  a  pinion  which  meshes  with  a  station- 
ary internal  gear  wheel. 

156.  A  rectangular  motion  is  imparted  to 
the  cam  frame  by  two  triangular  curved  cams 
mounted  on  a  rotating  shaft.     The  frame  is 
mounted  to  slide  laterally  in  bearings,  which 
in   turn   are  permitted  to  slide  vertically  in 
grooves    on    two    stationary    supports.     The 
frame  is  made  up  of  two  horizontal  rails  on 
which  one  of  the  cams  acts,  and  two  vertical 
rails  on  which  the  other  cam  acts      The  illus- 
tration shows  the  frame  about  to  be  moved 
downward  by  the  forward  cam  acting  on  the 
lower  rail  while  the  rear  cam  prevents  any 
lateral  movement.     On  the  next  quarter  rota- 
tion of  the  cam  shafts  a  lateral  movement  will 
ensue,  due  to  the  rear  cam  acting  on  the  right- 
hand  vertical  rail.     At  the  same  time  the  for- 
ward cam  will  hold  the  frame  against  vertical 
•movement.     During  the  third  quarter  of  the 
rotation  the  frame  will  be  lifted,  and  during 
the  last  quarter  it  will  be  moved  back  laterally 
to  the  position  illustrated.     If  the  cams  are 
both  of  the  same  size,  the  motion  of  the  frame 
will  trace  a  perfect  square. 

157.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  vibrating  motion.     A  forked  lever  en- 
gages opposite  edges  of  a  disk  cam,  and  is 
thereby  caused  to  vibrate.     This  cam,  as  that 
in  Figure  145,  is  so  cut  that  its  opposite  edges 
are  everywhere,  equidistant  when  measured 
through  the  center.     For  this  reason  it  is  ob- 
vious that  such  a  cam  must  always  be  cut 
with  an  odd  number  of  projections. 

158.  A  recently  patented   mechanism   for 
imparting  power  to  the  dasher  shaft  of  a 
churn.     A  rocking  movement  is  imparted  to 
the  shaft  from  a  rotating  cam.     At  the  upper 
end  of  the  shaft  is  a  forked  piece  or  follower 
mounted  to  turn  in  a  socket  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  the  shaft.     The  follower  engages 
a  spline  on  the  cam  and  is  thereby  guided 
first  to  one  side,  and  then  to  the  other  of  the 
cam,  rocking  the  shaft  on  its  axis. 


159.  Trammel  Gear. — A  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod  is  produced  by  the  rotation  of 
a  shaft,  and  vice  versa.     Pivoted  to  the  rod 
are  two  blocks  which  slide  respectively  in  two 
slots   in   the  face   of   the   disk   which  cross 
each  other  at  right  'angles.     This  movement 
was  patented  seventy  years  ago,  but  is  con- 
stantly being  reinvented  as  a  substitute  for 
the  crank. 

160.  Mechanism  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.     This  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  eccentric  used  on  steam  engines, 
etc.,  for  communicating  a  reciprocating  mo- 
tion to  the  valves  from  the  crank  shaft.     The 
rod  is  provided  with  a  circular  strap  which  is 
bolted    over    a    disk    or    ring    eccentrically 
mounted  on  the  crank  shaft. 

161.  This  form  of  eccentric  is  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Figure  160,  but.  an  oval  cam  frame 
or  yoke  is  used  in  place  of  a  circular  strap,  so 
as  to  produce  a  rectilinear  reciprocating  move- 
ment of  the  rod.     This  form  of  eccentric  acts 
directly  on  the  valve  rod  which  travels  be- 
tween fixed  guides. 

162.  Spiral  Cam  for  converting  rotary  mo- 
tion into  reciprocating  motion.     The  cam  is 
formed  with  a  flange  or  spline,  disposed  spi- 
rally on  the  curved  face  of  the  wheel.     The 
spline  engages  a  notch  in  a  rod  and  gives  the 
latter  a  reciprocating  movement  when   the 
cam  is  rotated. 

163.  Elliptical     Crank. — Two    cranks     are 
connected  with  a  single  pitman,  the  outer  one, 
through    a    connecting    link.     The    circular 
movement  of  the  inner  crank  causes  the  outer 
end  of  the  pitman  to  move  in  an  elliptical 
orbit,  thereby  increasing  its  leverage  at  cer- 
tain points. 

164.  A  device  for  gripping  a  bar  or  cable. 
The  bar  travels  between  a  fixed  guide  and  the 
cam-shaped  head  of  a  lever.     When  the  lever 
is  thrown  up,  friction  of  the  bar  on  the  cam 
tends  to  rotate  the  latter  until  it  becomes 
wedged  between  the  cam  and  the  fixed  guide 

165.  Lever  Toggle-joint. — A    device    com- 
monly used  on  letter-presses.     One  of  the  two 
connected  arms  is  pivoted  to  the  platen  of 
the  press  and  the  other  is  hinged  to  a  fixed 
standard.     By  lifting  the  lever  on  one  of  the 
toggle  arms  the  arms  will  be  brought  into  ver- 
tical alignment  with  each  other,  producing  a 
powerful  pressure  on  the  platen. 

166.  Screw  Toggle  Press.— Two  toggle  arms 
are  hinged  to  the  letter-press  and  at    their 
outer  ends  are  hinged  to  nuts  on  the  feed 
screw.     The  screw  is  cut  with  right-  and  left- 
hand  threads,  so  that  when  turned  in  opera- 
tive direction  it  will  draw  the  arms  toward 
each  other  and  press  the  platen  downward. 

167.  Bell    Crank    Toe    Levers.— Two    bell 
crank  levers  are  provided  with  projecting  toes 
which  bear  against  each  other      When  one  of 
these  levers  is  swung  on  a  center  it  causes  the 
other  to  swing  also,  but  at  a  variable  speed, 
due  to  the  varying  leverage.       This  mecha- 
nism is  used  for  a  type  of  valve  gear. 

168.  Wiper  Cam.— A  type  of  cam  used  on 
certain  stamp  mills  to  lift  the  hammer.     The 
cam  bears  against  a  flanged  collar  on  the  ham- 
mer spindle,  which  permits  the  latter  to  rotate. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MOVEMENTS. 

169.  Device  for  transmitting  reciprocating 
motion  from  one  pair  of  rods  to  another  pair 
lying  at  right  angles  thereto.     The  rods  are 
all  connected  by  links  so  that  when  two  op- 
posed rods  are  moved  inward  or  toward  each 


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other,  the  other  two  rods  will  be  moved  out- 
ward, and  vice  versa.  Also  if  two  adjacent 
rods  be  moved  the  one  outward,  and  the 
other  inward.the  opposite  rods  will  be  moved 
one  outward  and  the  other  inward  respec- 
tively. 

170.  Means  for  converting  rotary  into  recip- 
rocating motion.     A  bent  shaft  carries  at  its 
outer  end  an  arm  which  is  loosely  mounted 
thereon.     The  lower  end  of  this  arm  engages 
a  slot  in  a  bar  which  is  mounted  to  slide  in 
suitable  guides.     As  the  bent  shaft  rotates, 
the  arm   which  is   prevented   from   rotating 
with  the  shaft  is  given  a  rocking  movement 
in  the  direction  of  its  axis,  and  thus  imparts 
a  reciprocating  movement  to  the  bar. 

171.  Movement  used  on  hand  stamps.    The 
plate  which  carries  the  type  normally  lies  face 
upward  against  an  ink  pad,  and  is  formed  with 
a  flange  at  each  end  in  which  cam  slots  are 
cut.     The  type  plate  is  pivoted  in  a  yoke 
piece  to  which  the  handle  is  secured,   the 
pivot  pins  passing  through  slots  in  the  up- 
rights  of  the  frame.     When   the   handle  is 
depressed,  the  type  plate  is  carried  down- 
ward and  at  the  same  time  rotated  by  engage- 
ment with  two  pins  which  operate  in  the  cam 
slots  so  that  the  type  will  face  downward 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  paper. 
The  parts  are  returned  to  normal  position  by 
a  spring  on  release  of  the  handle. 

172.  A  peculiar  device  for  alternately  rock- 
ing a  pair  of  levers  by  means  of  a  reciprocating 
rod.     The  rod  carries  a  bell  crank  lever,  A. 
This  lever  is  normally  held  in  the  position 
illustrated  by  two  pins  against  which  it  is 
pressed  by  the  spring-pressed  rod.     Two  bell 
crank  levers,  B  and  C,  connected  by  a  bar, 
are  hinged  adjacent  to  the  rod.     With  the 
parts  in  the  position  illustrated,   when   the 
rod  is  drawn  forward,  one  arm  of  the  bell 
crank,  A,  will  engage  a  pin  at  the  end  of 
lever,  B,  and  will  be  thereby  turned  until  it 
engages  a  stop  piece,  D,  on  the  rod,  after 
which  it  will  operate  to  swing  bell  crank,  B, 
on  its  axis.     Owing  to  the  connection  be- 
tween the  levers  B  and  C,  the  latter  will  also 
be  swung  but  in  the  opposite  direction.     On 
return  of  the  rod  the  bell  crank  lever,  A,  is 
brought  to  normal  position  by  the  two  posi- 
tion pins,  and  when  next  the  rod  is  drawn 
forward,  the  other  arm  of  lever  A  will  engage 
a  pin  on  lever  C,  returning  both  levers  B  and 
C  to  their  original  positions. 

173.  Mechanism    for    transmitting    rotary 
motion  at  increased  speed  from  one  shaft  to 
another  in  alignment  therewith.     The  lower 
or  driving  shaft  carries  a  crown  wheel  at  ita 
upper  end  which  is  engaged  by  a  second  crown 
wheel  having  universal  joint  connection  with 
a  stationary  central  post.     The  latter  is  sup- 
ported from  the  frame  by  cross  arms,  which 
are  adapted  to  engage  slots  cut  in  the  second 
crown   wheel,   and   thus   prevent   the   wheel 
from  rotating.  The  upwardly  projecting  frame 
of  the  second  crown  wheel  is  connected  to  a 
wheel  on  the  upper  shaft,  but  eccentric  there- 
to, by  means  of  a  ball-and-socket  joint.     The 
driven  crown  wheel  is  thus  tilted  so  as  to 
engage  the  teeth  of  the  driving  wheel.     As 
the  latter  rotates  the  driven  wheel  is  given  a 
rocking  or  wobbling  movement,  which  rotates 
the  upper  shaft.     A  slight  movement  of  the 
lower  shaft  thus  produces  a  complete  rota- 
tion of  the  upper  shaft. 

174.  A  device  for  converting  reciprocating 
into  rotary  motion  and  vice  versa.     Two  inter- 


meshing  gear  wheels  are  provided  with  spring 
pawls  oppositely  disposed  on  .the  gears,  and 
adapted  alternately  to  snap  into  engagement 
with  a  lug  on  a  reciprocating  rod  and  thereby 
impart  rotary  motion  to  the  gears. 

175.  A  device  for  spacing  apart  a  number 
of  bars.     The  bars  are  arranged  to  slide  with 
a  certain  amount  of  friction  between  guide 
pieces.     Normally  they  are  crowded  together 
in  a  group  by  a  pair  of  coil  springs.     A  pair 
of  rotating  spur  wheels  whose  teeth  engage 
the  pointed  ends  of  the  bars  are  mounted  on 
either  side  to  slide  vertically  in  suitable  guide- 
ways.     The  vertical  movement  of  the  gears 
carries  the  bars  downward  against  the  springs 
and  the  slow  rotary  movement  of  the  gears 
successively  releases  the  bars  at  regular  inter- 
vals.    The  bars  remain  where  released,  being 
held  by  frictional  engagement  with  the  guide 
pieces. 

176.  An  early  form  of  flexible  shaft  coup- 
ling.    One  of  the  shafts  is  pointed  and  fits 
into  a  socket  in  the  other  shaft.     Each  shaft 
carries  a  collar  and  these  are  connected  by  a 
flat  spiral  spring. 

177.  Centrifugal     hammer.         Two    ham- 
mers are  hinged  on  a  rapidly  revolving  disk. 
As  the  disk  revolves,  these  hammers  are  al- 
ternately swung  by  the  added  force  of  gravity 
and  of  centrifugal  action,  on  to  the  anvil.    A 
very  powerful  stroke  is  thus  given. 

178.  A  device  for  communicating  recipro- 
cating motion  of  an  engine  to  a  rotating  crank 
in  such  manner  that  the  crank  will  have  a 
greater  throw  than  the-  stroke  of  the  engine 
crosshead.     The  connecting  rod  acts  on  the 
crank  shaft  through  a  "lazy  tongs"  which 
multiplies   the  stroke  and   affords  a  better 
leverage  unon  the  same. 

179.  A  device  for  producing  two  rotations 
of  the  crank  shaft  of  an  engine  at  each  com- 
plete (forward  and  return)  stroke  of  the  cross- 
head.     The  crosshead  of  the  engine  is  con- 
nected by  a  rod  to  a  pair  of  connected  levers, 
one  of  which  is  pivoted  on  a  fixed  pin  and  the . 
other  to  the  working  beam.     Owing  to  the 
toggle  action  of  the  levers  the  working  beam 
will  rise  and  fall  twice  while  the  crosshead 
moves  to  its  outer  position  and  returns. 

180.  A  device  for  converting  rocking  move- 
ment into  rectilinear  reciprocating  movement, 
usually  called  "parallel"  motion.      Two  links 
pivoted  on  the  fixed  pin  A  connect  at  their 
Outer  ends  with  two  links  pivoted  on  a  rod  at  D. 
The  latter  links  are  also  connected  to  a  pair  of 
links  pivoted  to  a  rock  arm   C.      The  dis- 
tance between  A  and  B,  the  fixed  pivot  of 
the  rock  arm,  is  equal  to  the  distance  be- 
tween B  and  C.     Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
double  link-quadrangle  swings  on  two  pivots, 
it  will  be  lengthened  when  swung  out  of  the 
vertical   position,    thus    giving   a   rectilinear 
motion   to   the   rod    D.     This   movement   is 
called  "Peaucellier's"  parallel  motion.     It  is 
used  to  give  rectilinear  movement  to  a  pump 
rod  or  to  the  piston  rod  of  an  engine. 

181.  Another   device   for  producing  recti- 
linear movement  of  a  pump  rod.     The  rod, 
instead  of  being  directly  connected  to  the 
working   beam    of   an   engine,    is    connected 
thereto  by  cross  links.     This  motion,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  true   "parallel  motion,"  but 
the  rod  is  strained  by  cross  connection. 

182  to  184.  Devices  for  overcoming  '  'dead ' ' 
centers  of  cranks.  In  Figure  182  the  pitman 
is  connected  to  one  end  of  a  leaf  spring,  whose 
other  end  is  connected  to  the  crank  disk.  The 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  541 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


pitman  is  thus  permitted  to  play  between  two 
socket  lugs  projecting  from  the  face  of  the 
disk.  Just  before  the  back  center  is  reached, 
the  pitman  slips  out  of  engagement  with 
the  lower  socket,  by  reason  of  the  tensile 
stra.in  on  the  spring,  then  on  the  return  stroke, 
the  connection  of  the  spring  being  above  the 
line  of  centers,  the  spring  yields  and  throws 
the  pitman  back  into  the  lower  socket,  and 
acts  upon  it  to  rotate  the  disk,  until  the 
forward  center  is  reached,  when  the  action 
will  be  the  reverse  of  that  just  described.  In 
183  the  pitman  is  attached  to  a  plate  secured 
to  the  flywheel  at  two  points  by  screws  pass- 
ing through  slots  cut  diagonally  in  the  plate. 
In  starting  the  wheel  from  either  of  its  dead 
centers,  the  pitman  will  cause  the  plate  to 
slide  on  its  diagonal  slots  and  the  pitman  will 
thus  carry  itself  out  of  the  dead  center.  The 
plate  will  then  be  returned  to  normal  position 
by  a  spring.  The  device  shown  in  184  is 
specially  applicable  to  machines  operated  by 
treadles.  Attached  to  the  pitman  is  a  piston 
acting  in  a  cylinder  pivoted  to  the  rod  on 
which  the  treadle  is  hinged.  Within  the 
cylinder  are  two  coil  springs  which  alter- 
nately act  on  the  piston  to  carry  the  crank 
over  the  two  dead  centers. 

185.  A  device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  lying  at  right  angles 
thereto.     The  driving  shaft  is  formed  with  a 
spiral  ribbon  which-  acts  between  rollers  ra- 
dially mounted  on  a  wheel,  carried  by  the 
driven  shaft.     The  wheel  is  formed  with  a 
double  series  of  rollers,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  spiral  shaft,  but  the  forward  series  has 
been  cut  away  in  the  illustration  to  show 
detail.     The  action  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
worm  and  worm  wheel,  but  friction  is  reduced 
by  the  use  of  the  rollers. 

186.  An  internal  worm  gear  is  here  shown 
which  offers  the  same  advantages  as  the  inter- 
nal spur  gear,  namely,  that  of  greater  strength 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  area  of  contact  be- 
tween the  worm  and  the  worm  wheel  is  in- 
creased.    The  worm  wheel  is  made  up  of  two 
hollow   sections,    clamped    together,    but    so 
spaced  as  to  form  a  slot  in  the  rim  through 
which  the  worm  shaft  passes. 

187.  Means  for  converting  rotary  motion 
into  rocking  motion.     The  power  shaft  car- 
ries two  cams  formed  with  corrugated  peri- 
pheries.    On  opposite  sides  of  the  rock  shaft 
are  two  rollers,  one  for  each  cam.     The  cams 
are  so  spaced  that  when  one  roller  is  being 
lifted,  the  other  will  fall.     Thus,  a  rocking 
motion  is  imparted  to  the  rock  shaft.     The 
same  effect  may  be  produced  by  using  a  sin- 
gle broad  cam  'for  the  two  rollers,  but  spacing 
one  roller  a  little  in  advance  of  the  other  on 
the  rock  shaft. 

188.  Another  form  of  internal  worm  gear. 
A  worm  wheel  is  mounted  on  a  stationary 
bracket  and  engages  the  spiral  thread  formed 
in  a  ring.     As  the  ring  revolves  about  the 
gear,  the  latter  is  caused  to  slowly  rotate.     As 
in  Figure  186,  a  very  strong  construction  and 
powerful    transmission    is    afforded    by    this 
arrangement 

189.  A   sliding   toggle    movement   is   here 
shown  for  producing  great  pressure  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  impelling 
force.     The  toggle  members  are  so  mounted 
and  are  of  such  shape  that  they  combine  the 
action  of  the  inclined  plane  with  the  ordinary 
toggle  action, 


190.  Means  for  giving  parallel  movement  to 
the  paddles  of  steamboats,  etc.     The  power 
shaft  carries  a  disk  which  is  connected  by  a 
series  of  hinged  links  with  a  ring  held  eccen- 
trically to  the  shaft,  between  pairs  of  rollers. 
The  paddles  are  attached  to  the  links  and  are 
thereby  kept  parallel,  while  the  disk  and  ring 
rotate.     This  same  arrangement  can  be  used 
to  communicate  motion  to  shafts  lying  out  of 
alignment  with  each  other,  one  of  the  shafts 
being  attached  to  the  ring. 

191.  Device  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  shaft  to  another  at  decreased  velocity. 
The  device  is  here  shown  diagrammatically. 
The  driving  shaft  carries  an  eccentric  A,  upon 
which  spur  gears  B  and  C  are  fitted  to  turn 
freely.     The  latter  are  permanently  secured 
together.    Wheel  B  meshes  with  internal  gear 

D,  on  the  driven  shaft,  and  wheel  C  meshes 
with  the  stationary  internal  gear  E.     In  oper- 
ation the  eccentric  carries  gear  C  about  gear 

E,  thereby  causing  it  to  rotate  on  its  own 
center.      The   gear   B  will   be   revolved   by 
the  eccentric  in  one  direction  and  be  rotated 
in  the  opposite  direction  by  the  gear  C  to 
which  it  is  attached,  thus  causing  the  gear  D 
to  move  at  a  reduced  speed, 

192  to  196.  BALL-BEARING  DEVICES. — In 
192  is  shown  a  ball-bearing  knuckle  joint  con- 
sisting of  a  flanged  socket  member  having 
sockets  for  the  reception  of  steel  friction  balls, 
and  a  second  member  formed  with  flanges 
which  bear  against  the  friction  balls.  When 
the  device  is  in  operation,  the  balls  will  roll 
back  and  forth  in  their  sockets  at  each  rota- 
tion of  the  knuckle  joint.  In  193  a  common 
form  of  ball-bearing  is  shown.  The  balls  are 
held  in  stationary  cups  and  bear  against  cones 
on  the  rotating  shaft.  194  shows  an  end- 
thrust  ball  bearing  of  common  form.  195 
shows  a  ball-bearing  wheel  or  caster.  The 
balls  are  arranged  to  travel  over  an  endless 
path,  being  guided  from  the  forward  end  of 
the. wheel  bearing,  through  a  passageway  in 
the  body  of  the  caster,  to  the  rear  of  the 
wheel  bearing  surface.  196  shows  the  same 
principle  applied  to  a  worm  and  worm  wheel. 
The  thread  of  the  worm  does  not-  engage  the 
teeth  of  the  worm  wheel,  but  communicates 
motion  thereto  through  a  series  of  balls.  The 
latter,  when  they  reach  the  end  of  the  worm 
thread,  are  guided  back  through  a  passage- 
way in  the  worm  body  to  the  beginning  of  the 
thread. 

197.  Means    for    converting    reciprocating 
rectilinear     movement      into      reciprocating 
rotary  movement.     A  primitive  form  of  turn- 
ing lathe.     The  wooden' shaft  or  other  objeU 
to  be  turned,  is  mounted  to  rotate  freely  be- 
tween pivot  pins.     A  rope  coiled  about    the 
shaft  has  its  free  ends  secured  to  a  spring 
bow.     In  operation,  the  handle  of  the  bow 
is  seized  in  one  hand,  and  the  other  hand 
holds   the  tool   against    the  work,   which   is 
rotated  first  in  one  direction,  and  then  in  the 
other,  by  moving  the  bow  back  and  forth. 

198.  This  is  another  form  of  primitive  lathe 
which,  however,  is  adapted  to  be  driven  by 
foot    power.     The    rope,    which    is    wound 
around  the  shaft  is  secured  at  its  upper  end 
to  a  spring,  usuclly  the  end  of  a  thin  board, 
and  at  its  lower  end  to  a  pedal.     When  the 
latter  is  depressed,  the  shaft  will  rotate  toward 
the  cutting  tool  and  on  its  release  the  spring 
will  cause  it  to  rotate  back,  ready  tor  the  next 
downward  stroke  of  the  pedal.    This  type  Q£ 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


543 


lathe  is  still  commonly  used  in  some  Eastern 
countries. 

199.  An  ancient  form,  of  drill,  but  one  which 
is  still  used  by  jewelers.     Coiled  about  the 
spindle  of  the  drill  are  two  cords  whose  lower 
ends  are  secured  to  a  cross  piece  mounted  to 
slide  up  and  down  on  the  spindle.     When  the 
cross  piece  is  pressed  downward,  it  causes  the 
cords  to  uncoil,  rotating  the  spindle.     When 
the  cross  piece  reaches  the  bottom  of  its  stroke 
the  pressure  on  it  is  relieved,  and  due  to  the 
momentum  of  a  heavy  flywheel  on"  the  spin- 
dle, the  latter  continues  to  rotate,  recoiling  the 
cords  and  lifting  up  the  cross  piece.     On  the 
next  downward  stroke  of  the  cross  piece,  the 
spindle  will  rotate  in  the  opposite  direction. 

200.  Trip,  hammer.      A    rotating    disk    is 
formed   with  a  series  of  pins  adapted  con- 
secutively to  depress  one  arm  of  a  bell  crank 
to  the  opposite  arm  of  which  a  hammer  weight 
is  connected  by  a  cord.     When  the  bell  crank 
clears  a  pin  on  the  disk,  the  weight  drops,  de- 
livering the  blow,  and  is  then  lifted  again  by 
the  next  pin  acting  on  the  bell  crank. 

201.  Means    for    converting    reciprocating 
motion  into  rotary  motion.     A  rope  attached 
at  one  end  to  a  foot  pedal  passes  over  an  inter- 
mediate pulley,  and  is  attached  at  the  other 
end  to  the  weighted  crank  arm  of  a  shaft. 
The  arrangement  is  such  that  on  the  down- 
ward or  power  stroke  of  the  pedal, the  weighted 
arm  will   be  lifted  to  the  vertical  position, 
when  it  will  be  assisted  by  gravity  and  its  own 
momentum  to  continue  its  rotation  and  lift 
the  pedal  for  the  next  downward  stroke. 

202  to  205.  Means  for  converting  rotary 
motion  into  rectilinear  motion.  In  202,  se- 
cured to  a  rotating  shaft  is  a  cam  formed  with 
projecting  horns,  which  are  adapted  to  suc- 
cessively engage  a  lug  on  a  sliding  rod.  The 
rod  is  thereby  given  a  trip-hammer  move- 
ment, dropping  by  gravity  as  the  lug  clears 
the  horns.  In  203,  a  disk  mounted  eccen- 
trically on  a  rotating  shaft  is  engaged  on 
opposite  sides  by  a  pair  of 'rollers,  pivoted  to 
a  rod.  As  the  shaft  rotates,  the  rod  will  be 
moved  up  and  down,  following  the  eccentric 
movement  of  the  disk.  This  movement  is 
used  on  windmills  to  transmit  motion  from  the 
rotating  windmill  shaft  to  the  pump  rod.  In 
204  a  shaft  is  provided  with  radial  arms  bearing 
rollers  at  their  outer  ends.  These  are  adapted 
to  operate  within  a  frame  mounted  to  slide, 
and  formed  with  two  lugs  diagonally  disposed 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  frame.  When  the 
shaft  is  rotated,  by  means  of  the  crank  arm 
shown,  the  frame  will  be  moved  first  to  one 
side  by  one  of  the  rollers  engaging  one  of  the 
lugs,  and  then  in  the  opposite  direction  by 
another  of  the  rollers  moving  into  engage- 
ment with  the  other  lug.  In  205,  a  sliding 
carriage  is  formed  with  a  lug  adapted  to  be 
engaged  successiA-ely  by  a^  series  of  pins  on  a 
revolving  disk.  The  carriage  will  be  moved 
forward  by  one  of  the  pins  until  the  latter 
clears  the  lug,  when  the  carriage  will  be 
moved  back  again  by  another  pin  engaging 
an  arm  of  a  bell  crank  whose  other  arm  en- 
gages the  carriage. 

206.  Automatic  release  for  a  winding  drum. 
A  winding  drum  is  mounted  to  turn  freely  on 
a  shaft.  A  hook  is  pivoted  on  the  face  of  the 
drum,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  rotate  the 
drum  the  hook  is  brought  into  engagement 
with  a  taopet  on  the  shaft.  WThen,  however, 
the  weight  has  been  raised  to  a  predetermined 
position  by  the  wind  ing  drum,  a  pin  strikes  the 


hook,  releasing  it  from  engagement  with  the 
tappet  and  permitting  the  weight  to  drop. 

207.  An  amusement  device  called  the  "Fly- 
ing Horse ' '  used  in  parks  and  fairs.     A  frame 
mounted  to  rotate  on  a  vertical  spindle,  is 
provided  with  a  simple  gear  wheel,  which 
meshes    with   a    driving   pinion.     By   alter- 
nately pulling  the  cords,  radiating  from  a 
crank  on  the  shaft  which  carries  the  pinion, 
the  persons  occupying  the  seats  or  horses  at 
the  corners  of  the  frame,  are  enabled  to  keep 
the  apparatus  in  motion. 

208.  This  figure  shows  a  single  pulley  driv- 
ing four  other  pulleys  by  means  of  a  cross- 
shaped  connecting  rod.     This  form  of  drive 
is  occasionally  used  for  rotating  wheels  or 
cylinders  which  lie  so  close  to  each  t>ther  that 
no  gearing  or  other  mechanism  for  transmit- 
ting motion  can  be  used. 

209.  This  figure  illustrates   the   rather  cu- 
rious fact  that  if  two  wheels  are  coupled  to- 
gether by  a  connecting  rod,  whose  crank  pins 
are    respectively    equally    distant    from    the 
centers  of  the  wheeX  then  while  one  wheel 
is   constantly   rotated    in   one   direction   the 
other  may  be  rotated  in  the  same  direction, 
or  in  the  opposite  direction,  as  desired. 

210.  A  stop  motion  used  in  brick  machines 
for  drawing  the  mold  back  and  forth,  and 
bringing  it  to  rest  at  each  stroke  to  permit 
of  depositing  the  clay  and  removing  the  brick. 
A  rotating  wheel  carries  a  crank  pin  which 
engages  a  slot  in  a  connecting  rod.     At  the 
end  of  its  forward  stroke,  and  at  the  end  of 
its  return  stroke  the  connecting  rod  will  re- 
main stationary,  while  the  crank  pin  moves 
from  one  end  of  the  slot  to  the  other. 

211.  A  device  used  in  sewing  machines  for 
feeding   the   goods    under   the   needle.     The 
feed  bar  is  formed  with  teeth  at  one  end  and 
the  opposite  end  is  pivoted  between  the  arms 
of  a  forked  lever.     The  feed  bar  is  lifted  by 
a  peripheral  projection  on  a  cam,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  forked  lever  is  moved  forward 
by  a  projection  on  the  side  face  of  the  cam, 
which  bears  against  a  lug  carried  on  the  lever. 
A  spring  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  lever  nor- 
mally holds  the  lug  in  contact  with  the  face 
of  the  cam. 

212.  Elevator   safety   device.      Secured   to 
the   side  of    the    elevator   shaft    is    a    plate 
formed  with  one  or  more  studs.     To  the  wind- 
ing drum  of  the  elevator  a  number  of  hooks 
are    pivoted.     When   the  drum    rotates   the 
hooks  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action, 
and  if  dangerous  speed  is  acquired,  they  swing 
out  far  enough  to  catch  hold  of  one  or  more 
of  the  studs,  bringing  the  drum  to  a  stop. 
The  shock  of  the  sudden  stoppage  is  usually 
taken  up  by  a  coil  spring  on  the  drum. 

213.  A    device    for    converting    oscillating 
motion  of  a  lever  into  intermittent   rotary 
motion.     A  crank  arm  which  is  provided  with 
two  pawls  hinged  to  its  upper  end,  is  oscil- 
lated within  the  rim  of  a  wheel.     The  pawls 
are  connected  by  a  cord  to  a  small  crank, 
which  may  be  turned  so  as  to  bring  one  pawl 
into  frictional  engagement  with  the  rim  of 
the  wheel,  and  thereby  cause  the  wheel  to 
rotate  intermittently.     When  it  is  desired  to 
reverse  the  direction  of  rotation,  the  crank 
is  turned,  raising  the  first  pawl  and  bringing 
the  other  one  into  engagement  with  the  wheel. 

214.  Means  for  converting  rectilinear  mo- 
tion   into    rotary   motion.     This   is   used    en 
certain  forms  of  drill  stocks.     The  drill  stock 
is  cut  with  two  spiral  grooves,  one  of  which 


544 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


is  left-handed  and  the  other  right-handed.  A 
ring  on  the  drill  stock  is  provided  with  a  fol- 
lower which  follows  one  of  the  grooves  on  the 
forward  stroke,  and  the  other  groove  on  the 
return  stroke,  thus  causing  the  drill  to  turn 
always  in  the  same  direction. 

215.  An  automatic  bench  clamp,  used  by 
carpenters  for  holding  the  work  while  planing, 
etc.     Pivoted  to  the  work  bench  are  two  cam 
levers,  formed  with  curved  ends,  which  are 
moved  apart  by  the  work  as  it  is  pressed  in 
between   them,   thus   causing   the   clamping 
ends  of  the  levers  to  tightly  grip  the  work. 

216.  Gripping  tongs  for  lifting  stones  and 
the  like.     The  upper  arms  are  connected  to 
a  shackle  by  a  pair  of  links  so  that  when  a 
pull  is  exerted  on  the  shackle,  the  arms  are 
drawn  together,  pressing  the  points  into  the 
stone;  the  heavier  the  stone  lifted  the  more 
tightly  will  the  arms  be  drawn  together,  thus 
increasing  the  grip  on  the  stone. 

217.  A  series  of  cross  connected  levers  used 
for  multiplying  or  reducing  motion.     In  the 
illustration,  the  lowest  pair  of  levers  is  pivoted 
to  a  fixed  pin  A,  and  the  arrangement  is  such 
that  if  one  pair  of  the  crossed  levers  be  folded 
together,  the  entire  series  will  fold,  giving  the 
rod  attached  to  the  upper  pair  of  levers  a 
greatly  multiplied  longitudinal  movement,  and 
conversely  if  the  rod  be  moved,  a  greatly 
reduced  motion  will  be  given  to  the  lower 
pair  of  links.     The  extent  to  which  the  mo- 
tion is  multiplied, or  reduced  is  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  pairs  of  levers  in 
the   series.     This    device  'is    called   a    "lazy 
tongs. ' '      The  figure  also  shows  a  means  for 
multiplying  motion  imparted  from  one  recti- 
linear reciprocating,  rod  to  another.      If  the 
fixed  pivot  of  the  lazy  tongs  be  at  B,  on  giving 
reciprocating  motion. to  the   lower  rod,  the 
reciprocating  motion  will  be  imparted  to  the 
upper  rod,  but  the  travel  of  the  upper  rod  will 
be  twice  that  of  the  lower  rod. 

DRAFTING   DEVICES. 

218.  A  pantograph,  or  an  instrument  for 
reproducing  a  drawing  on  a  larger  or  smaller 
scale.     It  comprises   two  levers  hinged  to- 
gether and  connected  by  a  pair  of  hinged 
links.     One  of  the  levers  carries  a  slide,  A, 
in  which  a  pencil  is  secured.     The  other  lever 
carries  a  pivot  pin,  and  the  tracing  point  is 
located  at  C.     In  use  the  device  is  made  to 
turn  on  the  fixed  point  at  B,  then  on  moving 
the  tracing  point  C  over  a  drawing,  the  same 
will  be  reproduced  by  the  pencil  at  -A.     By 
varying  the  positions  of  the  pencil  and  the 
pivot  pin  on  their  respective  levers,  the  re- 
production may  be  made  larger  or  smaller 
than  the  original  as  desired. 

219.  This  figure  shows  the  '  'parallel  ruler, 

a  device  used  for  drawing  parallel  lines.  Two 
parallel  rulers  are  connected  by  a  pair  of  par- 
allel links  of  equal  length.  The  rulers  will  then 
always  lie  parallel  to  each  other,  whether 
swung  apart  or  moved  together. 

220.  A  device  for  drawing  a  conchoid  curve. 
A  conchoid  curve  may  be  described  as  a  curve 
of  such  form  that  when  measured  along  lines 
drawn  from  a  fixed  point  called  the  pole,  it 
will,  at   all    points,  be    equidistant    from    a 
straight  line,  called  the  asymptote.     The  de- 
vice shown  comprises  a  T-square  with  grooved 
head-piece  adapted  to  receive  a  slide  piVoted 
to  a  bar.     A  slot  in  the  lower  end  of  this  bar 
engages  a  pin  on  the  blade  of  the  T-square 
and  the  opposite  end  of  the  bar  carries  the 


scribing  pencil.  The  pin  represents  the  pole 
and  the  grooved  head  of  the  T-square  repre- 
sents the  asymptote.  The  curve  traced  by 
the  pencil  when  measured  along  the  bar  lies 
everywhere  equidistant  from  the  asymptote. 

221.  An  ellipsograph  or  a  device  for  draw- 
ing ellipses.   .This  is  ^imilar  to*  the  panto- 
graph shown  in  Figure  218.     The  fixed  pivot, 
however,  is  at  B,  the  tracing  point  at  A,  and 
the  pencil  at  C.     When   A   is  moved  in  a 
straight   line  toward   or  away  from   B,  the 
pencil  C  will  trace  an  elliptical  curve. 

222.  A  device  for  drawing  a  helical  curve. 
A  rod  provided  with  a  pivot  point  is  threaded 
to  receive  a  nut  with  a  milled  flange.     As  the 
rod  is  moved  about    ts  center,  the  nut  is  ro- 
tated by  a  frictional   contact  of  the  flange 
with  the  drawing  paper,  and  is  thus  slowly 
fed  toward  or  away  from  the  center.     A  pen- 
cil carried  by  a  sleeve  on  this  nut  will  then 
trace  a  helical  curve. 

223.  A  device  for  describing  parabolas.     A 
pin  is  placed  at  the  focus  of  the  desired  parab- 
ola and  a  straight-edge  is  placed  on  the  line 
of  the  directrix.     A  slack  cord  is  secured  at 
one  end  to  the  pin,  and.  at  the  other  to  the 
blade  of  a  square  whose  stock  bears  against 
the  straight  edge.     The  slack  of  the  cord  is 
taken  up  by  the  pencil,  which  bears  against 
the  blade  of  the  square.     Sufficient  slack  is 
provided  to  make  the  distance  of  the  pencil 
from  the  focus  equal  to  its  distance  from  the 
straight-edge  or  directrix.     The  curve  then 
described  by  the  pencil  while  keeping  the  cord 
taut  against  the  square,  as  the  square  is  moved 
along  the  straight-edge,  will  be  a  parabola. 

224.  A   device   for    describing   hyperbolas. 
The  two  pins  shown  represent  the  foci  of  two 
opposite  hyperbolas.     A  ruler  turns  on  one  of 
these  pins  as  a  center,  and  its  opposite  end  is 
connected  with  the  other  pin  by  a  slack  cord. 
The  slack  of  the   cord  is   taken   up  by  the 
pencil  which  bears   against   the  ruler.     The 
curve  described  will  then  fulfil  the  conditions 
of  a  hyperbolic  curve,  which  requires  that  the 
distance  from  any  point  in  the  curve  to  its 
focus,  minus  the  distance  from  that  point  to 
any  other  fixed  point  or  focus,  should  always 
be  a  constant  quantity. 

GOVERNORS. 

A  governor  of  a  steam  engine  is  a  device 
for  automatically  operating  the  throttle,  or 
for  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve 
when  the  engine  attains  a  dangerous  speed. 

225.  WATT'S  GOVERNOR. — When  a  danger- 
ous speed  is  acquired,  the  centrifugal  force 
acting  upon  a  pair  of  balls  tends  to  lift  a 
sleeve  which,  through  a  bell  crank,  operates 
the  throttle. 

226.  PORTER'S  GOVERNOR. — The  operation 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  Watt,  but  the  balls 
are  required  to  lift  a  weight  which  may  be 
adjusted  as  desired. 

227.  KLEY'S  CROSS  ARM  GOVERNOR. — The 
degree  of  sensitiveness   is   governed   by  the 
length  of  the  cross  arms,  and  aL=o  by  an  ad- 
justable weight,  which  is  lifted  by  the  balls. 

228.  Buss'  GOVERNOR. — Two  pairs  of  balls 
are  used,  one  pair  acting  to  counterbalance 
the  other. 

229.  TA NOTE'S      GOVERNOR.— The      balls 
when  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  action  de- 
press a  rod  in  the  hollow  central  shaft  and 
this  rod  acts  directly  on  the  Work  in  the  link 
thus  shortening  the  stroke  of  the  elide  valve. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


545 


230  and  231.  PROELL'S  GOVERNOR. — In  230 
the  balls,  aside  from  lifting  a  weight,  act  to 
compress  a  spiral  spring.  In  231  the  outward 
movement  of  the  balls  is  controlled  by  an  air 
dashpot. 

232.  COSINE  GOVERNOR. — A  cross  arm  gov- 
ernor which  acts  to  raise  a  weight. 

233.  PARABOLIC     GOVERNOR.— The     balls 
move  on  parabolic  guide  arms,  which  modify 
the  effect  of  the  centrifugal  force,  and  produce 
equal  valve  movement,  which  is  exactly  pro- 
portional to  the  speed  of  the  engine. 

234.  OSCILLATING      LEVER     GOVERNOR. — 
The  balls  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  a  lever, 
which  assumes  a  more  horizontal  position  as 
the  speed  of  the  engine  increases.     A  spring 
normally  holds  the  arm  in  the  tilted  position 
illustrated. 

235.  SWEET'S  FLYWHEEL  GOVERNOR. — The 
centrifugal  action  of  the  ball  moves  the  eccen- 
tric   toward   the   center,    thus   reducing   the 
stroke  of  the  slide  valve.     A  leaf  spring  re- 
sists the  centrifugal  action  of  the  ball. 

236.  HARTNELL'S  EXPANSION  GOVERNOR.- — 
The  balls  are  thrown  out  by  centrifugal  force 
against  the  action  of  a  spring  raising  the  block 
in  the  link  and  thus  varying  the  stroke  of  the 
valve. 

237.  HARTNELL  's  CRANK  SHAFT  GOVERNOR. 
— The  weights  operate  against  the  spring  to 
move  a  toothed  sector,  which  moves  the  eccen- 
tric toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft,  thus 
varying  the  stroke  of  the  slide  valve. 

238.  TURNER  's  CRANK  SHAFT  GOVERNOR. — 
The  weights  have  bearings  in  the  side  plates 
of  the  governor.     They  also  carry  pins  by 
which  they  are  connected  to  the  eccentric. 
When  the  weights  are  thrown  out  by  cen- 
trifugal   action,    they    move    the    eccentric 
toward  the  center  of  the  crank  shaft. 

239  and  240.  VANE  GOVERNORS.— The  shaft 
is  prevented  from  rotating  too  rapidly  by  the 
atmospheric  resistance  acting  on  a  pair  of 
vanes.  This  resistance  may  be  varied  by  ad- 
justing the  vanes  to  different  angles.  In 
some  types  of  vane  governors  the  inclined 
vanes  serve  to  lift  a  sleeve,  cutting  off  the 
supply  of  power. 


SPRINGS. 

241  and  242.  LAMINATED  or  CARRIAGE 
SPRINGS,  used  on  carriages  to  take  up  the 
jolts  of  the  wheels  in  passing  over  uneven 
roads.  241  shows  the  elliptical  form,  and 
242  the  semi-«lliptical  form.  They  are  built 
up  of  flat  spring  metal  strips. 

243.  WATCH    or    CLOCK    SPRING,    used    to 
drive  a  watch  or  clock  train.     The  spring  is 
formed  of  a  flat  spring  metal  strip,  wound 
into  a-  flat  coiL 

244.  RIBBON  SPRING.— A  strip  of  flat  spring 
metal  mounted  to  exert  a  torsional  pressure. 

245.  SPIRAL  SPRING. — A    length  of  round 
spring  wire  wound   into   spiral  form.     This 
spring  could  be  used  either  as  a  tension  or  a?  a 
compression  spring,  though  usually  it  has  the 
form  shown  in  Figure   247  when  used  as  a 
tension  spring.     A  spiral  spring  should  never 
be  extended  or  compressed  more  than  one- 
third  of  its  length. 

246.  SEAR   SPRING. — This   spring   gets   its 
name  from  its  use  in  gun'  locks  for  causing  the 
sear  to  catch  in  the  notch  of  the  tumbler. 
However,  the  spring,  is  here  shown  as  holding 
apart  the  arms  of  a  compass. 

247.  TENSION    SPIRAL    SPRING. — A    spiral 
spring  which  tapers  toward  the  ends  so  that 
the  pull  will  come  centrally  on  the  spring, 
thus  giving  an  even  tension  and  avoiding  side 
strains. 

248.  FLAT  or  LEAF  SPRING. — A  strip  of  flat 
spring  metal  used  chiefly  as  a  compression 
spring.    A  spring  of  this  type  is  apt  to  lose  its 
resiliency  after  continued  use. 

249.  DISK    SPRING.— A  compression  spring 
made  up  of  a  series  of  dished  disks  or  plates. 

250.  HELICAL  SPRING. — This  spring  differs 
from  the  spiral  spring.  Figure  245,  in  that  it 
is  formed  by  being  wrapped  around  a  cone, 
whereas  a  spiral  spring  is  formed  by  being 
wrapped    around    a    cylinder.     The    helical 
spring  may  safely  be  compressed  until  it  lies 
flat  like  a  clock  spring. 

251.  VOLUTE  SPRING.— A  compression  spring 
formed  by  coiling  a  flat  spring  ribbon  into  a 
helix. 

252.  FCRNTTURE   SPRING. — A   compression 
spring  comprising  a  double  helical  spring  used 
in  furniture  to  support  the  cushioned  backs 
or  seats  of  chairs.     This  spring  is  also  used  in 
bed  springs. 


TRANSMISSION     OF    POWER     BY     BELTING. 


THE  TENACITY  OF  GOOD  NEW  BELT  LEATH- 
ER varies  from  3,000  Ib.  to  5,000  Ib.  per  square 
inch  of  sectional  area. 

THE  COEFFICIENT  OF  FRICTION  between 
ordinary  belting  and  cast-iron  pulleys  is  about 
.423. 

THE  THICKNESS  OF  BELTS  varies  from 
three-sixteenths  to  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch, 
or  an  average  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch. 

TENACITY  OF  RIVETING  AND  LACING. — The 
ultimate  tenacity  of  good  single  leather  belt- 
ing may  be  taken  at  about  1,000  Ib.  per  inch 
in  width;  the  corresponding  strength  of  a 
riveted  joint  being  about  400  Ib.,  a  butt  laced 
•joint  about  250  Ib.,  and  an  ordinary  overlap 
laced  joint  470  Ib.  It  is  not  customary,  how- 
ever, to  allow  an  effective  strain  of  more  than 
one-fourth  these  amounts. 

WORKING  STRESS  OF  BELTS. — The  follow- 
ing are  the  effective  working  stresses  allowed 


for   the   different    kinds   and    thicknesses   of 
belts  referred  to  in  the  table  of  powers. 

Ordinary  single  belts,    50  Ib. 

Light  double  belts,        70  Ib. 

Heavy  double  belts,      90  Ib. 

Link  belts,  f  in.  thick,  42  Ib. 


in. 

in. 


48  Ib. 
57  Ib. 


78  Ib. 
90  Ib. 

SPEED  OF  BELTING. — On  ordinary  shop  line 
shafts  the  velocity  of  the  belts  varies  from 
1,000  ft.  to  1,500  ft.  per  minute.  Lathe  belts 
vary  from  1,500  ft.  to  3,000  ft.  per  minute. 

STRESS  ON  SHAFTING. — The  cross  stress  on 
shafting  arising  from  the  sum  of  the  tension 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  belt  may  be  taken  at 
90  Ib.  per  inch  in  width. — Practical  Electrical 
Engineers'  Pocket  Book  and  Diary. 


546 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


HEIGHT    OF    COLUMNS,    SPIRES 
TOWERS 

Name                                   Location 

AND 

Feet 
984 

555 
529 
512 

482 

470 
y,    468 
448 
406 
402 
396 
387 
364 
355 
344 

,     332 

323 
,     284 
283 
223 

221 
179 

TABLE    OF   HIGH    BUILDINGS    WHICH 
EXCEED  300'  ABOVE  SIDEWALK 
LEVEL.                        Height 
Building.                                                   In  Feet 
Woolworth     Building  750 

Washington    Monu- 
ment       Washington,    D.    C., 

Metropolitan    Tower  700 
Singer  Tower  612 

Municipal     Building  560 

Cologne    Cathedral....  Cologne,     Germany, 
Pyramid    of    Cheops...  Egypt, 
St.    Stephen's    Cathe- 

Bankers'    Trust    Building  539 
Whitehall     Building  446 

Heidelberg     Building     .                                          410 

Liberty     Tower  385 

Strassburg  Cathedral..  Strassburg,    Germkn 
St.     Peter's  Rome,    Italy, 

Park    Row    Building  382 

Broadway-Cortlandt   Building  360 

Cathedral    Salisbury,  England. 

Wall    Street   Exchange    Building  345 
221   West   41st    St.    &    218-26    W.    42d    St.*....  341 
Walker-Lispenard     Building*  338 
110-112    West    40th    Street*                                        335 

Torrazzo  '  Tower  Cremona,    Italy, 
Cathedral    Florence,    Italy, 

St.   Paul's  Cathedral..  London,     England, 
Cathedral    Milan,    Italy, 
Hotel    des    In  valides..  Paris,    France, 
St.    Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral       New  York,   U.   S.   A 

Times     Building  331 
43-49    Exchange    Place  327 
37    Wall     Street                                                            318 

80    Maiden    Lane*  .   .                                               315 

St.   Mark's  (Cam- 

St.    Paul     Building  308 

panile)     Venice,    Italy, 
Trinity     Church  New  York,   U.   S.   A 

Rector  St.,    Trinity  PI.    &  Greenwich  St....  308 
Hotel     McAlpin*                                                        307 

Westminster    Abbey...  London,    England, 

West   St.,    Cedar  to  Albany   Sts  306 

Bunker    Hill    Monu- 

43rd-44th  Sts.,    Madison  &  Vanderbilt  Aves.*  305 
*  Buildings  are   in  course  of  construction. 
Revised     by    Bureau    of    Buildings,     Borough 
of    Manhattan.    N.    Y.    C. 

Leaning    Tower    of 
Pisa    .                      ...Pisa.    Italy. 

NAMES  OF  THE  MONTHS  IN  FIVE   LANGUAGES. 


English. 

Spanish. 

Portuguese. 

French. 

German. 

January. 
February. 

enero. 
febrero. 

Janeiro, 
fevereiro. 

Janvier, 
fevrler. 

Jan  uar. 
Februar. 

March. 
April. 
May. 

marzo. 
abrll. 
mayo. 

marco. 
abrll. 
malo. 

mars, 
avrll. 
mal. 

Marz. 
April. 
Mal. 

June. 

junlo. 

junho. 

iuin. 

Junl. 

July. 

jullo. 

julho. 

julllet. 

Jull. 

August. 
September. 
October. 

agosto. 
septlembre. 
octubre. 

agosto. 
setembro. 
outubro. 

aout. 
septembre. 
octobre. 

August. 
September. 
Oktober 

November. 
December. 

noviembre. 
diclembre. 

novembro. 
dezembro. 

novembre. 
decembre. 

November. 
Dezember. 

NUMBER  OF  WORDS  IN  A  LINE  AND  PAGE  AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  EMS  IN  A  PAGE 


Sizes  of  type  and  measures. 

Number 
of  words 
in  a  line. 

Number  of  words 
in  a  page. 

Number  of  lines 
in  a  page. 

Number 
of  ems  in 
a  pape. 

Solid. 

Leaded. 

Solid. 

Leaded. 

10-point: 
General  order 

10 
12 
16 

18 

12 
15 
20 
25 

13 
17 
24 
27 

10 

386 
693 
1,113 
1,386 

588 
1,056 
1,696 
2,112 

864 
1,551 
2,491 
3,102 

294 
528 
848 
1,056 

423 
759 
1,219 
1,518 

625 
1,122 
1,802 
2,244 

257 

?,s 

54 
63 
68 

48 
67 
79 
84 

63 
90 
106 
112 

32 
45 
53 
57 

38 
54 
64 
68 

48 
67 
80 
84 

25 

1,050 
1,856 

2,992 
3,621 

1,643 
2,920 
4,675 
5,696 

2,911 
5,141 
8,249 
10,115 

Document  

Quarto 

Census  

8-point: 
General  order  

Document 

Quarto  

Census 

6-point: 
General  order 

Document 

Quarto.  . 

Census 

14-point: 
Bill... 

The  above  table  is  based  on  the  Government  "Printing  Style  Book." 


CHAPTER  V. 


GEOMETRICAL    CONSTRUCTIONS. 


GEOMETRICAL  FIGURES. 


1.  ACUTE  ANGLE. — An 'acute  angle  is  less 
than  a  right  angle,  or  less  than  90  degrees. 

2.  ALTERNATE  ANGLES. — The  internal  an- 
gles made  by  two  lines  with  a  third,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  it.     If  the  two  lines  are  parallel, 
the  alternate  angles  are  equal.     If  the  par- 
allels AB,  CD,  be  cut  by  the  line  EF,  the 
angles  AGH,  GHD,  as  also  the  angles  BGH 
and  GHC,  are  called  alternate  angles. 

3.  ARC. — Any  part  of  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  or  other  curve;  -a.  segment  of  a  circle. 

4.  5, 6,  and  7.  CONIC  SECTIONS. — Formed  by 
the  intersections  of  cones  and  planes.     The 
conic  sections  are  the  ellipse,  parabola,  and 
hyperbola.   If  the  section  be  taken  parallel  to 
the  base  of  the  cone  its  outline  will  form  a 
perfect  circle.  If  the  section  be  taken  parallel 
to  one  side  of  the  cone  it  will  in  outline  have 
the  form  of  a  parabola  (6).    If  the  section  be 
taken  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  its  outline 
will  have  the  form  of  a  hyperbola  (7).     Any 
other  section  through  the  cone  will  in  outline 
have  the  form  of  an  ellipse  (5). 

8.  CHORD. — A  right  line  marking  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

9.  CIRCLE. — 1.   In  geometry,  a  plane  figure, 
comprehended  by  a  single  curve  line,  called  its 
circumference,  every  part  of  which  is  equally 
distant  from  a  point  called  the  center.     Of 
course  all  lines  drawn  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference,  or  periphery,  are  equal  to  each 
other.     2.   In  popular  use,  the  line  that  com- 
prehends the  figure,  the  plane  or  surface  com- 
prehended, and  the  whole  body  or  solid  matter 
of  a  round  substance,  are  denominated  a  cir- 
cle; a  ring;  an  orb;   the  earth. 

10.  CURVE. — A  curve  line  is  one  which  may 
be  cut  by  a  right  line  in  more  points  than  one. 
A  curve  line  is  that  which  is  neither  a  straight 
line  nor  composed  of  straight  lines. 

11.  CUBE. — A  regular,  solid  body  with  six 
equal  square  sides. 

12.  CYLINDER. — A  solid  body  supposed  to 
be  generated  by  the  rotation  of  a  parallelo- 
gram round  one  of  its  sides ;  or  a  long,  circular 
body,  of  uniform  diameter,  and  its  extremi- 
ties forming  equal  parallel  circles. 

13.  DIAGONAL. — The  line  extending  from 
one  angle  to  another  of  a  quadrilateral  or 
multilateral  figure,  and  dividing  it  into  two 
parts.  . 

14.  DIAGRAM. — A      figure,      draught,      or 
scheme  delineated  for  the  purpose  of  demon- 
strating the  properties  of  any  figure,   as  a 
square,  triangle,  circle,  etc. 

1 5.  DIAMETER.— A  right  line  passing  through 
the  center  of  a  circle,  or  other  curvilinear  f -- 


ure,  terminated  by  the  curve,  and  dividing 
the  figure  symmetrically  into  two  equal  parts. 

16.  ELLIPSE. — In  conic  sections,  a  figure 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  plane  and  cone 
when  the  plane  passes  obliquely  through  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  cone. 

17.  EQUILATERAL   TRIANGLE. — A    triangle 
having  all  three  sides  equal. 

18.  HEXAGON. — A  plane  figure  of  six  sides 
and  six  angles.     If  the  sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  it  is  a  regular  hexagon.     The  cells  of 
honey-comb  are  hexagons,  and  it  is  remark- 
able that  bees  instinctively  form  their  cells  of 
this  figure,  which  fills  any  given  space  without 
any  interstice  or  loss  of  room. 

19.  HYPOTHENUSE. — The  subtense  or  longest 
side  of  a  right-angled  triangle^  or  the  line  that 
subtends  the  right  angle. 

20.  RECTANGULAR   TRIANGLE. — If  one   of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  a  right  angle,  the 
triangle  is  rectangular. 

21.  RIGHT  ANGLE. — A  right  angle  Is  one 
formed  by  a  right  line  falling  on  another  per- 
pendicularly, or  an  angle  of  90  degrees,  mak- 
ing the  quarter  of  a  circle. 

22.  ISOSCELES  TRIANGLE. — If  two  of  the 
sides  only  are  equal  in  a  triangle  it  is  an  isos- 
celes or  equicrural  triangle. 

23.  OBLIQUE  LINE. — An  oblique  line  is  one 
that,  falling  on  another,  makes  oblique  angles 
with  it. 

24.  OBTUSE  ANGLE. — An  angle  greater  than 
a  right  angle,  o*r  containing  more  than  90 
degrees. 

25.  SCALENE  TRIANGLE. — One  in  which  all 
the  three  sides  are  unequal. 

26.  SECANT.— The  secant  of  a  circle  is  a  line 
drawn  from  the  circumference  on  one  side  to  a 
point  without  the  circumference  on  the  other. 

27.  OVAL. — A  body  or  figure  in  the  shape  of 
an  egg,  or  of  an  ellipse. 

28.  PARALLELOGRAM. — 1.   In    geometry,    a 
right:lined  quadrilateral  figure,  whose  oppo- 
site sides  are  parallel,  and  consequently  equal. 
2.   In  common  use,  this  word  is  applied  to 
quadrilateral    figures    of    more    length    than 
breadth. 

29.  SECTOR. — A  part  of  a  circle  compre- 
hended between  two  radii  and  the  included 
arc ;  or  a  mixed  triangle,  formed  by  two  radii 
and  the  arc  of  a  circle. 

30.  PARALLELOPIPED. — A  regular  solid  com- 
prehended under  six  parallelograms,  the  op- 
posite ones  of  which  are  similar,  parallel,  and 
equal  to  each  other;   or  it  is  a  prism  whose 
base  is  a  parallelogram.     It  is  always  triple  to 
a  pyramid  of  the  sam§  base  &nd  height.     Or  a 


547 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


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SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


parallelepiped  is  a  solid  figure  bounded  by  six 
faces,  parallel  to  each  other,  two  and  two. 

31.  PARALLEL  LINES. — One  line  is  parallel 
to  another,  when  the  lines  are  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance apart  throughout  the  whole  length. 

32.  SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE. — That  part  of 
the  circle  contained  between  a  chord  and  an 
arc  of  that  circle,  or  so  much  of  the  circle  as 
is  cut  off  by  the  chord.     The  segment  of  a 
sphere  is  a  part  cut  off  by  a  plane. 

33.  PENTAGON. — A  plane  figure  having  five 
angles,  and  consequently  five  sides. 

34.  PERPENDICULAR. — In  geometry,  a  line 
falling  at  right  angles  on  another  line,  or  mak- 
ing equal  angles  with  it  on  each  side.     Thus 
if  the  straight  line  AD,  falling  on  the  straight 
line  BC,  make  the  angles  BAD,  DAC  equal  to 
one  another,  AD  is  called  a  perpendicular  to 
BC. 

35.  QUADRANGLE. — A  plane  figure  having 
four  angles,  and  consequently  four  sides. 

36.  RECTANGLE. — A  four-sided  figure  hav- 
ing only  right  angles.     A  right-angled  paral- 
lelogram. 

37.  QUADRANT. — The  quarter  of  a  circle  or 
of  the  circumference,  of  a  circle. 

38.  QUADRILATERAL.— Having    four    sides, 
and  consequently  four  angles. 

39.  TANGENT.— In  the  figure,  let  AH  be  a 
straight  line  drawn  touching  the  circle  ADE 
at  A,  one  extremity  of  the  arc  AB,  and  meet- 
ing the  diameter  IB  produced,  which  passes 
through  the  other  extremity  B  to  the  point  H ; 
then  AH  is  the  tangent  of  the  arc  AB,  or  of 
the  angle  ACB,  of  which  AB  is  the  measure. 

40.  RADIUS. — A  right  line  drawn  or  extend- 
ing from  the  center  of  a  circle  to  the  periphery ; 
the  semidiameter  of  the  circle.     In  trigonom- 
etry, the  radius  is  equal  to  the  sine  of  90  de- 
grees. 

41.  TRAPEZIUM. — A  plane  figure  contained 
under  four  right  lines,  of  which  no  two  are 
parallel. 

42.  TRAPEZOID. — A  plane,  four-sided  figure, 
having  two  of  the  opposite  sides  parallel  to 
each  other. 

43.  REFLECTION. —  In    the   figure,    let    AB 
represent  a  smooth  polished  surface,  or  mirror, 
and  suppose  a  ray  of  light  proceeding  in  the 
direction  LP  to  impinge  on  the  surface  at  P, 
and  to  be  reflected  from  it  in  the  direction  PR. 


From  P  draw  PQ  perpendicular  to  AB,  then 
the  angle  LPQ  is  called  the  angle  of  incidence, 
and  QPR  the  angle  of  reflection. 

44.  SUPERFICIES.     A  superficies  consists  of 
length  and  breadth;    as,  the  superficies  of  a 
plate   or  of  a   sphere.     Superficies   is   recti- 
linear, curvilinear,  plane,  convex,  or  concave. 

45.  RHOMBOID. — A  figure  having  some  re- 
semblance to  a  rhomb;    or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  opposite   sides  and  angles  are 
equal,  but  which  is  neither  equilateral  nor 
equiangular. 

46.  SEMICIRCLE. — The  half  of  a  circle;   the 
part  of  a  circle  comprehended  between  its 
diameter  and  half  of  its  circumference. 

47.  SQUARE. — A   rectilinear   figure   having 
four  equal  sides  and  four  right  angles. 

48.  RECTILINEAR  TRIANGLE. — One  in  which 
the  three  lines  or  sides  are  all  right  lines,  as 
distinguished  from  curvilinear  triangle. 

49.  RHOMB.  RHOMBUS. — An  oblique-angled, 
equilateral  parallelogram,  or  a  quadrilateral 
figure  whose  sides  are  equal  and  the  opposite 
sides  parallel,  but  the  angles  unequal,  two  of 
the  angles  being  obtuse  and  two  acute. 

50.  SINE.— In  the  circle  ACH,  let  AOH  be 
a  diameter,  and  let  CE  be  perpendicular  there- 
to; then  shall  CE  be  the  sine  of  the  arc  CH, 
or  of  the  angle  COH,  and  of  its  supplement 
CO  A.     The  sine  of  a  quadrant,  or  of  a  right 
angle,  is  equal  to  the  radius.     The  sine  of  any 
arc  is  half  the  chord  of  twice  that  arc. 

51.  ACUTE-ANGLED   TRIANGLE. — One   hav- 
i  ng  all  three  of  its  angles  acute. 

52.  AN  EQUILATERAL  TRIANGLE. — One  hav- 
ing all  the  three  sides  equal. 

53.  POLYGON. — A  plane  figure  of  many  an- 
gles, and  consequently  of  many  sides;    par- 
ticularly,   one   whose    perimeter   consists   of 
more  than  four  sides. 

54.  OBTUSANGULAR  TRIANGLE.  — If  one  of 
the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  obtuse,  the  triangle 
is  called  obtusangular  or  amblygonous. 

55.  CURVILINEAR   AND   SPHERICAL   TRIAN- 
GLES.—  If  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle  are  all 
curves,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  curvilinear. 
If.  the  sides  are  all  arcs  of  great  circles  of  the 
sphere,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  spherical. 

56.  MIXTILINEAR  TRIANGLE. — If   some   of 
the  sides  of  a  triangle  are  right  and  others 
curve,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  mixtilraear. 


GEOMETRICAL  CONSTRUCTIONS.' 


To  divide  a  given  line  A  B  into  two  equal 
parts;  and  to  erect  a  perpendicular  through 
the  middle. 

With  the  end  A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the 
dotted  .circle  arcs  with  a  radius  greater  than 
half  the  line.  Through  the  crossings  of  the 
arcs  draw  the  perpendicular  C  D, which  divides 
the  line  into  two  equal  parts. 

From  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  A  B,  erect 
a  perpendicular  C  D. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle 
arcs  at  A  and  B  equal  distances  from  C.  With 
A  and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs 
at.  D.  From  the  crossing  D  draw  the  required 
perpendicular  D  C. 


3. 

From  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from  the 
line  A  B,  draw  a  perpendicular  to  the  line. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arc 
so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at  A  and  B.  With  A 
and  B  as  centers,  draw  the  dotted  cross  arcs  at 
D  with  equal  radii.  .  Draw  the  required  per- 
pendicular through  C  and  crossing  D. 

4. 

At  the  end  of  A  to  a  given  line  A  B,  erect  a 
perpendicular  A  C. 

With  the  point  D  as  a  center  at  a  distance 
from  the  line,  and  with  A  D  as  radius,  draw 
the  dotted  circle  arc  so  that  it  cuts  the  line  at 
E  through  E  and  D,  draw  the  diameter  E  C; 
then  join  C  and  A,  which  will  be  the  required 
perpendicular. 


*  Copyright,  1895,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.    Published  by  special  permission  of,  and  arrange- 
ment with  Messrs.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


551 


Through  a  given  point  C  at  a  distance  from 
the  line  A  B,  draw  a  line  C  D  parallel  to  A  B. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  E  D , 
with  E  as  a  center,  draw  through  C  the  dotted 
arc  F.  C.  With  the  radius  F  C  and  E  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arc  at  D.  Join  C  with 
the  cross  at  D.  which  will  be  the  required 
parallel  line. 

6. 

On  a  given  line  A  B  and  at  the  point  B,  con- 
struct an  angle  equal  to  the  angle  C  D  E. 

With  D  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  C 
E;  and  with  the  same  radius  and  B  as  a  ce  ter, 
draw  the  arc  G  F;  then  make  G  F  equal  to  C 
E;  then  join  B  F,  which  will  form  the  required 
angle,  F  BG  =  C  D  E. 

Divide  the  angle  AC  B  into  two  equal  parts. 

With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  D 
E;  with  D  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  at  F  with  equal  radii.  Join  C  F,  which 
divides  the  angle  into  the  required  parts. 

Angles     A  C  F  =  F  C  B  =  *(A  C  B). 

8. 

Divide  an  angle  into  two  equal  parts,  when 
the  lines  do  not  extend  to  a  meeting  point. 

Draw  the  lines  C  D  and  C  E  parallel,  and  at 
equal  distances  from  the  lines  A  B  and  F  G. 
With  C  as  a  center,  draw  the  dotted  arc  B  G; 
and  with  B  and  G  as  centers,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  H.  Join  C  H,  which  divides  the  angle 
into  the  required  equal  parts. 

9. 

To  construct  a  parallelogram,  with  the 
given  sides  A  and  B  and  angle  C. 

Draw  the  base  line  D  E,  and  make  the  angle 
F  D  E  =  C;  lines  D  E  =  B  and  D  F  =  A;  com- 
plete the  parallelogram  by  cross  arcs  at  <?,  and 
the  problem  is  thus  solved. 

10. 

To  divide  the  line  A  B  in  the  same  propor- 
tion of  parts  as.  A  C. 

Join  C  and  B,  and  through  the  given  divi- 
sions 1,  2,  and  3  draw  lines  parallel  with  C  B, 
which  solves  the -problem. 


To  find  the  center  of  a  circle  which  will  pass 
through  three  given  points  A,  B,  and  C. 

With  B  as  a  center,  draw  the  arc  D  E  F  G; 
and  with  the  same  radius  and  A  -as  a  center, 
draw  the  cross  arcs  D  and  F;  also  with  C  as  a 
center,  draw  the  cross  arcs  E  and  G.  Join  D 
and  F,  and  also  E  and  G,  and  the  crossing  o  is 
the  required  center  of  the  circle. 

12. 

To  construct  a  square  upon  a  given  line 
A  B. 

With  A  B  as  radius  and  A  and  B  as  centers, 
draw  the  circle  arcsA  E  D  and  B  E  C.  Divide 
the  arc  B  E  in  two  equal  parts  at  F,  and  with 
E  F  as,  radius,  and  E  as  center,  draw  the  circle 
C  F  D.  Join  A  and  C  B  and  D,  C  and  D, 
which  completes  the  required  square. 

13. 

Through  a  given  point  A  in  a  circumference, 
draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 


Through  a  given  point  A  and  center  C, 
draw  the  line  B  C.  With  A  as  a  center,  draw 
the  circle  arcs  B  and  C;  with  B  and  C  as  cen- 
ters, draw  the  cross  arcs  Z>  and  E;  then  join  D 
and  E,  which  is  the  required  tangent. 

14. 

From  a  given  point  A  outside  of  a  circum- 
ference, draw  a  tangent  to  the  circle. 

Join  A  and  C,  and  upon  A  C  as  a  diameter 
draw-the  half  circle  ABC,  which  cuts  the  given 
circle  at  B.  Join  A  and  B,  which  is  the  re- 
quired tangent, 

15. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  the  circle  A  B  C  at  C. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  diam- 
eter A  C  extended  beyond  £>;  from  C  set  off 
the  given  radius  R  to  D;  then  D  is  the  center  of 
the  required  circle,  which  tangents  the  given 
circle  at  C. 

16. 

To  draw  a  circle  with  a  given  radius  R,  that 
will  tangent  two  given  circles. 

Join  the  centers  A  and  B  of  the  given  circles 
Add  the  given  radius  R  to  each  of  the  radii  of 
the  given  circle,  and  draw  the  cross  arcs  C, 
which  is  the  center  of  the  circle  required  to 
tangent  the  other  two. 

To  draw  a  tangent  to  two  circles  of  different 
diameters. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D;  draw  the. radii  A  C 
and  a  c  parallel  with  one  another.  Join  A  a, 
and  extend  the  line  to  D.  On  C  D  as  a  diam- 
eter, draw  the  half  circle  C  e  D;  on  c  D  as  a 
diameter,  draw  the  half  circle  c  f  D;  then  the 
crossings  e  and  /  are  the  tangenting  points  of 
the  circles. 

18. 

To  draw  a  tangent  between  two  circles. 

Join  the  centers  C  and  c  of  the  given  circles ; 
draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs,  and  join  the  cross- 
ing m,  n,  which  line  cuts  the  center  line  at  a. 
With  a  C  as  a  diameter,  draw  the  half  circle 
a  f  C;  and  with  a  c  as  a  diameter,  draw  the 
half  circle  c  e  a;  then  the  crossings  e  and  /  are 
the  tangenting  points  of  the  circles. 

19. 

With  a  given  radius  r,  draw  a  circle  that  will 
tangent  the,given  line  A  B  and  the  given  circle 
C  D. 

Add  the  given  radius  r  to  the  radius  R  of  the 
circle,  and  draw  the  arc  c  d.  Draw  the  line  c  e 
parallel  with  and  at  a  distance  r  from  the  line 
A  B.  Then  the  crossing  c  is  the  center  of  the 
required  circle  that  will  tangent  the  given  line 
and  circle. 

20. 

To  find  the  center  ana  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  circle  A  B  at  C,  and  the 
line  D  E. 

Through  the  given  point  C,  draw  the  tangent 
G  F;  bisect  the  angle  F  G  E;  then  o  is  the 
center  of  the  required  circle  that  will  tangent 
A  B  at  C,  and  the  line  D  E. 


21. 


To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 


552 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


will  tangent  the  given  'line  A  B  at  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

Through  the  point  C,  draw  the  line  E  F  at 
right  angles  to  A  B;  set  off  from  C  the  radius  r 
of  the  given  circle.  Join  G  and  F.  With  G 
and  F  as  centers  draw  the  arc  crosses  m  and  n. 
Join  m  n,  and  where  it  crosses  the  line  E  F  is 
the  center  for  the  required  circles. 

22. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  given  line  A  B  at  C,  and  the 
circle  D  E. 

From  C,  erect  the  perpendicular  C  G,-  set 
off  the  given  radius  r  from  C  to  H.  With  H 
as  a  center  and  r  as  radius,  draw  the  cross 
arcs  on  the  circle.  Through  the  cross  arcs 
draw  the  line  I  G;  then  G  is  the  center  of  the 
circle  arc  F  I  C,  which  tangents  the  line  at  C 
and  the  circle  at  F. 

23. 

Between  two  given  lines,'  draw  two  circles 
that  will  tangent  themselves  and  the  lines. 

Draw  the  center  line  A  B  between  the  given 
lines;  assume  D  to  be  the  tangenting  point  of 
the  circles;  draw  D  C  at  right  angles  to  A  B. 
With  C  as  center  and  C  D  as  radius,  draw  the 
circle  E  D  F.  From  E,  draw  E  m  at  right 
angles  to  E  F;  and  from  F  draw  F  m  at  right 
angles  to  F  E ;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  for 
the  required  circles. 

24. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  given 
lines  A  B  and  C  D  inclined  to  one  another 
and  the  one  tangenting  point  E  being  given. 

Draw  the  center  line  G  F.  From  E,  draw 
E  F  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  then  F  is  the  center 
of  the  circle  required. 

25. 

Draw  a  circle  that  will  tangent  two  lines  and 
go  through  a  given  point  C  on  the  line  F  C, 
which  bisects  the  angle  of  the  lines. 

Through  C  draw  A  B  at  right  angles  to  C  F; 
bisect  the  angles  DAB  and  E  B  A,  and  the 
crossing  on  C  F  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

26. 

To  draw  a  cyma,  or  two  circle  arcs  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  two  parallel  lines  at 
given  points  A  and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars.  Draw  A  m 
at  right  angles  from  A,  and  B  n  at  right  angles 
from  B;  then  m  and  n  are  the  centers  of  the 
circle  arcs  of  the  required  cyma. 

27. 

To  draw  a  talon,  or  two  circle  arcs,  that  will 
tangent  themselves,  and  meet  two  "parallel 
lines  at  right  angles  in  the  given  points  A 
and  B. 

Join  A  and  B;  divide  A  B  into  four  equal 
parts  and  erect  perpendiculars;  then  m  and  n 
are  the  centers  of  the  circle  arcs  of  the  required 
talon. 

28. 

To  plot  out  a  circle  arc  without  recourse  to 
its  center,  but  its  chord  A  B  and  height  h  being 
given. 

With  the  chord  as  radius,  and  A  and  B  as 
centers,  draw  the  dotted  circle  arcs  A  C  and 
B  D.  Through  the  point  O  draw  the  lines 


A  Q  o  and  B  0  o.  Make  the  arcs  C  o  =  A  o  and 
D  o  =  B  o.  Divide  these  arcs  into  any  desired 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  number  them  as 
shown  on  the  illustration.  Join  A  and  B  with 
the  divisions,  and  the  crossings  of  equal  num- 
bers are  points  in  the  circle  arc. 

29. 

To  find  the  center  and  radius  of  a  circle  that 
will  tangent  the  three  sides  of  a  triangle. 

Bisect  two  of  the  angles  in  the  triangle,  and 
the  crossing  C  is  the  center  of  the  required 
circle. 

30. 

To  inscribe  an  equilateral  triangle  in  a  circle. 

With  the  radius  of  the  circle  and  center  C 
draw  the  arc  D  F  E;  with  the  same  radius, 
and  D  and  E  as  centers,-  set  off  the  points  A 
and  B.  .Join  A  and  B,  B  and  C,  C  and  A, 
which  will  be  the  required  triangle. 

31. 

To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  through  the 
center  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D,  and  com- 
plete the  square  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

32. 

To  describe  a  square  about  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameters  A  B  and  C  D  at  right 
angles  to  one  another;  with  the  radius  of  the 
circle,  and  A,  B,  C,  and  D  as  centers,  draw  the 
four  dotted  half  circles  which  cross  one  another 
in  the  corners  of  the  square,  and  thus  com- 
plete the  problem. 

33. 

To  inscribe  a  pentagon  in  a  given  circle. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  B,  and  from  the  center 
C  erect  the  perpendicular  C  D.  Bisect  the 
radius  A  C  at  E;  with  E  as  center,  and  D  E 
as  radius,  draw  the  arc  D  E,  and  the  straight 
line  D  F  is  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  penta- 
gon. 

34. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B. 

From  B  erect  B  C  perpendicular  to  and  half 
the  length  of  A  B;  join  A  and  C  prolonged  to 
D;  with  C  as  a  center  and  C  B  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  B  D;  then  the  chord  B  B  is  the  radius 
of  the  '  circle  circumscribing  the  pentagon. 
With  A  and  B  as  centers,  and  B  D  as  radius, 
draw  the  cross  O  in  the  center. 

35. 

To  construct  a  pentagon  on  a  given  line  A  B 
without  resort  to  its  center. 

From  B  erect  B  o  perpendicular  and  equal  to 
A  B;  with  C  as  center  and  C  o  as  radius,  draw 
the  arc  D  o;  then  A  D  is  the  diagonal  of  the 
pentagon.  With  A  D  as  radius  and  A  as  cen- 
ter, draw  the  arc  D  E;  and  with  E  as  center 
and  A  B  as  radius,  finish  the  cross  E,  and  thus 
complete  the  pentagon. 

36. 

To  construct  a  hexagon  in  a  given  circle. 

The  radius  of  the  circle  is  equal  to  the  side 
of  the  hexagon. 

37. 

To  construct  a.  Heptagon. 
The  appotem  a  in  a  hexagon  is  the  length  of 
the  side  of  the  heptagon. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


553 


A L 


-iB 


x 


JSl 


-*-f 


•?-. 

3, 


<* ' 


554 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Set  off  A  B  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle ; 
draw  a  from  the  center  C  at  right  angles  to 
A  B;  then  a  is  the  required  side  of  the  hep- 
tagon. 

38 

To  construct  an  octagon  on  the  given  line  A  B. 

Prolong  A  B  to  C.  With  B  as  center  and  A 
B  as  radius,  draw  the  circle  A  F  D  E  C;  from 
B  draw  B  I  at  right  angles  to  A  B;  divide  the 
angles  A  B  D  and  D  B  C  each  into  two  equal 
parts;  then  B  E  is  one  side  of  the  octagon. 
With  A  and  E  as  centers,  draw  the  arcs  H  K  E 
and  A  K  I,  which  determine  the  points  H  and 
/,  and  thus  complete  the  octagon  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 


To  cut  off  the  corners  of  a  square,  so  as  to 
make  of  it  a  regular  octagon. 

With  the  corners  as  centers,  draw  circle  arcs 
through  the  center  of  the  square  to  the  side, 
which  determines  the  cut-off. 

40. 

The  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  equal  to  the 
area  of  a  triangle  whose  base  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  sides,  and  the  height  a  equal  to 
the  appotem  of  the  polygon. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  area  of  two  or 
more  triangles  ABC  and  ADC  having  a 
common  or  equal  base  6  and  equal  height  h  are 
alike. 

41.  ~_4 

To  construct  any  regular  polygon  on  a  given 
Hue  A  B  without  resort  to  its  center. 

Extend  A  B  to  C  and,  with  B  as  center, 
draw  the  half  circle  A  D  B.  Divide  the  half 
circle  into  as  many  parts  as  the  number  of 
sides  in  the  polygon,  and  complete  the  con- 
struction as  shown  on  the  illustration. 

42. 

To  construct  an  isometric  ellipse  by  com- 
pasess  and  six  circle  arcs. 

Divide  O  A  and  O  B  each  into  three  equal 
parts;  draw  the  quadrant  A  C.  From  C,  draw 
the  line  C  c  through  the  point  1.  Through  the 
points  2  draw  d  e  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
major  axis.  Then  2  is  the  center  for  the  ends 
of  the  ellipse;  e  is  the  center  for  the  arc  d  c;  and 
C  is  the  center  for  the  arc  c/. 

43. 

To  construct  a  Hyperbola  by  plotting, 

Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  vertexes 
A  a,  and  foci  /  f '.  Set  off  any  desired  number 
of  parts  on  the  axis  below  the  focus,  and  num- 
ber them  1 ,  2,  3,  4,  5,  etc.  Take  the  distance 
a  1  as  radius,  and,  with  /'  as  center,  strike  the 
cross  1  with  /'  1  =a  1.  With  the  distance  A  I , 
and  the  focus  /  as  center,  strike  the  cross  I 
with  the  radius  F  1  =  A  1,  and  the  cross  1  is  a 
point  in  the  hyperbola. 

44. 

;  To  draw  an  Hyperbola  by  a  pencil  and  a  string, 
Having  given  the  transverse  axis  B  C,  foci  /' 
and  /,  and  the  vertexes  A  and  a.  Take  a  rule 
and  fix  it  to  a  string  at  e;  fix  the  other  end  of 
the  string  at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the 
string  should  be  such  that  when  the  rule  R  is 
in  the  position  /'G.the  loop  of  the  string  should 
Breach  tcr.4;  then  move  the  rule  on  the  focus  /', 


and  a  pencil  at  P,  stretching  string,  will  trace 
the  hyperbola. 

To  construct  a  Parabola  by  plotting, 
Having  given  the  axis,  vertex,  and  focus  of 
the  parabola.  Divide  the  transverse  axis  into 
any  desired  number  of  parts  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  and 
draw  ordinates  through  the  divisions;  take  the 
distance  A  1,  and  set  it  off  on  the  1st  ordinate 
from  the  focus  /  to  a,  so  that  A  l=fa.  Repeat 
the  same  operation  with  the  other  ordinates — 
that  is,  set  off  the  distance  A  5  from  /  to  e,  so 
that  A  5=f  e;  and  so  the  parabola  is  con- 
structed. 

46. 
To  draw  a  Parabola  with  a  pencil  and  a  string, 

Having  given  the  two  axes,  vertex,  and  focus 
of  the  parabola.  Take  a  square  c  d  e,  and  fix  to 
it  a  string  at  c;  fix  the  other  end  of  the  string 
at  the  focus  /.  The  length  of  the  string  should 
be  such  that  when  the  square  is  in  the  position 
of  the  axis  A  f,  the  string  should  reach  to  the 
vertex  A.  Move  the  square  along  B  B,  and 
the  pencil  P  will  describe  the  parabola. 

47. 

Schide's  anti-friction  curve. 
R  represents  the  radius  of  the  shaft,  and 
C  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  is  the  center  line  of  the  shaft. 
From  o,  set  off  the  small  distance  o  a;  and  set 
off  a  1  =  R.  Set  off  the  same  small  distance 
from  a  to  6,  and  make  b  2  =  R.  Continue  in 
the  same  way  with  the  other  points,  and  the 
anti-friction  curve  is  thus  constructed. 

48. 

Isometric  Perspective. 

This  kind  of  perspective  admits  of  scale 
measurements  the  same  as  any  ordinary  draw- 
ing, and  gives  a  clear  representation  of  the 
object.  It  is  easily  learned.  All  horizontal 
rectangular  lines  are  drawn  at  an  angle  of  30°. 

All  circles  are  ellipses  of  proportion,  as 
shown  in  No.  42,  on  the  following  page. 

49. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 

With  a  as  a  center,  draw  two  concentric  cir- 
cles with  diameters  equal  to  the  long  and  short 
axes  of  the  desired  ellipse.  Draw  from  o  any 
number  of  radii,  A,  B,  etc.  Draw  a  line  B  b' 
parallel  to  n  and  ft  b'  parallel  to  m,  then  6  is  a 
point  in  the  desired  ellipse. 

50. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  with  a  string. 
Having  given  the  two  axes,  set  off  from  c 
half  the  great  axis  at  a  and  6,  which  are  the 
two  focuses  of  the  ellipse.  Take  an  endless 
string  as  long  as  the  three  sides  in  the  tri- 
angle a  6  c,  fix  two  pins  or  nails  in  the  focuses, 
one  in  a  and  one  in  6,  lay  the  string  around  a 
and  ft,  stretch  it  with  a  pencil  d,  which  then 
will  describe  the  desired  ellipse. 

51. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 
Divide  the  Jong  axis  into  three  equal  parts, 
draw  the  two  circles,  and  where  they  intersect 
one  another  are  the  centers  for  the  tangent 
arcs  of  the  ellipse  as  shown  by  the  figure. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


555 


A    C 


\ 


A    c    B 


-- 


T-: 


556 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


52. 

•  To  draw  an  ellipse  by  circle  arcs. 
Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  the  short  axis 
from  A  to  6,  divide  6  into  three  equal  parts, 
set  off  two  of  these  parts  from  o  towards  c 
and  c  which  are  the  centers  for  the  ends  of  the 
ellipse.  Make  equilateral  triangles  on  c  c,  when 
e  e  will  be  the  centers  for  the  sides  of  the  ellipse. 
If  the  long  axis  is  more  than  twice  the  short 
one,  this  construction  will  not  make  a  good 
ellipse. 

53. 

To  construct  an  ellipse. 

Given  the  two  axes,  set  off  half  the  long  axis 
from  c  to  /  /,  which  will  be  the  two  focuses  in 
the  ellipse.  Divide  the  long  axis  into  any 
number  of  parts,  say  a  to  be  a  division  point. 
Take  A  a  as  radius  and  /  as  center  and  describe 
a  circle  arc  about  6,  take  a  B  as  radius  and  /  as 
center  describe  another  circle  arc  about  i.then 
the  intersection  b  is  a  point  in  the  ellipse,  and 
so  the  who'e  ellipse  can  be  constructed. 

54. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  that  will  tangent  two  parallel 

lines  in  A  and  R. 

Draw  a  semicircle  on  A  B,  draw  ordinates 
in  the  circle  at  right  angle  to  A  B,  the  corre- 
sponding and  equal  ordinates  for  the  ellipse 
to  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  lines,  and  thus  the 
elliptic  curve  is  obtained  as  shown  by  the 
figure. 

55. 

To  construct  a  cycloid. 

The  circumference  (7  =  3.14  D.  Divide  the 
rolling  circle  and  base  line  C  into  a  number  of 
equal  parts,  draw  through  the  division  point 
the  ordinates  and  abscissas,  make  a  a'  =  l  d, 
b  6'  =  2'e,  cc  =  3  f,  then  a  b'  and  c'  are  points 
in  the  cycloid.  In  the  Epicycloid  and  Hypo- 
cycloid  the  abscissas  are  circles  and  the  ordi- 
nates are  radii  to  one  common  center. 

56. 

Evolute  of  a  circle. 

Given  the  pitch  p,  the  angle  v,  and  radius  r. 
Divide  the  angle  v  into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
draw  the  radii  and  tangents  for  each  part, 
divide  the  pitch  p  into  an  equal  number  of 
equal  part?,  then  the  first  tangent  will  be  one 
part,  second  two  parts,  third  three  parts,  etc., 
and  so  the  Evolute  is  traced. 

57. 

To  construct  a  spiral  with  compasses  and  four 

centers. 

Given  the  pitch  of  the  spiral,  construct  a 
square  about  the  center,  with  the  four  sides 
together  equal  to  the  pitch.  Prolong  the 
sides  in  one  direction  as  shown  by  the  figure, 
the  corners  are  the  centers  for  each  arc  of  the 
external  angles. 


58. 


To  construct  a  Parabola. 


Given  the  vertex  A,  axis  x,  and  a  point  P. 
Draw  A  B  at  right  angle  to  x,  and  B  P  parallel 
to  x,  divide  A  B  and  B  P  into  an  equal  num- 
ber of  equal  parts.  From  the  vertex  A  draw 
lines  to  the  divisions  on  B  P,  from  the  divi- 


sions on  A  B  draw  the  ordinates  parallel  to  x, 
the  corresponding  intersections  are  points  in 
the  parabola. 

59. 

To  construct  a  Parabola. 

Given  the  axis  of  ordinate  B,  and  vertex  A. 
Take  A  as  a  center  and  describe  a  semicircle 
from  B  which  gives  the  focus  of  the  parabola  at 
/.  Draw  any  ordinate  y  at  right  angle  to  the 
abscissa  A  r,  take  a  as  radius  and  the  focus  / 
as  a  center,  then  intersect  the  ordinate  y,  by 
a  circle-arc  in  P  which  will  be  a  point  in  the 
parabola.  In  the  same  manner  the  whole 
Parabola  is  constructed. 

60. 

To  draw  an  arithmetic  spiral. 
Given  the  pitch  p  and  angle  v,  divide  them 
,into  an  equal  number  of  equal  parts,  say  6; 
make  01=0  1,02=  02,  03=03,  04  =  04,  05 
=  05,  and  0  6  =  the  pitch  p;  then  join  the 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5  and  6,  which  will  form  the 
spiral  required. 

THE  CIRCLE. 
Notation  of  Letters, 
d  —  diameter  of  the  circle. 
r  =  radius  of  the  circle. 
p  =  periphery  or  circumference, 
a  =  area  of  a  circle  or  part  thereof. 
b  =  length  of  a  circle  arc. 
c  =  chord  of  a  segment,  length  of. 
h  =  height  of  a  segment. 
«  =  side  of  a  rectangular  polygon 
v  =  center  angle. 
w  =  polygon  angle. 

All  measures  must  be  expressed  by  the  same 
unit. 

FORMULAS  FOR  THE  CIRCLE. 
Periphery  or  Circumference. 


p  =  2n  r  =  6.28r. 
2a         4a 

"•  7  ™  T 

Diameter  and  Radius. 

x         3.14 
P    _     P 
~  2*          6.28 


? 


—  =1.128  I/ a 

TT 

•  =  i/  —  =  0.564  Va. 

Area  of  the  Circle. 
n& 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


557 


50 


51 


58 
A        / 


00 


558 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


4ic     12.56 
pr  jpd 

2      4* 


r  =  3.14159265358979323846264338327950288 

4197169399 
2^  =  6.283185 
&r  =  9.424778 
4*=  12.566370 
6*  =  15.707963 
6*  =  18.849556 
7*  =  21.991 148 
8*  =  25. 132741 
9*= 28.274334 
**  =  0.785398 
4*=  1.047197 
4*  =  1.570796 
1^  =  0.392699 
fr  =  0.523599 
•&*  =  0.261799 
§*  =  2.094394 
5J<j7r  =  0.008726 
1 

-  =  0.318310 

1C 

2 
-=0.636619 

1C 

3 

-  =  0.954929 

1C 

4 
-=1.273239 

1C 

6 

-=1.909859 

n 

8 

—  2.546478 

1C 

12 
—=3.819718 

360 

=  114.5915 

J=  9.869650 
A/K  =  1.772453 


/ 

1/ 
^ 


I 

-  =  0.564189 


1 -  =  1.253314 

2 

2 

-  =  0.797884 


Log.  *  =  0.49714987 
61. 

The  periphery  of  a  Circle  is  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  the  Greek  letter  ^  =  3.14  when  the 
diameter  d=l  or  the  unit.  For  any  other 
value  of  the  diameter  d,  we  will  denote  this 
periphery  by  the  letter  p,  r«=  radius,  and  a  = 
area  of  the  circle.  The  periphery  of  a  circle 
5s  egual  to  3  JH99  time§  jt§  diameter, 


62. 


63. 


64. 


65. 


66. 


67. 


68. 


69. 


70. 


71. 
72, 
73. 
74. 


=0.0175n>, 


180 

1806  b 

v =  57.296-. 

xr  r 


=  2(180°—  w). 


2h 


bA/  a2_| 


V         26 


a  +  6+c 


B  =  Z>— C,     A  +B 
A'  =  A,       B'  =  B. 


=  180°, 


A'=A, 


=  A+B. 


(a  +  6)  (a—  &)=o2—  62 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.  559 


\xv  x\ 


c 


6V,' 


^7y 
OA 


r 


560 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


75. 


76. 


77. 


78. 


79. 


80. 


81. 


82. 


a  :  6  =  c  :  d, 


a  :  c  =  c  :  b, 


A  :  B  =  a  :  b. 


a  ;  x  =  x  :  a  —  z, 


!  =  0.2+62_26rf, 
-    *C~ 


26 


26 


83. 


84. 


85. 


86. 


ac    ad 
h  =  —  =  —, 

b       c 

c2     ch 
~  b  ~  a' 
a  :  c  =  <f  :  (6 — d), 


c  +  a 


a  :  t  =  t  :  b, 


/=  V  a2—  62, 


87. 


88. 


89. 


90. 


=  |/a2  —  (/j  —  r)2f     sin. 


/         £2 

=  r—  y  r2  — 


Z  =  2r—  Tr 


91. 


92. 


93. 


94. 


95. 


96 


To  find  the  length  of  a  Spiral, 
xr*  I         r 

p  '       ~*r  ~  P' 

xr*        r 

P  = =  -.     P  =  Pitch. 

I       n 


To  find  the  length  of  a  Spiral. 


Periphery  of  an  Ellipse. 


To  construct,  a  screw  Helix. 

To  square  a  Circumference. 
R  =  0.555355^=1. 1107  r  =  0.7071  S. 
5  =  0.785398  d  =  1.57079  r  =  1.4142  R 
d  =  1.27322  S  =  1.79740  R  =  2r. 

To  square  a  Circle-plane. 
R  =  0.626657  d=l. 253314  r  =  0.7071  t 
S  =  0r886226  d=  1.77245  r=  1.4142  R 
<f=  1.12838  S  =  1.5367  R  =  2  r. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 


HOW  TO  BEAD  A  GAS  METER. 


The  dial  marked  "1  THOUSAND"  in 
the  accompanying  illustration  is  divi- 
ded into  hundreds ;  the  dial  marked 
"10  THOUSAND"  is  divided  into  thou- 
sands; that  marked  "100  THOUSAND" 
into  ten-thousands,  and  that  marked 
"1  MILLION"  into  hundred-thousands. 
When  1,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  have  been 
consumed,  the  pointer  on  the  dial 
marked  "1  THOUSAND"  will  have  made 
a  complete  rotation  and  the  fact  will 
be  indicated  by  the  pointer  of  the  next 
dial  at  the  left,  which  will  point  to  the 
figure  1.  When  10,000  cubic  feet 
of  gas  have  been  consumed,  the  point- 
er on  the  "10  THOUSAND"  dial  will 
point  to  1,  and  so  on.  In  reading  a 
gas  meter,  put  down  the  hundreds  first, 
then  the  thousands,  and  so  on,  always 
counting  the  figure  just  under,  or 


which  has  just  been  passed  by,  the 
pointer.  In  the  jllustration  about  half 
a  hundred  is  indicated  on  the  "1 
THOUSAND"  dial,  three  thousands  is 
indicated  on  the  next  dial,  two  ten- 
thousands  on  the  next  dial,  and  one 
one-hundred-thousands  on  the  "1  MIL- 
LION" dial.  The  reading  will  be  123,- 
050.  The  dial  marked  "TEN  FEET"  is 
called  the  units  dial.  It  is  used  for 
testing  the  meter  to  discover  whether  it 
is  in  working  order  or  not.  Each  mark 
represents  a  cubic  foot  and  the  com- 
plete circle  10  cubic  feet.  If  the 
pointer  moves  when  no  gas  is  burning, 
it  indicates  a  leak.  If  it  does  not 
move  when  the  gas  is  burning,  or  if  its 
motion  is  unsteady,  it  indicates  a  de- 
rangement in  the  mechanism  and  shows 
that  the  meter  requires  attention. 


CUBIC 


FEET 


GAS   METER    INDICATOR  DIALS- 
561 


562 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


LINEAR    MEASURE. 


3  barleycorns,  or... 

| 

13  lines,  or  
72  points,  or  
1,000  mils  (mi.)  

i  1  inch  (in.) 

3  inches  
4  inches  

.1  palm 
.  1  hand 

9  inches  

.  1  span 

12  inches  

.  1  foot  (ft.) 

18  inches  

.  1  cubit 

3  feet  

.  1  yard  (vd.) 

2}  feet  
5  feet  
2  yards  

1  military  pace 
1  geometrical  pace 
.  1  fathom 

5i  yards  

.  1  rod,  pole,  or  perch 

66  feet,  or  

}1  Gunter's  chain 

4  rods  

40  poles,  or  
220  yards  

SI  furlong  (fur.) 

8  furlongs,  or  

1,760  yards,  or  

1  mile 

5,280  feet  

3  miles  

.  1  league 

The  hand  is  used  to  measure  horses'  height. 
The  military  pace  is  the  length  of  the  ordinary 
step  of  a  man.  One  thousand  geometrical 
paces  were  reckoned  to  a  mile. 

LAND    MEASURE    (LINEAR). 

7.92  inches. 1  link 


100 
66 
22 

4 
10 
80 

8 


links,  or 

feet.  or I  1  chain  (ch.) 

yards,  or j 

poles J 

chains 1  furlong  (fur.) 

chains,  or 1  1  mile 

furlongs / 

LAND    MEASURE    (SQUARE). 

144  sq.  inches... .  1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.) 

9  square  feet. .  1  square  yard  (sq.  yd.) 

30  J  sq.  yards. ...  1  sq.  pole,'  rod,  or  perch 

16  sq.  poles. . .  .  1  square  chain  (sq.  ch.) 

,  _f  0  s<*-  P°Ief  •  or      1  sq.  rood 

1,210  sq.  yards 

4  roods,  or. ... 
10  sq.  chs.,  or... 
160  sq.  poles,  or.     1  acre* 
4,840  sq.  yds.,  or... 

43,560  sq.  ft.. 

640  acres,  or. . .  . 
3,097,600  sq.  yds.....  , 

30  acres 1  yard  of  land 

100  acres 1  hide  of  Ir.nd 

40  hides 1  barony 

*  The  side  of  a  square  having  an  area  of  an 
acre  is  equal  to  69.57  linear  yards. 


CUBIC    MEASURE. 

1,728  cubic  inches  ......  1  cubic  foot 

27  cubic  feet  ........  1  cubic  or  solid  yard 

DRY    MEASURE,    U.    8. 

Cu.  In. 
2  pints  ............  1  quart  (qt.)     =      67  .  20 

4  quarts  ...........  1  gallon  (gal.)   =    268  .  80 

rlpeck        -  537-60 


4  pecks  ............  1  struck  bushel  =  2  150.  42 


LIQUID    MBA8URE,    U.    S. 

Cu.  In. 

4  gills 1  pint  (O.)  =   28.875 

2  pints 1  quart  (qt.)          =    57 . 75 

4  quarts 1  gallon  (gal.)       =231 

63  gallons 1  Iwgshead  (hhd.) 

2  hogsheads 1  pipe  or  butt 

2  pipes 1  tun 

APOTHECARIES'  LIQUID  MEASURE. 

Apothecaries'  or  Wine  Measure  is  used  by 
pharmacists  of  this  country.     Its  denomina- 
tions   are    gallon,    pint,    fluid    ounce,    fluid 
drachm,  and  minim,  as  follows: 
Cong.  O.         F.  Oz.     F.    Dr.       Minims 

1        =        8     =      128   =  1,024   =    61,440 
1      =        16   =      128   =       7,680 
1    =          8   =          480 
1   =  60 

1 

The  Imperial  Standard  Measure  is  used  by 
British  pharmacists.  Its  denominations  and 
their  relative  value  are: 

Gal.    Quarts.  Pints.     F.  Oz.      F.  Dr.  Minims 

1      =     4      =     8=    160=  1,280=  76,800 

1      =      2      =      40   =      320=  19,200 

1      =      20   =     1SO=    9,600 

1   =,          8=        480 

1=          60 

The  relative  value  of  United  States  Apothe- 
caries' and  British  Imperial  Measures  is  as 
follows: 

^-Imperial  Measure.-^ 
U.  S.  « 

Apothe-  -2  r?     n     -- 

caries'  S  -S 

Measure.  '&  &    &     ?% 

1  Gallon  =  .83311  Gallon,  or  6  13  2  22.85 
1  Pint  =  .83311  Pint,  or  16  517.86 
1  Fl.  Oz.  =  1.04139  Fl.Oz. .or  1  019.86 
1  Fl.  Dr.  =  1.04139  Fl.  Dr.  or  1  2  48 

1  Minim  =1.04139  Minim,  or  1.04 


OLD    WINE    AND    SPIRIT   MEASURE. 

Imperial 
4  gills  or  quarterns. . .  1  pint  Gals. 

2  pints 1  quart 

4  quarts  (231  cu.  in.) .  1  gallon      =         .8333 

10  gallons 1  anchor    =       8.333 

18  gallons 1  bunlet     =     15 

3U  gallons 1  barrel      =     26.25 

42  gallons 1  tierce       =    35 

63  gallons,  or \  j  -nogshead  =     52.5 

Zi  DJHTG1S .   J 

?f  PU°uS>  ,?r )  1  Puncheon  =     70 

1 h  hogsheads 

126  gallons,  or 

2  hogsheads,  or. 

11  puncheons I 

2  pipes  or j  j  tun  =  21Q 

3  puncheons / 

Apothecaries'  WTeight  is  the  official  standard 

of    the    United    States    Pharmacopoeia.     In 

buying  and  selling  medicines  not  ordered  by 

prescriptions  avoirdupois  weight  is  used. 

Lb.  Oz.  Dr.  Scr.  Gr. 

'l      =      12      =      96      =        288      =      5760 

1=8=          24      =        480 

1      =  3      =          60 

1      =      .    20 


| 1  puncheon ^ 

,  1  pipe  or      =  105 
^         bfttt 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


563 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES— Continued 


Avoirdupois    Weight.—  Used   for  weighing 
all  goods  except  those  for  which  troy     and 

Avoirdupois. 
1  long  ton  equals.. 

r-Troy.-x 
Lb.      Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
2722        2      13         8 

apothecaries  weignt  are  e    pi  y 

1  cwt  equals 

136        1        6       16 

Gross 
or  Long 
Ton.  Cwt,     Qr.          Lb.             Oz.              Dr. 

1  quarter  equals  .... 
1  pound  equals.  .  .  . 
1  ounce  equals  

...34        0        6       16 
1        2       11       16 

0      18       5k 

1  =   20   =    80   =  2,240   =  35,840   =  573,440 

1  drachm  equals 

0        1      3H 

l   =      4   =      112   =     1,792   =    28,672 
1    =        28   =        448   =       7,168 
1    =          16   =          256 
1    =            16 
Short 

Avoirdupois. 

1  short  ton  equals..  . 
1  cwt.  equals  
1  quarter  equals 

—  Troy.^ 
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 
..2430    6      13       8 
121    6        6     16 
30    4       11      16 

or  Net 
Ton.  Cwt.    Qr.          Lb.             Oz.              Dr. 
1  =    20   =   80   =  2,000   =  32,000   =  512,000 
1=      4   =      100   =     1,600   =    25.600 
1    =,        25   =        400   =       6,400 
1   =          16   =          256 
1   =            16 

Avoirdupois. 

1  pound  equals  
1  ounce  equals  
1  drachm  equals.  .  .  . 

DIAMOV 

—Apothecaries'.-- 
Lb.  Oz.     Dr.    Scr.      Gr. 
12420 
007         0      17* 
000         1        7H 

D    MEASURE. 

The  "short"  ton  of  2,000  Ibs.  is  used  com- 
monly in  the  United  States.  The  British  or 
"long"  ton,  used  to  some  extent  in  the  United 
States,  contains  2,240  Ibs.,  corresponding  to  a 
cwt.  of  1 12  and  a  quarter  of  28  Ibs. 

Troy  Weight. — Used  by  jewelers  and  at  the 
mints,  in  the  exchange  of  the  precious  metals. 
Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

1        =        12        =        240     =      5760 
1        =          20     =        480 
1      =          24 

700  troy  grains  =  1  Ib.  avoirdupois. 
175  troy  pounds  =  144  Ib.  avoirdupois. 
175  troy  ounces  =  192  oz.  avoirdupois. 
437£  troy  grains  =  1  oz.  avoirdupois. 
1  troy  pound  =. 8228 +  lb.  avoirdupois. 

The  common  standard  of  weight  by  which 
the  relative  values  of  these  systems  are  com- 
pared is  the  grain,  which  for  this  purpose  may 
be  regarded  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  pound 
troy  and  that  of  apothecaries'  weight  have 
each  five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty 
grains;  the  pound  avoirdupois  has  seven 
thousand  grains. 

The  relative  proportions  and  values  of  these 
several  systems  are  as  follows: 

Troy.  Avoirdupois. 

Oz.      Dr. 

1  pound  equals 13      2.65 

1  ounce  equals 1       1.55 

1  dwt.  equals 0    0.877 

Troy.  /—Apothecaries'.-^ 

Lb.  Oz.  Dr.    Sc.     Gr. 

1  pound  equals 10000 

1  ounce  equals 0       1       0       0        0 

1  dwt.  equals 0       0       0       1        4 

1  grain  equals 00001 

Apothecaries'.  Avoirdupois. 

Oz.        Dr. 

1  pound  equals 13         2.65 

1  ounce  equals 1         1.55 

1  drachm  equals 0        2.19 

1  scruple  equals 0        0.73 

Apothecaries'.  ,— Troy.— % 

Lb.  Oz.  Dwt.  Gr. 

pound  equals 1       0       0        0 

ounce  equals 0       1       0        0 

drachm  equals 0       0       2      12 

scruple  equals 0      0      0     20 


16  parts     =  1  grain  =  0.8  troy  grain. 
4  grains   =1  carat  =  3.2  troy  grains. 

TIME. 
The  unit  of  time  measurement  is  the  same 

among  all  nations.    Practically  it  is  1  /86400  of 

the  mean  solar  day,  but  really  it  is  a  perfectly 

arbitrary  unit,  as  the  length  of  the  mean  solar 

day  is  not  constant  for  any  two    periods    of 

time.       There  is  no  constant  natural  unit  of 

time. 

1  minute  =  60  seconds. 

1  hour  =60  minutes,    3600   sec- 

onds. 

1  day  =24  hours,  1440  minutes, 

86,400  seconds. 

1  sidereal  day  =86164.1  seconds. 

1  sidereal  month         =27.321661    mean   solar 
days  (average). 

1  lunar  month  =29.530589    mean   solar 

days  (average). 

1  anomalistic  month  =  27. 544600    mean   solar 
days  (average). 

1  tropical  month        =27.321582    mean   solar 
days  (average). 

1  nodical  month        =27.212222   mean  solar 


Mean  solar  year 


days  (average.) 
>5d.5h.  4 


365  d.  5  h.  48  m.  46.045 
s.  with  annual  varia- 
tion of  0.00539. 

The  change  in  the  length  of  the  mean  side- 
real day,  i.e.,  of  the  time  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion upon  its  axis,  amounts  to  0.01252  a.  in 
2400  mean  solar  years. 

ANGULAR  MEASURE 
60  seconds  =  1  minute 
60  minutes  =  1  degree 
60  degrees  =  1  sextant 
90  degrees  =  1  right  angle  or  quadrant 
360  degrees  =  1  circle 

GEOGRAPHICAL  MEASURE 
6087 . 15       feet  =  1  geographical  mile 

1 . 15287  statute  miles  =  1  geographical 

mile 
60  geographical  miles  =  1  degree  of 

longitude  at  the  Equator 
69.168      statute  miles  =  1  degree  of  lon- 
gitude at  the  Equator 
360  degrees  =-  circumference  of  earth 

at  the  Equator 


564 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES— Continued 


NAUTICAL  MEASURE 

6  feet  —   1  fathom 

120  fathoms  =  1  cable  length 

6080 . 27         feet  =  1  nautical  mile 
1003  fathoms  =  1  nautical  mile 

1 . 15157  statute  miles  =  1  nautical  mile 
3  nautical  miles  =  1  league 

1  knot  =  a  speed  of  1  nautical  mile 

per  hour 

In  the  United  States  the  nautical  mile  is 
defined  to  be  one  sixtieth  part  of  the  length 
of  a  degree  of  a  great  circle  of  a  sphere  whose 
surface  is  equal  in  area  to  the  area  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  In  France,  Germany 
and  Austria  the  nautical  mile  has  a  length  of 
6,076.23  feet.  In  England  the  nautical  mile 
is  6,080  feet. 

Miles  at  sea  are  understood  to  be  nautical 
miles.  Therefore  it  is  no  more  necessary  to 
say  "nautical"  miles  when  speaking  of  a  sea 
distance  than  to  say  "statute"  miles  when 
speaking  of  a  land  distance. 

Landsmen  are  apt  to  confuse  knots  with 
nautical  miles.  A  knot  is  not  a  measure  of 
distance  but  a  measure  of  speed,  and  the  only 
measure  of  speed  in  the  English  language. 
When  speaking  of  a  vessel  that  travels,  say 
20  knots,  we  mean  that  the  vessel  is  travel- 
ing at  a  speed  of  20  nautical  miles  per  hour; 
but  the  distance  covered  may  be  one  nautical 
mile  or  a  thousand,  depending  upon  the  length 
of  time  during  which  the  20-knot  speed  is 
maintained.  Only  landsmen  use  the  ex- 
pression "knots  per  hour."  The  "per  hour" 
is  superfluous  and  incorrect. 


Following  is  a  list  of  the  lighthouses  from 
Bremerhaven  to  Dover;  figures  expressed  in 
sea  miles.  There  is  no  table  in  existence 
which  exactly  corresponds  with  the  excellent 
tables  which  we  give  from  Fastnet  Light  to 
Flushing. 

Hoheweg-Lighthouse 17 

Rothesand-Lighthouse 26 

Weser-Lightship 35 

Borkum  Lightship 100 

Terschelling  Lightship 146 

Dover 340 


PERPETUAL  CALENDAR. 

To  find  the  day  of  the  week  for  any  given 
date. 

1.  Take  the  last  two  figures  of  the  year, 
add  J£  of  them  (neglecting  remainder).    Thus: 
1949  =  49  +  12  =  61. 

2.  Add  for  the  month,  if  for  Jan.  or  Oct., 
1;  May,  2;  Aug.,  3;  Feb.,  Mar.,  or  Nov.,  4; 
June,  5;  Sept.  or  Dec.,  6;  April  or  July,  0;  if 
leap  year  (that  is,  if  it  be  divisible  by  4  without 
remainder)  Jan.,  0;  Feb.,  3. 

3.  Add  day  of  month. 

Divide  the  sum  of  these  three  by  '/,  and 
remainder  gives  the  number  of  the  day  of  the 
week. 

Thus:— 

What  day  of  the  week  is  15th  July,  1908? 

1.  8-1-2     =10 

2.  July        =   0 

3.  15th    =15 


25  =  7X3+4. 
4th  day  of  the  week  =  Wednesday. 

What  day  of  the  week  was  December  25th, 
1905? 

1.  5  +  1      =0 

2.  Dec.         =   6 

3.  25th    =25 


2nd  day  of  the  week  =  Monday. 

The  above  only  applies  to  20th  Century. 
For  19th  Century,  add  2,  for  21st  Century, 
add  6,  18th  Century,  4,  but  before  1752  the 
"old  style"  was  used. 

DISTANCES  IN  DETAIL  OF  AMERICAN 
LIGHTS. 

Knots 
Naw  York  to  Sandy  Hook  .............     18 

Sandy  Hook  to  Ambrose  Lightship  .....        8 

Ambrose  Lightship  to  Fire  Island  .......     30 

Fire  Island  to  Shinnenock  .............     35 

Shinnecock  to  Nantuckat  Lightship  ......    122 


TABLE  FOR  CONVERTING  NAUTICAL  MILES  TO  STATUTE  MILES. 


Nauti- 
tical 
Miles 

Statute 
Miles 

Nauti- 
cal 
Miles 

Statute 
Miles 

Nauti- 
tical 
Miles 

Statute 
Miles 

Nauti-   1 
cal             Statute 
Miles    !         Miles 

1 

1.152 

14 

16.122 

27 

31.092 

40               46.063 

2 

2.303 

15 

17.274 

28 

32.244 

41 

47.214 

3 

3.455 

16 

18.425 

29 

33.396 

42 

48.366 

4 

4.606 

17 

19.577 

30 

34.547 

43 

49.518 

5 

5.758 

18 

20.728 

31 

35.699 

44 

50.670 

6 

6.909 

19 

21.880 

32 

36.850 

45 

51.821 

7 

8.061 

20 

23.031 

33 

38.002 

46 

52.972 

8 

9.213 

21 

24.183 

34 

39.153 

47 

54.124 

9 

10.364 

22 

25.335 

35 

40.305 

48 

55.275 

10 

11.516 

23 

26.486 

36 

41.457 

49 

56.427 

11 

12.667 

24 

27.638 

37 

42.608 

50 

57.578 

12 

13.819 

25 

28.789 

38 

43.760 

13 

14.970 

|26 

29.941 

39 

44.911 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


5G5 


DECIMAL  SYSTEM— WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


A  meter  is  one  ten-millionth  of  the  distance 
from  the  equator  to  the  North  Pole. 


POLE 


The  metric  system,  formed  on  the  meter  as 
the  unit  of  length,  has  four  other  leading  units, 
all  connected  with  and  dependent  upon  this. 
The  are,  the  unit  of  surface,  is  the  square  of 
ten  meters.  The  liter,  the  unit  of  capacity, 
is  the  cube  of  a  tenth  part  of  the  meter.  The 
stere,  the  unit  of  solidity,  has  the  capacity  of 
a  cubic  meter.  The  gram,  the  unit  of 
weight,  is  the  weight  of  that  quantity  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  its  maximum  density  which 
fills  the  cube  of  a  hundredth  part  of  the  meter. 
Each  unit  has  its  decimal  multiple  and  sub- 
multiple,  that  is,  weights  and  measures  ten 
times  larger  or  ten  times  smaller  than  the 
principal  unit.  The  prefixes  denoting  the 
multiples  are  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
are  deca,  ten ;  hecto,  hundred;  kilo,  thousand ; 
and  myria,  ten  thousand.  Those  denoting 
sub-multiples  are  taken  from  the  Latin,  and 
are  deci,  ten ;  centi,  hundred ;  milli,  thousand. 


Relative  Value. 

Length. 

Surface. 

Capacity. 

Solidity. 

Weight. 

10  000 

1,000.  .    . 

Kilometer 

Kiloliter 

Kilogram 

100.  . 

Hectometer 

Hectare 

Hectoliter 

Hectogram 

10.  .  . 

Decameter 

Decaliter 

Dekastere 

Decagram 

Unit...."    
0.1.  . 

Meter 
Decimeter 

Are 
Declare 

Liter 
Deciliter 

Stere 
Decistere 

Gram 
Decigram 

0.01  

Centimeter 

Centiare 

Centiliter 

Centigram 

0.001  "    

Millimeter 

Milliliter 

Milligram 

APPROXIMATE   EQUIVALENTS   OF   THE   FRENCH    (METRIC)   AND 
ENGLISH    MEASURES. 


I  yard.  .  „ ii  meter. 

I 1  meters 12  yards. 

To  convert  meters  into  yards Add  i^ 


1  meter  =  l.l  yd.;  3.3  ft 


3  ft.  3i  inches  (^th  less). 
40  inches  (1.6  per  cent  less). 
=  39.38203  inches. 
=  39.37079  inches. 
3  decimeters  (more  exactly  3.048). 
25  millimeters  (more  exactly  25.4). 


1  meter,  by  the  Standards  Commission..  .  . 

1  meter,  by  the  Act  of  1878  ............. 

1  foot  ................................. 

1  inch  ................................. 

1  mile  ...................................       1.6  or  If  kilometers  (more  exactly  1.60931). 

1  kilometer  ..............................       i  of  a  mile. 

1  chain  (22  yards)  ........................       20  meters  (more  exactly  20.1165). 

5  furlongs  (1.100  yards)  ....................       1  kilometer  (more  exactly  1.0058). 

1  square  yard  ............................       f  square  meter  (more  exactly  .8361). 


1  square  inch  ............................       6£  square  centimeters  (more  exactly  6.45). 

1  square  mile  (640  acres)  ...................       260  hectares  (0.4  per  cent  less). 

1  acre  (4840  square  yards)  .................       4000  square  meters  (1.2  per  cent  more). 


1  cubic  yard 

1  cubic  meter 

1  cubic  meter 

1  cubic  meter  of  water 

1  kilogram 

1,000  kilograms 

1  metric  ton 

1  long  hundredweight 

1  United  States  hundredweight 


cubic  meter  (2  per  cent  more). 
H  cubic  yards  (If  per  cent  less). 
35$  cubic  feet  (.05  per  cent  less). 
1  long  ton  nearly. 
2.2  pounds  fully. 

1  long  ton  nearly. 

51  kilograms  nearly. 
45$  kilograms  nearly  . 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


.&y. 


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1 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


567 


KILOMETRES   AND    MILES. 


KM. 

Miles. 

Kil. 

Miles. 

KiL     Miles. 

Kil. 

Miles. 

1  =  about   f 

29  =  about  18 

57  =  about 

36.1 

85=  about 

53.3 

2 

li 

30 

•   jgi 

58 

36.7 

86 

54 

3 

If 

31 

'   19.7 

59 

37.3 

87 

54f 

4 

2* 

32 

'   20 

60 

38 

88 

55.2 

5 

31 

33 

'   20| 

61 

38.9 

89 

55 

6 

7 

.  3$ 
4.7 

34 
35 

'   21.2 
'   21| 

62 
63 

39.2 
39| 

90 
91 

til 

8 

5 

36 

•   22* 

64 

40.4 

92 

57.4 

9 

5f 

37 

4   231 

65 

41 

93 

58 

10 

6.2 

38 

'   23.7 

66 

41.9 

94 

581-5 

11 

6f 

39 

'   24.3 

67 

42.2 

95 

59J 

12 

7* 

40 

'   24.8 

68 

421 

96 

595  6 

13 

8.1 

41 

'   25  1-3 

69 

43 

97 

60* 

14 

8.7 

42 

1   26* 

70 

43.9 

98 

61.1 

15 

9.3  . 

43 

'   27.1 

71 

44.2 

99 

61.8 

16 
17 

10 
10.9 

44 
45 

4   27§ 

'   28.7 

72 
73 

III 

100 
200 

62.1 
124.3 

18 

11.2 

46 

'   29 

74 

46 

300 

186 

19 

Hf 

47 

'   29| 

75 

46.6 

400 

248* 

20 

12.4 

48 

'   30.2 

76 

47i 

500 

310.7 

21 

13 

49 

1   30f 

77 

475-6 

600 

372.8 

22 

13.6 

50 

4   3l| 

78 

48* 

700 

435 

23 

141 

51 

"   32.7 

79 

49.1 

800 

497.1 

24 

145-6 

52 

"   33 

80 

49.6 

900 

559.1 

25 

15* 

53 

"   33f 

81 

50* 

1000 

621.8 

26 

161 

54 

"   342 

82 

51* 

27 

16? 

55 

"   34| 

83 

52.1 

28    M 

17.7       56 

"   35* 

84 

52.7 

TABLE  OF  DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS 
OF  FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH. 


&  =  -015635    4, 

=  34375 

£f  =  '671875 

A  =  "03125 

1 

=  '359375 

H  =  '6875 

&  =  -046875 

=  '375 

H  =  -703125 

A  =  -0625 

§ 

=  -390625 

$2  =  -71875 

&  =  -078125 

=  -40625 

=  '734375 

A  =  -09375 

1 

=  -421875 

=  "75 

£  =  '109375 

3 

=  "4375 

=  -765625 

|  =  -125 

1 

=  '453125 

=  '78125 

&  =  -140625 

=  '46875 

=  -796875 

3C  =  '15625 

1 

=  -484375 

=  -8125 

ii  =  -171875 

=  -50 

=  -828125 

A  =  '1875 

i 

=  -515625 

=  -84375 

if  =  -203125 

I 

=  -53125 

=  '859375 

3{  =  -21875 

=  -546875 

=  -875 

jf  =  -234375 

i 

=  "5625 

1 

:  =  -890625 

i  =  -25 

I 

=  -578125 

1 

=  -90625 

41  =  -265625 

i 

=  59375 

I 

=  -921875 

A  =  '28125 

• 

=  '609475 

? 

=  -9375 

Jf  =  -296875 

=  '625 

1 

=  -953125 

3?  =  '3125 

* 

=  -640625 

31  =  -96875 

g  =  -328125 

i 

=  '65625 

||  =  -984375 

WEIGHT  OF  BELLS. 

Kremlin,    Moscow,    Russia 432,000    Ibs. 

Mengoon,     Burmah,     India 201,600    " 

St.    Ivans,     Moscow,    Russia 127,350     " 

Great   Bell   of   Pekin,    China 120,000    " 

Maha    Ganda,    Burmah,    India...          95,000     " 

Nishni     Novgorod,     Russia 69,664     " 

Church   of  the   Redeemer,    Moscow, 

Russia     60,736     " 

St.    Paul's,     London,    England 42,000    " 

Olmutz,    Bohemia,    Austria 40,320    " 

Vienna,    Austria    40,200     " 

Westminster,  London,  England,  St. 
Stephen's  Tower,  House  of  Par- 
liament    35,620  " 

Erfurt,     Saxony,     Germany 30,800     " 

Notre     Dame,     Paris,     France 28,670    " 

Montreal,    Canada    28,560    " 

City  Hall,    New  York,    U.    S.    A 22,500     " 

Liberty  Bell,    Philadelphia,   U.   S.   A. 

The  three  towers  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
stand  up  from  behind  Westminster  Hall.  On 
the  left  next  to  Westminster  Bridge  is  the 
Clock  Tower  (St.  Stephen's  Tower),  (Darling- 
ton's London),  containing  the  enormous  bell 
known  as  "Big  Ben." — See  Ency.  Britannica, 
p.  539.  Big  Ben  (cracked),  bet.  13  and  14  tons. 


LENGTH  OF  CELEBRATED  BRIDGES. 

Longest  Total 

NAME.  Span.  Length.         Type.  Spanning. 

Forth,  Scotland. 1710  8,296  Cantilever       Firth  of  Forth 

Williamsburg,  N.  Y 1600  7,200  Suspension      East  River 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y 1595  H  5,986 

Manhattan,  N.  Y 1470  9,900 

Queensboro,  N.  Y 1182  7,450  Cantilever 

Niagara  (Low  Falls),  N.  Y 821  1,040  Suspension      Niagara  River 

Niagara,  N.  Y 550  910  Cantilever 

Washington  Bridge,  N.  Y 509  2,300  Composite       Harlem  River 

Firth  ofTay,  Scotland 245  10,779  Girder  Firth  of  Tay 


568 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATUTORY  WEIGHTS  OF  THE  BUSHEL. 

Courtesy     of     "International     Harvester    Company    Almanac    and    Encyclopedia." 


STATE  OR 
TERRITORY 

1 
g 

0) 
>> 

2 
S 

S 

1 

1 

Shelled  corn 

1 
§ 
c 

o 

Cornmeal  unbolt 

1 

13 

S 

1 

(2 

Potatoes,  sweet 

CD 

£ 

0 

•3 

0 

jf 

a 
•a 
jjj 

I 

» 

1 

1 

i 

1 
c. 
a 

1 

1 
1 
1 

j 

1 

'rl-{ 

1 

0. 

e 
a 

Millet  seed  | 

Timothy  seed  | 

Blue  grass  seed 
Hungarian  grass  ed. 

United  States.  
Alabama    .  .        .  „  . 

60 
60 

56 
.56 

32 
32 

48 
47 

42 

48 

?4 

fin 

60 

33 

50 

56 

•• 

56 

70 

48 

r,i 

5.1 

55 

60 

r,n 

?A 

Alaska 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

56 
56 
54 

56 
56 

32 
:u 
32 

32 
32 

45 

48 
50 
48 
48 

IT 

Arkansas 

52 
40 
52 

48 

55 

70 

48 

20 

60 

50 

57 

57 

•• 

60 

60 

50 

24 

33 

•• 

56 

•• 

50 

60 

14.. 

California  

Colorado 

70 

50 
50 

48 

20 

60 
60 

54 

50 

57 
52 

50 

60 

60 
GO 

60 

48 

25 

33 

•• 

55 

44 

•• 

45 

14.. 

Connecticut  ...... 

Delaware 

Dist  Col 

60 

ftf 

Florida 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
58 
56 
50 

32 
32 

32 
36 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
?6 

48 

47 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
18 
47 
48 
48 

52 

42 
52 
50 
52 
50 
56 

56 

56 

70 
70 

48 
48 

20 
20 

.. 

60 
60 

60 
55 

•• 

56 
57 

54 
55 

.. 

00 
60 

GO 

48 

24 

24 

33 

48 

56 

44 

50 

45 

14!! 

Georgia  

Hawaii    

Idaho 

60 

45 

48 

48 

28 
24 
25 
24 
24 
24 

28 
33 
33 
33 

33 

46 
46 
46 
46 
45 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

44 
44 
44 
44 
44 

50 

.-,( 
50 
50 

1 

14" 
14.. 
1450 
1450 
1450 

Illinois  

56 
5S 
56 

56 

70 
68 
70 
70 
70 

48 
50 

50 
50 

20 

20 
20 
20 

38 
35 

32 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

50 
55 
46 
50 
55 

57 
48 
57 
57 
57 

55 
55 

55 

60 

•• 

60 

60 
60 
60 
60 

60 

Indiana 

Iowa  

Kansas  ,     . 

Kentucky.  .  .  

Louisiana  

Maine 

48 

•• 

50 

•• 

60 

56 

50 

52 

50 

60 

60 

60 

44 

Maryland    ' 

Massachusetts  

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 
48 
50 
48 
52 
52 
52 

50 
56 
56 
56 
56 
58 
56 

70 
70 
72 
70 
70 
70 

50 
50 

48 
50 
50 
50 

20 

20 
20 

20 
20 

38 
38 
30 
30 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

54 
56 
55 

60 
56 

50 

50 
45 

50 
50 

52 
54 
52 
57 
57 
57 
57 

58 

55 
42 

55 

50 
50 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
ti< 
60 

60 
60 
GO 
60 

GO 

fiO 

GO 

48 
48 

50 

48 
45 

25 
22 
28 

26 
24 

24 

•• 

46 

46 
46 

46 

55 
56 

56 

5(i 

5t; 

5G 

44 
50 
44 
44 
44 
44 

50 

is 
f,< 
50 

50 

1 

45 

1450 
1448 
1450 
1448 
1450 
1450 

Minnesota  
Mississippi  
Missouri  ... 

Montana  

Nebraska  . 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire  
New  Jersey 

60 
60 

60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 
60 

60 
60 
60 

56 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

56 
56 
56 

32 
30 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

32 
32 
32 

48 

48 
48 

48 
48 
48 
46 
47 
48 

48 
48 
48 

50 

48 
50 
42 
50 
42 
42 
48 
48 

42 
50 
42 

56 
56 
56 

70 

68 
70 

5.0 

60 
60 

54 

57 

•• 

02 
60 

GO 
60 

50 

25 

ii 

New  Mexico  ...... 

"50 

"so 

1448 
..48 

1448 

New  York 

50 

48 

20 
20 
20 

34 

60 

60 

60 
60 
6ft 

54 

46 
50 
46 

50 
50 

57 

52 
55 
52 

60 

60 
60 

60 
50 

60 

60 

00 

61 

60 

60 

(i() 
B(! 
GO 
60 

48 

50 
50 

•n 

25 

24 
2J 

55 
55 
56 

56 
56 

44 

50 
50 

45 

45 
45 
42 

North  Carolina  
North  Dakota  
Ohio  

Oklahoma         .  .  . 

Pennsylvania  
Rhode  Island 

56 

56 
58 
56 

70 

70 

70 
70 

50 

48 

48 

20 

20 

20 
20 

38 

56 

60 

60 
60 
60 

54 

46 
50 
55 

50 

50 

50 
50 

52 
56 
57 

52 
57 

50 

60 
50 
55 

60 
55 

50 

60 
50 

60 

60 

60 
60 
60 

62 
60 

60 

48 

25 

46 
46 

56 

56 
56 
56 

44 

44 

44 

50 

50 
50 

50 

45 

42 
45 
45 

45 
45 

South  Carolina  
South  Dakota  
Tennessee  
Texas            .... 

60 
60 

60 
60 

50 
45 

46 
41 

24 

28 

28 
°S 

Utah 

Vermont  

60 
60 
GO 
60 
60 

56 
56 
56 
56 
56 

32 
30 
32 
32 
32 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 
52 
42 
52 
50 

56 
56 

70 

50 

. 

38 

60 
56 

in 

56 

50 

32 

56 
Sfi 

44 

Washington  

West  Virginia  
i  Wisconsin  
Wyoming  

50 

20 

34 

60 

60 

54 

50 

57 

42 

50 

60 
60 

60 

50 

25 

25 

% 
56 

44 

50 

45 
45 

"48 

NOTE. —  Rye  meal  takes  48  pounds  to  the  bushel  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  50  in  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  Rhode  Island,  and  Wisconsin.  Peeled  dried  peaches  take  38  pounds  to  the  bushel  in  Alabama  and 
40  in  Virginia.  The  metric  system  is  used  in  the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK.     * 


569 


STEAM  PRESSURE  AND  TEMPERATURE. 


Pressure 
in  Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 

Pressure 
in  Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 

Pressure 
in  Lbs.  per 
Sq.  In. 

Corresponding 
Temperature, 
Fahrenheit. 

10 

192.4 

65 

301.3 

140 

357  9 

15 

212.8 

70 

306.4 

150 

363  4 

20 

228.5 

75 

311.2 

160 

368  7 

25 

241.0 

80 

315.8 

170 

373  6 

30 

251.6 

85 

320.1 

180 

378.4 

35 

260,9 

90 

324.3 

190 

382  9 

40 

269.1 

95 

328.2 

200 

387  3 

45 

276.4 

100 

332.0 

210 

391.5 

50 

283.2 

110 

339.2 

220 

395.5 

55 

289.3 

120 

345.8 

230 

399  4 

60 

295.6 

130 

352.1 

240 

403.1 

TABLE  OF  TEMPERATURE. 


Degree  of  Fahr. 
2  786 

Degree  of  Fahr. 
211. 

1,996.. 
1,947  
1,873  
1  750 

Copper  melts  (Daniell). 
Gold  melts. 
Silver  melts  (Daniell). 
Brass    (containing    25%    of 

201  
207... 

1,000  
980 

zinc)  melts  (Daniell). 
Iron,  bright  cherry  red  (Poil- 
let). 
Red  heat,  visible  in  daylight 

185  
180  (about).  .  . 

176  

941 

(Daniell). 
Zinc  begins  to  burn  (Daniell). 

173.   .. 

773  
644 

Zinc  melts  (Daniell). 
Mercury  boils  (Daniell),  662 

151. 

640 

(Graham). 
Sulpliuric    acid     boils    (Ma- 

150. 

630 

grignac),  620  (Graham). 
Whale  oil  boils  (Graham). 

145. 

617.  .  . 

Pure  lead  melts  (Rudberg). 

600... 

Linseed  oil  boils. 

141.8  

518  
442.    . 

Bismuth  melts  (Gmelin). 
Tin  melts  (Crichton). 

132  

380  
356. 

Arsenious  acid  volatilizes. 
Metallic  arsenic  sublimes. 

122  

315  

Oil      of      turpentine      boils 
(Kaure). 

116  

302..  . 

Etherification  ends. 

257  

Saturated  sol.  of  sal  ammo- 

115    , 

256  

niac  boils  (Taylor). 
Saturated  sol.  of  acetate  of 

112  

239.      . 

soda  boils. 
Sulphur  melts   (Miller),   226 

111.   ., 

(Fownes). 

98. 

238. 

Saturated  sol.  of  nitre  boils. 

95. 

221.      . 

Saturated  sol.  of  salt  boils 

95.. 

220  

(Paris  Codex). 
Saturated  sol.  of  alum,  carb. 

88.. 

218  

soda,  and  sulph.  zinc,  boil. 
Saturated  sol.  of  chlorate  and 

77..          . 

216  

Prussia  te  potash,  boil. 
Saturated  sol.  of  sulph.  iron, 

64.4. 

214  

sulph.    copper,    nitrate   of 
lead,  boil. 
Saturated     sol.     of    acetate 

59  
55.. 

213  or  (213.5)  . 

lead,     sulph.     and    bitar- 
trate  potash,  boil. 
Water    begins     to    boil    in 

30  (about).  .  . 
32.. 

glass. 

5  

212  

Water  boils  in  metal,  barom- 
eter at  30°. 

-37.9.  .  . 

Alloy  of  5  bismuth,  3  tin,  2 

lead,  melts. 
Alloy  of  8  bismuth,  5  lead,  3 

tin,  melts  (Kane). 
Sodium  melts  (Regnault). 
Nitric  acid  1.52  begins  to  boil. 
Starch    forms    a    gelatinous 

compound  with  water. 
Rectified  spirit  boils,  benzol 

distils. 
Alcohol  (sp.  gr.  .796  to  .800) 

boils. 
Beeswax  melts  (Kane),   142 

(Lepage). 

Pyroxylic  spirit  boils  (Scan- 
Ian). 

White  of  egg  begins  to  coag- 
ulate. 
Chloroform,  and  ammonia  of 

.945,  boil. 
Acetone    (pyroacetic    spirit) 

boils  (Kane). 
Mutton    suet    and    styracin 

melt. 
Bisulphuret  of  carbon  boils 

(Graham). 
Pure  tallow  melts  (Lepage), 

92  (Thomson). 
Spermaceti    and    stearin    of 

lard  melt. 

Phosphorus  melts  (Miller). 
Temperature  of  the  blood. 
Ether  (.720)  boils. 
Carbolic    acid    crystals    be- 
come an  oily  liquid. 
Acetous  fermentation  ceases, 

Water  boils  in  vacuo. 
Vinous   ferm.   ends,   acetous 

ferm.  begins. 
Oil  of  anise  liquefies. 
Gay      Lussac's      Alcoomttre 

graduated  at. 
Sirups  to  be  kept  at. 
Olive   oil  becomes  partially 

solid. 

Water  freezes. 
Cold    produced    by   snow    2 

parts  and  salt  1  part. 
Mercury  freezes. 

— Cooley. 


570 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


APPROXIMATE  PERCENTAGE  VARIA- 
TION  IN   RESISTANCE   AT 
ABOUT  20°  C.  (68°  F.) 

HEAT    AND    ELECTRICAL 
CONDUCTIVITY. 

Metal  or  Alloy. 

& 

1°C. 

& 

1°P. 

Substances. 

Heat 
Conductiv- 
ity. 

Electrical 
Conductiv- 
ity. 

100.0 
73.3 
58.5     «. 
21.5 

Platinum  Silver  (  1  pt.  Plati- 
num to  2  pts.  Silver),  hard 
or  annealed. 

0.031 

0.044 
0.072 
0.354 
0.365 
0.365 
0.365 
0.377 
0.387 
0.428 
0.5 

0.017 

0.024 
0.040 
0.197 
0.203 
0.203 
0.203 
0.209 
0.215 
0.238 
0.278 

Silver.  ... 

100.0 
73.6 
53.2 
23.6 
19  9 

German  Silver,  hard  or  an- 
nealed   
Mercury  

Gold 

Brass  
Zinc.  .  . 

Bismuth,  pressed  

Tin.. 

14.5 
12.0 
11.9 
8.5 
6.4 
6.3 
1.8 

22.6 

'is'.b 

10.7 
10.3 

'  Y.9 

Gold,  annealed  

Steel 

Zinc,  pressed 

Iron  
Lead  
Platinum  
Palladium  
Bismuth  

Tin,       "      

Silver,  annealed.  
Lead,  pressed  .  . 

Copper,  annealed  ,  .  . 

Iron  (about)  

— Practical  Engineer's  Electrical  Pocket-Book 
and  Diary, 


RESISTANCE  AND  WEIGHT  TABLE. 

American  gauge  for  cotton  and  silk-covered  and  bare  copper  wire. — The  resistances  are 
calculated  for  pure  copper  wire. 

The  number  of  feet  to  the  pound  is  only  approximate  for  insulated  wire. 


Feet  per  Pound. 

Resistance,  Naked  Copper. 

No.  - 

Diameter. 

Cotton 
Covered. 

Silk 
Covered. 

Naked. 

Ohms  per 
1,000  Feet. 

Ohms  per 
Mile. 

Feet  per 
Ohm. 

Ohms  per 
Pound. 

g 

.12849 

20 

6259 

3.3 

1600 

.0125 

g 

11443 

25 

.7892 

4.1 

1272 

.0197 

10 

1  10189 

32 

.8441 

4.4 

1185 

.0270 

11 

09074 

40 

1.254 

6.4 

798 

.0501 

12 

.08081 

42 

46 

50 

1.580 

8.3 

633 

.079 

13 

.07196 

55 

60 

64 

1.995 

10.4 

504 

.127 

14 

.06408 

68 

75 

80 

2.504 

13.2 

400 

.200 

15 

.  05707 

87 

95 

101 

3.172 

16.7 

316 

.320 

16 

.  05082 

110 

120 

128 

4.001 

23 

230 

.512 

17 

.04525 

140 

150 

161 

5.04 

26 

198 

.811 

18 

.0403 

175 

190 

203 

6.36 

33 

157 

1.29 

19 

.  03539 

220 

240 

256 

8.25 

43 

121 

2.11 

20 

.03196 

280 

305 

324 

10.12 

53 

99 

3.27 

21 

.02846 

360 

390 

408 

12.76 

68 

76.5 

5.20 

22 

.02535 

450 

490 

514 

16.25 

85 

61.8 

8.35 

23 

.02257 

500 

615 

649 

20.30 

108 

48.9 

13.3 

24 

.0201 

715 

775 

818 

25.60 

135 

39.0 

20.9 

25 

.0179 

910 

990 

1,030 

32.2 

170 

31.0 

•33.2 

20 

01594 

1,165 

1,265 

1,300 

40.7 

214 

24.6 

52.9 

27 

01419 

1,445 

1,570 

1,640 

51.3 

270 

19.5 

84.2 

28 

.01264 

1,810 

1,970 

2,070 

64.8 

343 

15.4 

134 

29 

.01126 

2,280 

2,480 

2,617 

81.6 

432 

12.2 

213 

30 

.01002 

2,805 

3,050 

3,287 

103 

538 

9.8 

338 

31 
32 

.00893 
.00795 

3,605 
4,535 

3,920 
4,930 

4,144 
5,227 

130 
164 

685 
865 

7.7 
6.1 

539 
856 

33 

.  00708 

6,200 

6,590 

206 

1033 

4.9 

1357 

34 

.  0063 

7,830 

8,330 

260 

1389 

3.8 

2166 

35 

00561 

9,830 

10,460 

328 

1820 

2.9 

3521 

36 

.005 

12,420 

13,210 

414 

2200 

2.4 

5469 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


571 


WEIGHT  IN  POUNDS  PER  MILE  OF  COPPER   WIRE. 


Num- 
ber. 

Roeb- 
ling. 

Bir- 
ming- 
ham. 

Brown 
& 
Sharpe. 

English 
Legal 
Stand- 
ard. 

'  Num- 
ber. 

Roeb- 
ling. 

Bir- 
ming- 
ham. 

Brown 
Sharpe! 

Englis 
Legal 
Stand 
ard. 

0000 

2,466 

3,286 

3,375 

2,555 

14 

102 

110 

65 

102 

000 

2,092 

2,884 

2,677 

2,210 

15 

83 

83 

52 

83 

00 

1,750 

2.305 

2,123 

1,933 

16 

64 

68 

41 

C5 

0 

1,504 

1,846 

1,684 

1,682 

17 

47 

53f 

33 

5(T 

1 

1,278 

1,437 

1,335 

1,437 

18 

35 

38 

26 

37 

2 

1,104 

1,287 

1,058 

1,216 

19 

27 

28 

20* 

26 

3 

950 

1,071 

839 

1,012 

20 

19* 

19- 

16? 

201 

4 

808 

904 

665 

860 

21 

16J 

13 

16 

5 

684 

773 

528 

718 

22 

12* 

12* 

6 

588 

657 

418 

588 

23 

10j 

gi 

9 

7 

500 

517 

332 

495 

24 

8i 

7J 

6* 

8 

419 

435 

263 

409 

25 

6* 

6 

gi. 

gi 

9 

350 

350 

209 

332 

26 

5 

5 

4 

5 

10 

291 

287 

166 

263 

27 

4* 

4 

3* 

4 

11 

230 

230 

131 

215 

28 

4 

H 

2* 

31 

12 
13 

176 
135 

190 
144 

104 
83 

173 
135 

29 
30 

i 

3 

2 

If 

r 

WIRE    GAUGES,   IN    DECIMAL    PARTS 

TABLE  INDICATING  SIZE,  WEIGHT, 

OF   AN    INCH. 

AND  LENGTH  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 

Num- 

Bir- 

Eng- 

Old 

WIRE. 

ber  of 

15  _  _\_ 

Brown 

ming- 

lish 

Eng- 

Wire 

rCoeb- 

i;_  „ 

& 

ham 

Legal 

lish, 

Gauge. 

ling. 

Sharpe. 

or 

Stubs. 

Stand- 
ard. 

orLon- 
don. 

Gauge 
Num- 

Diam- 
eter, 

Wight 
of  100 
Feet 

Wight 
of  One 
Mile 

Feet 
in  2000 

Area. 
Square 

000000 

0  46 

0.464 

bers. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Lbs.' 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

00000 

0.43 



0.432 

0000 

0.393 

0.46 

'6.454 

0.4 

6.454'  ' 

000 

0.362 

0.40964 

0.425 

0.372 

0.425 

3-0 

.362 

34.73 

1834 

5,759 

.102921 

00 

0.331 

0.3648 

0.380 

0.348  0.38 

2-0 

.331 

29.04 

1533 

6,886.086049 

0 

1 

0.307 
0.283 

0.32495 
0.2893 

0.340 
0.3 

0.324 
0.3 

0.34 
0.3 

1-0 

.307 

.283 

25.00 
21.23 

1318 
1121 

8,  000,.  074023 
9,  425).  062901 

2 

0.263 

0.25763 

0.284 

0.276 

0.284 

2 

.263 

18.34 

968 

10.9051.054325 

3 

0.244 

0.22942 

0.259 

0.252 

0.259 

3 

.244 

15.78 

833 

12,674  .046759 

4 

0.225 

0.20431 

0.238 

0.232 

0.238 

4 

.225 

13.39 

707 

14,9361.039760 

5 

0.207 

0.18194 

0.22 

0.212 

0.22 

5 

.207 

11.35 

599 

17,621  .033653 

6 

0.192 

0.16202 

0.203 

0.192 

0.203 

6 

.192 

9.73 

514 

20,555^.028952 

7 

0.177 

0.14428 

0.18 

0.176 

0.18 

7 

.177 

8.30 

439 

24,906!  024605 

8 

0.162 

0.12849 

0.165 

0.16 

0.165 

8 

.162 

6.96 

367 

28  ,734'  .02061  2 

9 

0.148 

0.11443 

0.148 

0.144 

.148 

9 

.148 

5.80 

306 

34,  483'.  017203 

10 

0.135 

0.10189 

0.134 

0.128 

0.134 

10 

.135 

4.83 

255 

41,408  .014313 

11 

0.12 

0.09074 

0.12 

0.116 

0.12 

11 

.120 

3.82 

202 

52,3561.011309 

12 

0.105 

0.08081 

0.109 

0.104 

0.109 

12 

.105 

2.92 

154 

68,4931.008659 

13 

0.092 

0.07196 

0.095 

0.092 

0.095 

13 

.092 

2.24 

118 

89,286.006647 

14 

0.08 

0.06408 

0.083 

0.08 

0.083 

14 

.080 

1.69 

89 

118,343.005026 

15 

0.072 

0.05706 

0.072 

0.072 

0.072 

15 

.072 

1.37 

72 

145,985.004071 

16 

0.063 

0.05082 

0.065 

0.064 

0.065 

16 

.063 

1.05 

55 

190,476|.003117 

17 

0.054 

0.04525 

0.058 

0.056 

0.058 

17 

.054 

0.77 

41 

259,740.002290 

18 

0.047 

0.0403 

0.049 

0.048 

0.049 

18 

.047 

0.58 

31 

344,827 

.001734 

19 

0.041 

0.03589 

0.042 

0.04 

0.04 

19 

.041 

0.45 

24 

444,444 

.001320 

20 

0.035 

0.03196 

0.035 

0.036 

0.035 

20 

.035 

0.32 

17 

625,000.000962 

21 

0.032 

0.02846 

0.032 

0.032  10.0315 

21 

.032 

0.27 

14 

740,741 

.000804 

22 

0.028 

0.02534 

0.028 

0.028  0.0295 

22 

.028 

0.21 

11 

952,381 

.000615 

23 

0.025 

0.02257 

0.025 

0.024  0.027 

23 

.025 

0.175 

9.24 

.000491 

24 

0.023 

0.0201 

0.022 

0.022  0.025 

24 

.023 

0.140 

7.39 

.000415 

25 

0.02 

0.0179 

0.02 

0.02     0.023 

25 

.020 

0.116 

6.124 

.000314 

26 

0.018 

0.01594 

0.018 

0.018  0.0205 

26 

,018 

0.093 

4.91 

.000254 

27 

0.017 

O.OT419 

0.016 

0.0164,0.01875 

27 

.017 

0.083 

4:382 

.000227 

28 

0.016 

0.01264 

0.014 

0.0148,0.0165 

28 

.016 

0.074 

3.907 

.000201 

29 

0.015 

0.01125 

0.013 

0.01360.0155 

29 

.015 

0.061 

3.22 

.000176 

30 

0.014 

001002 

0.012 

0.01240.01375 

30 

.014 

0.054 

2.851 

.000154 

31 

0,0135 

0.00893 

0.010 

0.01160.01225 

31 

.0135 

0.050 

2.64 

.000143 

H 

0.013 

0.00795 

0.009 

0.0108:0.01125 

32 

.013 

0.046 

2.428 

.000132 

33 

0.011 

0.00708 

0.008 

0.01     0.01025 

33 

.011 

0.037 

1.953 

.000095 

34 

0.01 

0.0063 

0.007 

0.00920.0095 

34 

.010 

0.030 

1.584 

.  00007  S 

35 

0.0095 

0.00561 

0.005 

0.00840.009 

35 

.0095 

0.025 

1.32 

.000071 

36 

0.009 

0.005 

0.004 

0.00760.0075 

36 

.009 

0.021 

1.161 

.000064 

572 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


LINEAR   EXPANSION   OF  SOLIDS   AT   ORDINARY   TEMPERATURES. 


Substance. 

Forl°Fahr. 

For  1°  Cent. 

Substance. 

Forl°Fahr. 

For  1°  Cent. 

Aluminium  (cast).  .  .  . 
Antimony  (cryst.)  .  .. 
Brass,  cast  .  . 

Length  =  1. 
.00001234 
.00000627 
.00000957 

Length  =  1. 
.00002221 
.00001129 
.00001722 

Masonry,  of  brick  in 
cement     mortar: 
stretchers  

Length  =  1. 
.  00000256 

Length  =  1. 
C0000400 

English  plate. 
'  '      sheet  
Brick  best  stock.  . 

.00001052 
.00001040 
.00000310 

.00001894 
.00001872 
.00000550 

Mercury    (cubic    ex- 
pansion)   
Nickel. 

.00009984 
00000695 

.00017971 
00001251 

Bronze  (Baily's).  .  .  . 
Copper,  17  
Tin,  2*  
Zinc,  1  

1  .00000986 

.00001774 

Osmium  
Palladium,  pure  
Pewter  
Plaster,  white. 

.00000317 
.00000556 
.00001129 
00000922 

.00000570 
.00001000 
.00002033 
00001660 

Cement,  Roman,  dry. 
Cement,  Portland 

,00000975 
.00000797 

00000594 

.00001755 
-OOOQ1435 

00001070 

Platinum  
Platinum,  90  per  cent. 
Iridium,      10     per 

.00000479 

1 

}•  00000476 

.00000863 
00000857 

Cement,        Portland, 
mortar,  with  sand.. 
Concrete:         cement 
mortar  and  pebbles 

.00000656 
.00000795 

.00001180 
.00001430 

hammered  and  an- 
nealed   
Platinum,      85      per 
cent  

CoDoer 

00000887 

00001596 

V  .00000453 

.00000815 

r.bomte.  .  . 

00004278 

00007700 

cent  

j 

Glass,  English  flint.  . 
'     French  flint.  .  . 
1     white,     free 
from  lead.  .  . 
1     blown.  .  .  . 

.00000451 
.00000484 

.00000492 
.00000498 

.00000812 
.00000872 

.00000886 
00000896 

Porcelain  
Quartz,    parallel     to 
major  axis,  t  0°  to 
40°  C  
Quartz,     perpendicu- 

.00000200 
.00000434 

.00000360 
.00000781 

"     thermometer  .. 
"     hard.. 

.00000499 
.00000397 

.00000897 
.00000714 

lar  to  major  axis,  t 
0°to40°C.  . 

.00000788 

00001419 

Granite,  gray,  dry.  .  . 
red       "... 

.00000438 
.00000498 

.00000789 
.00000897 

Quartz,  cubic  expan- 
sion at  16°  C.  .    . 

.00001924 

00003463 

Gold,  pure.  . 

.00000786 

00001415 

Silver,  pure. 

00001079 

00001943 

Iridium,  pure  
Iron,  wrought  
'    Swedish.  . 

.00000356 
.00000648 
00000636 

.00000641 
.00001166 
00001145 

Slate  
Steel,  cast  

.00000577 
.00000636 
00000689 

.00001038 
.00001144 
00001240 

'    cast  
'  '    soft  
Lead 

.00000556 
.00000626 
00001571 

.00001001 
.00001126 
00002828 

Stone       (sandstone), 
dry  

.00000652 

.00001174 

Marble,  moist.  .  . 

.00000663 

.00001193 

Rauville  .  . 

00000417 

00000750 

"       dry  
white  Sicil- 

.00000363 

.00000654 

Stone       (sandstone). 
Caen.  .  .  . 

00000494 

00000890 

ian,  dry.  .  . 
Marble,  black  Galway 
Carrara.  .  .  . 
Masonry,  of  brick  in 
cement     mortar: 

.00000786 
.00000308 
.00000471 

.00001415 
.00000554 
.00000848 

Tin  
Wedgwood  ware  
Wood,  pine  
Zinc  
Zinc,  8.  .  . 

.00001163 
.00000489 
.00000276 
.00001407 

.00002094 
.00000881 
.00000496 
.00002532 

headers  

.00000494 

.00000890 

Tin,  1  

[  00001496 

.00002692 

—Clark's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book. 


EXPANSION  OF  LIQUIDS. 
The  cubical  expansion,  or  expansion  of  vol- 
ume, of  water,  from  32°  F.  to  212°  F.  and  up- 
wards, is  given  in  the  following  Table.  The 
rate  of  expansion  increases  with  the  tempera- 
ture. The  expansion  for  the  range  of  tem- 
perature from  32°  to  212°  is  .0466,  or  fully  4$ 
per  cent,  of  the  volume  at  32° ;  or  an  average 
of  .000259  per  degree,  or  yfas  part  of  the  vol- 
ume at  32°  F. 

Expansion  of  Liquids  from  32°  to  212°  F. 
Volume  at  32°  =1. 


Liquid. 

Volume 
at  212°. 

Alcohol  

.1100 

Nitric  acid  
Olive  oil.  .  . 

.1100 
0800 

Turpentine  

.0700 

Sea  water  
Water  

.0500 
.0466 

Mercury  

.018 

Expan- 


SMEATON  DIVING  BELL. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


573 


AREA  OF  CIRCLES  IN  SQUARE  FEET. 


Diam- 
eter. 

TENTHS  OF  INCHES. 

0.0 

0.1    |    0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.5 

0.6 

0.7 

0.8 

0.9 

AREA—  SQUARE  FEET. 

Inches. 

1 

0.006 

0.007 

0.008 

0. 

009 

0.011 

0.012 

0.014 

0.016 

0.018 

0.020 

2 

.022 

..024 

.026 

029 

.031 

.034 

.037 

.040 

.043 

.046 

3 

.049 

.052 

.056 

059 

.063 

.067 

.071 

.075 

.079 

.083 

4 

.087 

.092 

.096 

. 

101 

.106 

.111 

.115 

.121 

.126 

.131 

5 

.130 

.142 

.147 

153 

.159 

.165 

.171 

.177 

.184 

.190 

6 

.196 

.203 

.210 

. 

216 

.223 

.230 

.238 

.245 

.252 

.260 

7 

.267 

.275 

.283 

291 

.299 

.307 

.315 

.323 

.332 

.340 

8 

.349 

.358 

.367 

376 

.385 

.35 

»4 

.403 

.413 

.422 

.432 

9 

.442 

.452 

.462 

472 

.482 

.492 

.503 

.513 

.524 

.535 

10 

.545 

.556 

.568 

579 

.590 

,G01 

.613 

.625 

.636 

.64S 

11 

.660 

.672 

.684 

. 

697 

.709 

.721 

.734 

.747 

.760 

.772 

12 

.785 

.799 

.812 

825 

. 

tag 

.852 

.866 

.880 

.894 

.908 

13 

.922 

.936 

.950 

965, 

.979 

.994 

.009 

.024 

.039 

.054 

14 

1.069 

1.0S4 

1.100 

1. 

116 

1.131 

1.147 

.163 

.179 

.195 

.211 

15 

1.227 

1.244 

1.260 

1. 

277 

1.294 

1.310 

.327 

.344 

.362 

.379 

16 

1.396 

1.414 

1.431 

1. 

449 

1.467 

1.485 

.503 

.521 

.539 

.558 

17 

1.576 

1.595 

1.614 

1. 

632 

1.651 

1.670 

.es9 

.709 

.728 

.748 

18 

1.767 

1.787 

1.807 

1.827 

1.847 

1.867 

1.887 

.907 

.928 

.948 

19 

1.969 

1.990 

2.011 

2. 

032 

2.053 

2.074 

2.095 

2.117 

2.138 

2.160 

.20 

2.181 

2.204 

2.226 

2. 

248 

2.270 

2.292 

2.315 

2.337 

2.360 

2.383 

21 

2.405 

2.428 

2.451 

2.475 

2. 

ll'S 

2.521 

2.545 

2.568 

2.592 

2.616 

22 

2.640 

2.664 

2.688 

2. 

712 

2.737 

2.761 

2.786 

2.810 

2.835 

2.860 

23 

2.885 

2.910 

2.936 

2.961 

2.986 

3.012 

3.038 

3.064 

3.089 

3.115 

24 

3.142 

3.168 

3.194 

3. 

221 

3.247 

3.275 

3.301 

3.328 

3.355 

3.382 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area.     ™™'    Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

A  rea. 

Inches  . 
25 

Sq.ft.    Inches.   Sq.ft. 
3.41  ,         32        5.59 

Inches. 
39 

Sq.ft. 
8.30 

Inches. 
46 

Sq.ft. 
11.54 

Inches 
53 

Sq.ft. 
15.  32 

26 

3.69  i         33        5.94 

40 

8.73 

47 

12.05 

54 

15.90 

27 

3.98           34         6.30 

41 

9.17 

48 

12.  57 

55 

16.50 

28 

4.28  |         35         6.68 

42 

9.62 

49 

13.10 

56 

17.10 

29 

4.59  i         36         7.07 

43 

10.08 

50 

13.  64 

57 

17.72 

30 

4.91            37         7.47 

44 

10.56 

51 

14.19 

58 

18.35 

31 

5.24  i         38        7.88 

45 

11.04 

52 

11.75 

59 

18.99 

PULLING  STRENGTH   OF  MEN  AND  ANIMALS. 
Compiled  from  a  test  made  by  Barnum  &  Bailey's  Circus. 


Number. 

Description. 

Weight  of 
Each  in 
Lbs. 

Total  Pull  in 
Lbs. 

Pull  per 
Unit. 

Pull  per 
Pound  of 

Weight. 

2 

Horses.  . 

1,600 

3,750 

1,875 

1.172lbs. 

50 

Men.  . 

150 

8,750 

175 

1.166  " 

100 

Men     . 

150 

12,000 

120 

0.8 

6 

Horses  

1,800 

8,875 

1,479 

0.822   " 

2 

Camels  

1,800 

2,750 

1,375 

0.764  " 

1 

Elephant  

12,000 

8,750 

8,750 

0.729  " 

574 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE    AMERICAN    EXPERIENCE   TABLE    OF    MORTALITY. 


Age. 

Expectation 
of  Life  in 
Years. 

Number 
Dying  in 
Each  1,000. 

Age. 

Expectation 
of  Life  in 
Years. 

Number 
Dying  in 
Each  1,000. 

20 

42.20 

7.81 

60 

14.10 

26.69 

21 

41.53 

7.86 

61 

13.47 

28.88 

22 

40.85 

7.91 

62 

12.86 

31.29 

23 

40.17 

7.96 

63 

12.26 

33.94 

24 

39.49 

8.01 

64 

11.67 

36.87 

25 

38.81 

8.07 

65 

11.10 

40.13 

26 

38.12 

8.13 

66 

10.54 

43.71 

27 

37.43 

8.20 

67 

10.00 

47.65 

28 

36.73 

8.26 

68 

9.47 

52.00 

29 

36.03 

.8.35 

69 

8.97 

56.76 

30 

35.33 

8.43 

70 

8.48 

61.99 

31 

34.63 

8.51 

71 

8.00 

67.67 

32 

33.92 

8.61 

72. 

7.55 

73.73 

33 

33.21 

8.72 

73 

7.11 

80.18 

34 

32.50 

8.83 

74 

6.68 

87.03 

35 

31.78 

8.95 

75 

6.27 

94.37 

36 

31.07 

9.09 

76 

5.88 

102.31 

37 

30.35 

9.23 

77 

5.49 

111.06 

38 

29.62 

9.41 

78 

5.11 

120.83 

39 

28.90 

9.59 

79 

4,74 

131.73 

40 

28.18 

9.79 

80 

4.39 

144  47 

41 

27.45 

10.01 

81 

4.05 

158.61 

42 

26.72 

10.25 

82 

3.71 

174.30 

43 

26.00 

10.52 

83 

3.39 

191.56 

44 

25.27 

10.83 

84 

3.08 

211.36 

45 

24.54 

11.16 

85 

2.77 

235.55 

46 

23.81 

11.56 

86 

2.47 

265.68 

47 

23.08 

12.00 

87 

2.18 

303.02 

48 

22.36 

12.51 

88 

1.91 

346.69 

49 

21.63 

13.11 

89 

1.66 

395.86 

50 

20.91 

13.78 

90 

1.42 

454.55 

51 

20.20 

14.54 

91 

1.19 

532.47 

52 

19.49 

15.39 

92 

.98 

634.26 

53 

18.79 

16.33 

93 

.80 

734.18 

54 

18.09 

17.40 

94 

.64 

857.14 

55 

17.40 

18.57 

95 

.50 

1000.00 

56 

16.72 

19.89 

57 

16.05 

21.34 

58 

15.39 

22.94 

59 

14.74 

24.72 

IMPORTANT  INFORMATION  ABOUT  OLD  COINS. 


The  Invention  and  use  of  coins  is  attributed 
to  the  Lydians,  a  Greek  nation,  about  862 
B.  C.,  whose  money  was  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  dating  of  coins  was  first  adopted  about 
the  fifteenth  century. 

OLD  COINS.  Coins  are  not  always  valuable 
on  account  of  their  age.  The  old  Spanish 
silver  coins  which  passed  current  in  this  coun- 
try from  1700  to  1800  have  no  premium  value, 
neither  do  common  dates  of  cents  in  ordinary 
condition  of  1798,  1802  and  1803,  or  old  Half 
Dollars  of  the  common  dates  between  the  years 
1805  and  1835.  In  America  it  is  the  fashion 
to  make  up  sets  of  the  different  coins  com- 
prising each  year  of  their  issue,  in  as  fine 
condition  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  them, 
and  it  is  the  demand  for  the  coin  by  collectors 
which  makes  the  value. 

THE  PRICES  paid  for  rare  coins  are  chiefly 
regulated  by  their  state  of  preservation,  the 
number  of  pieces  issued  of  a  certain  date, 
and  the  demand  for  same.  But  neither  the 
metal  out  of  which  the  coin  is  made,  nor  the 
age,  has  anything  to  do  with  the  prices  paid. 

THE  PRICES  quoted  in  this  book  are  the 
prices  paid  by  a  prominent  dealer  for  coins 
in  good  to  proof  condition,  hence  $5,QQ  to 


$10.00  means  that  they  will  pay  anywhere 
between  those  prices,  according  to  the  condi- 
tion of  the  coin.  When  applied  to  a  cent, 
one  having  the  date  distinct,  hair  not  worn 
off,  and  all  the  letters  legible  on  both  sides; 
applied  to  a  silver  coin  means  a  good  bold 
impression;  and  to  a  gold  coin  one  that  pre- 
sents a  handsome  appearance  and  does  not 
show  signs  of  wear. 

NEVER  CLEAN  A  RARE  COIN.  A  some- 
what corroded  coin  is  oftentimes  more  valu- 
able than  a  cleaned  one.  The  cleaning  of  a 
rare  coin  considerably  decreases  its  value. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE   CONDITION 
OF  COINS. 

THE     STATE     OP     PRESERVATION     OF  COINS    IS 
CLASSIFIED    AS   FOLLOWS: 

"PROOF." 

Proof  coins  are  especially  struck  for  col- 
lectors from  polished  blanks  and  dies  and 
finished  by  hand,  which  gives  them  a  mirror- 
like,  smooth,  reflective  surface.  The  most  per- 
fect condition  known.  The  mint  makes  a 
small  charge  for  the  proof  coins,  and  they 
can  only  b<?  had  during  the  year  of  tlie  issue, 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


575 


"UNCIRCULATED." 

Uncirculated  coins  are  coins  struck  for  cir- 
culation. But  coins,  to  be  classified  as1  "un- 
circulated" must  be  as  new  and  bright  as 
when  dropped  from  the  coinage  press;  a  coin 
that  has  been  in  circulation,  no  matter  whether 
it  shows  no  marks  of  wear,  cannot  be  classi- 
fied as  uncirculated. 

"FINE." 

Fine  coins  are  those  that  have  been  in  cir- 
culation and  have  lost  their  original  mint 
brightness,  but  they  must  not  show  any 
scratches  or  nicks. 

"GOOD." 

Good  coins  are  those  which  have  seen  con- 
siderable circulation,  but  every  feature  of  the 
coin  must  show  plainly.  It  must  not  show 
any  bad  scratches  or  nicks. 

"FAIR." 

Fair  coins  are  those  which  are  much  worn, 
but  on  which  the  design,  lettering  and  date 
are  clearly  visible.  ' 

"POOR." 

Poor  coins  are  those  on  which  the  design, 
lettering  and  date  are  almost  obliterated. 
Poor  coins,  unless  of  a  very  rare  date,  are 
worth  their  intrinsic  value  only. 

MUTILATED    COINS. 

Mutilated  coins  are  those  with  holes,  bad 
cuts  or  scratches,  or  otherwise  damaged  and 
are  worth  their  intrinsic  value  only. 

"OVER-DATES." 

When  a  die,  made  in  one  year,  is  used  in 
a  later  year,  by  engraving  one  figure  over 
another,  the  piece  struck  therefrom  is  called 
an  "over-date."  For  instance,  the  same  die 
from  which  the  Cents  of  1810  were  struck 
was  used  in  1811,  by  sinking  a  1  over  the 
0,  and  portions  of  the  latter  figure  are  plainly 
visible. 

COUNTERFEIT  RARE  COINS. 

COUNTERFEITS    OP     RARE     COINS    MAT    BE     DI- 
VIDED AS  FOLLOWS: 
"RE-STRIKES." 

Re-strikes  are  pieces  made  from  the  orig- 
inal dies,  but  at  a  later  period  than  the  date 
on  the  coin.  Among  the  American  coins  we 
find  re-strikes  of  the  dollar  of  1804.  and  of 
the  half  cents  of  1831,  1836  and  1840  to  1849. 
The  re-strikes,-  of  course,  do  not  command 
near  the  price  of  the  originals.  At  present 
the  dies  are  destroyed  after  the  expiration  of 
each  year. 

'  'ALTERED-DATES. ' ' 

Altered  dates  are  original  coins  which  hav« 
been  altered  or  tooled  from  one  date  to  an- 
other, and  these  may  justly  be  classed  as 
forgeries.  The  rarer  dates  of  the  American 
coins  are  at  times  tampered  with:  especially 
the  dollars  of  1801,  which  are  altered  to  the 
1804.  But  an  altered  date  can  easily  be  de- 
tected by  the  aid  of  a  good  magnifying  glass. 

"ELECTROTYPES." 

The  front  and  back  of  electrotype  coins  are 
made  separate  and  are  then  stuck  together, 
and  they  may  be  easily  recognized  by  the 
mark  on  edge  showing  where  the  two  sides 
have  been  joined  together.  They  are  also  of 
wrong  weight.  The  electrotypes,  as  a  rule, 
are  not  made  to  deceive  the  uninitiated,  but 
are  simply  made  as  copies  of  very  rare  coins, 
where  the  two  sides  have  been  joined  to- 
gether chased.  Electrotypes  may  generally  be 
split  in  two  with  a  strong  knife. 


"CAST    COINS." 

Casts,  made  from  the  original  dies,  are 
easily  detected  by  their  light  weight  or  thick- 
ness. The  lettering  on  cast  coins  is  not  as 
sharp  as  on  struck  coins,  and  the  surface  has 
a  soft  appearance,  or  else  is  covered  with 
minute  sand  holes. 

Forgeries  struck  from  false  dies  are  mostly 
found  of  the  rarer  Colonial  and  U.  S.  Pieces, 
also  of  rare  ancient  gold  .and  silver  coins. 
They  are  easily  detected  by  anyone  somewhat 
familiar  with  rare  coins,  as  the  weight  of 
the  forgeries  is  mostly  incorrect,  and  the 
lettering  and  design  are  sharper  than  on  the 
genuine. 

Fine  and  Perfect  U.  S.  Cents.  There  are 
here  and  there  to  be  found  cents  of  the 
early  dates  which  have  been  laid  away  care- 
fully since  the  time  they  were  coined.  These 
are  sometimes  valuable.  For  instance,  for  a 
cent  of  1799  in  good  condition  one  can  get  $5; 
but  for  a  fine  cent  of  the  same  date,  from  $15 
to  $30;  and  for  a  perfect  cent  of  1799,  that  is 
as  bright  and  sharp  as  the  day  it  was  coined, 
$50. 

Cleaning.  Do  not  attempt  to  clean  fine 
coins;  they  should  be  handled  only  on  the 
edge,  and  kept  wrapped  carefully  in  chamois 
skin  or  soft  tissue  paper,  or  laid  on  velvet. 
Gold  and  silver  coins  may  be  rinsed,  not 
washed,  in  hot  water  and  soap.  Copper 
coins  should  be  placed  in  sweet  oil  only  to 
remove  grease  and  dirt;  acid  and  scouring 
will  ruin  any  coin  of  value. 

"  EXPLANATIONS." 

THE  TERMS  USED  TO  DEFINE  THE  VARIOUS 
PAHTS  OF  A  COIN. 

The  principal  object  represented  on  a  coin  is 
called  the  Type. 

The  space  between  the  type  and  the  circum- 
ference is  called  the  Field. 

The  lower  portion  of  the  area  of  a  coin 
beneath  the  type,  and  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  field  by  a  horizontal  line,  is 
called  the  Exergue. 

Small  objects  represented  either  in  the  field 
or  exergue  as  adjuncts  to  the  main  type  are 
called  Symbols. 

Portions  of  a  coin  which  are  sunk  below 
the  level  of  the  surface  are  said  to  be  Incuse. 

Obverse  means  the  head  or  face  of  the  coin, 
or  the  side  having  the  principal  device. 

Reverse  means  the  tail,  or  less  important 
side. 

Legend   means  the  reading  on   the  coin. 

Flowing  Hair  denotes  the  hair  flowing  loose- 
ly at  the  back  of  the  head. 

Liberty  Cap  denotes  a  bust  supporting  a  pole 
on  which  Is  mounted  a  cap  of  Liberty. 

Fillet  Head  denotes  the  hair  tied  in  a  knot 
at  the  back  of  the  head. 

Turban  Head  denotes  a  head  surmounted 
by  a  turban  inscribed  "Liberty." 

Dies.  A  thick  die  usually  has  lettering  on 
the  edge  of  the  coin;  a  thin  die  has  none. 

First  Regular  Coinage  denotes  the  first  year 
a  coin  was  issued  for  circulation.  Patterns 
are  coins  struck  off  but  not  into  circulation. 

Mint  Marks  consist  of  small  letters  on  the 
coin.  O..  for  New  Orleans;  D.,  for  Dahlonega; 
C.  C.,  for  Carson  City;  S.,  for  San  Francisco, 
while  those  coined  at  the  Philadelphia  mint 
have  none. 

Arrows  and  Rays.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
year  1858,  arrow  points  were  added  at  each 
side  of  the  date,  and  rays  around  the  eagle. 

Milled  Edge.  In  the  early  part  of  1836  the 
Half  Dollars  were  coined  with  lettered  edge, 
and  in  the  latter  part  with  milled  or  ribbed 
edge,  as  they  are  to-day. 


576 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


THE  MOTTO  ON  U.  S.  COINS. 

"In   God   We  Trust." 

Since  the  new  1907  issues  of  $10.00  and 
$20.00  gold  pieces  appeared,  many  are  of  the 
belief  that  all  U.  S.  coins  without  the  motto 
command  a  premium.  This  is  not  true.  The 
motto  was  not  placed  on  coins  till  1864;  the 
two-cent  piece  being  the  first  coin  bearing 
the  motto.  So,  of  course,  all  U.  S.  coins 
prior  to  1864  are  without  the  motto. 

WEIGHTS   AND   FINENESS    OF  COINS. 

A  gold  dollar  weighs  25.8  grains  9/10  pure 
gold,  or  23.22  grains. 

An  ounce  of  gold  1000  fine  is  worth  $20.- 
671834  +  . 

An  ounce  of  silver  1000  fine  is  worth  (coin- 
age value)  $1.292929  +  . 

All  American  gold  and  silver  coins  are  9/10, 
or  .900  fine. 

A  pound  sterling  weighs  123.274+  grains, 
11/12  pure  gold,  or  113.0016+  grains. 

A   pound   sterling   is  worth    $4.8665635287  +  . 

An  ounce  of  silver,  English  standard,  is 
.925  fine— 444  grains  pure  silver. 

An  ounce  of  silver,  American  standard,  is 
.969  fine  =z  432  grains  pure  silver. 

An  ounce  of  silver,  "fine"  standard,  is  1.000 
fine— 480  grains  pure  silver. 

A  United  States  silver  dollar  weighs  412V2 
grains  .900  fine;  contains  371.25  grains  pure 
silver. 


A  dollar  of  fractional  silver  weighs  25  grains 
=385.80  grains,  .900  fine;  contains  347.22  grains 
pure  silver. 

An  English  shilling  weighs  87.273  grains, 
.900  fine;  contains  80.729  grains  pure  silver. 

The  pure  gold  in  gold  coins  of  the  United 
States  is  worth  the  face  value  of  the  coin. 

The  alloy  in  gold  coins  of  the  United  States 
is  pure  silver  and  copper. 

The  alloy  in  silver  coins  of  the  United 
States  is  pure  copper. 

U.  S.  MINT  TEST  FOR  GOLD  AND 
SILVER, 

The  following  is  a  test  for  determining 
whether  a  coin  is  good  or  bad.  Use  the 
liquids  as  near  the  edge  of  the  coin  as  pos- 
sible, as  that  is  the  part  most  worn.  A  drop 
of  the  preparation  will  have  no  effect  on  a 
genuine  coin,  while  it  can  be  plainly  seen 
on  counterfeits.  Heavily  plated  coins  should 
be  scraped  slightly  before  testing. 

TEST    FOR    GOLD. 
Strong   Nitric   Acid,    6^    drachms. 
Mur.   Acid,    l/±   drachm,    or  15  drops. 
Water,    5    drachms. 

TEST  FOR  SILVER. 

24    Grains    of    Nitrate    of    Silver. 

30    Drops    Nitric    Acid. 

Water,    1    ounce. 

The  above  test  should  conform  with  diam- 
eter, thickness  and  weight,  the  test  used  at 
the  mint. 


PREMIUM  COIN  LIST. 


$20.00   GOLD    PIECES. 
DOUBLE    EAGLES. 

Coinage  commenced  in  1849;  only  one  speci- 
men of  this  date  is  known. 

1881,  $20.50  to  $21.00—1882,  $21.00  to  $22.50— 
1883,  $22.00  to  $25.00—1884,  $21.00  to  $25.00— 
1885,  $20.50  to  $21.00—1886,  $20.50  to  $21.00— 
1887,  $21.00  to  $22.50—1891,  $20.50  to  $21.00— 
1907,  Flying  eagle,  the  date  in  Roman  letters 
— $21.00  to  $22.50 — Flying  eagle,  the  date  in 
numerals,  $20.50—1908,  Flying  Eagle,  com- 
mands no  premium. 

The  other  dates  of  the  $20.00  gold  pieces 
command  no  premium. 

$10.00    GOLD    PIECES. 
EAGLES. 

Coinage  commenced  in  1795.  None  issued 
in  1802,  1805  to  1837  inclusive.  Coined  at 
the  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
Carson  City  and  Denver  mints. 

1795,  $11.00  to  $13.00—1796,  $12.00  to  $15.00 
—1797,  small  eagle,  $15.00  to  $20.00—1797,  large 
eagle,  $11.00  to  $12.00—1798,  six  stars  before 
Liberty  head,  $13.00  to  $18.00 — 1798,  four  stars 
before  Liberty  head,  $13.00  to  $20.00—1799  to 
1803,  $11.00  to  $12.00—1804,  $12.00  to  $15.00— 
1838,  $10.50  to  $12.50—1863  to  1877,  $10.25  to 
$11.00.  1907,  without  the  motto,  commands 
no  premium. 

$5.00    GOLD    PIECES. 

Coinage  commenced  in  1795.  None  were 
coined  in  1801,  1816  and  1817.  Coined  at  the 
Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
Charlotte,  N.  C.,  Dahlonega,  Ga.,  Carson  City 
and  Denver  mints. 

1795,  Small  eagle,  $6.50  to  $7.50—1795,  Large 
eagle,  $10.00  to  $20.00—1796,  $7.00  to  $10.00— 
1797.  small  eagle,  15  stars,  $10.00  to  $18.00— 
1797,  large  eagle,  16  stars,  $10.00  to  $22.00— 


1798,  1799,  1800,  $5.50  to  $6.50—1798,  small 
eagle,  $20.00  to  $30.00—1802  to  1814,  turban 
head,  left,  $5.25  to  $5.75—1815,  $75.00  to 
$100.00—1818,  $5.50  to  $6.50—1819  and  1832, 
$8.00  to  $18.00—1820,  $7.00  to  $9.00—1821,  $10.00 
to  $15.00—1822,  $75.00  to  $100.00—1823,  $8.00 
to  $10.00—1824,  $15.00  to  $20.00—1825,  1826, 
1827,  1830,  1831,  1833,  $8.00  to  $13.00—1828, 
$15.00  to  $25.00—1829,  $15.00  to  $25.00—1834, 
with  "E  Pluribus  Unum"  over  eagle,  $7.50  to 
$10.00—1834,  without  "E  Pluribus  Unum,"  no 
premium— 1875,  $7.50  to  $9.00—1876,  $5.50  to 
$6.00—1877,  $5.50  to  $6.00—1877,  $10.00  to 
$13.00.  The  dates  of  $5.00  gold  pieces  not 
mentioned  in  this  list  do  not  command  a 
premium. 

$4.00— STELLA. 

1879,     $20.00—1880,     $35.00.          * 
$3.00. 

1864-65,  Indian  Head,  $4.00  to  $5.00—1873, 
$10.00  to  $15.00—1875,  $15.00  to  $20.00—1876, 
$5.00  to  $10.00 — 1877,  $5.00  to  $8.00.  $3.50  to 
$4.00  is  paid  for  $3.00  gold  pieces  of  any 
date,  if  in  perfect  condition.  First  regular 
issue,  1854;  last,  1889. 

$2.50— QUARTER   EAGLE. 

1796,  without  stars,  $7.50  to  $10.00—1796, 
with  stars,  $9.00  to  $15.00—1797,  $9.00  to 
$15.00—1798,  $6.00  to  $10.00—1802-4-5-7-8,  $3.00 
to  $5.00—1806,  $7.00  to  $15.00—1821-24-25-27, 
$5.00  to  $8.00—1826,  $10.00  to  $33.00—1829-30-31- 
32-33,  $3.00  to  $5.00—1834,  with  "E  Pluribus 
Unum,"  $4.00  to  $6.00.  First  regular  coinage, 
1796;  none  coined  1799,  1800,  '01,  '03,  '09  to 
'20,  '22,  '23,  '28  bearing  little  or  no  premium, 
1835  to  date. 

ONE    DOLLAR. 

1863,  '64  and  '65,  Indian  head,  $4.00  to  $6.00 
—1866,  Indian  head,  $2.50  to  $4.00—1875,  In- 
dian head,  $10.00  to  $12.00.  Any  other  dates 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


from  1849  to  date,  $2.00  to  $3.00.  First  reg- 
ular issue,  1849;  last,  1889;  1903,  Louisiana 
Purchase.  St.  Louis  gold  dollars,  $1.75. 

U.  S.  SILVER  COINS, 
ONE   DOLLAR. 

The  rarest  and  most  desirable  coin  of  the 
regular  mint  series  is  the  Silver  Dollar  of 
1804.  Of  this  coin,  however,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  authenticity  should  be  fully  proven, 
as  there  are  many  altered  dated  in  the  mar- 
ket as  well  as  re-strikes  made  at  a  later 
period.  1794,  flowing  hair,  small  eagle,  $25.00 
to  $50.00—1795,  flowing  hair,  small  eagle,  $1.50 
to  $2.00 — 1795,  '96,  Fillet  head,  small  eagle, 
$1.50  to  $2.00—1797,  fillet  head,  small  eagle, 
$1.50  to  $2.00—1798,  fillet  head,  13  stars,  small 
eagle  '$2.00  to  $2.50 — 1798,  fillet  head,  15  stars, 
small  eagle,  $2.00  to  $3.50—1798,  fillet  head, 
13  stars,  large  eagle,  $1.25  to  $1.75—1799,  fillet 
head,  5  stars  facing  eagle,  $1.50  to  $2.00— 
1799.  fillet  head,  6  stars,  $1.25  to  $1.75—1800, 
fillet  head,  large  eagle,  $1.25  to  $1.75—1801, 
fillet  head,  large  eagle,  $1.25  to  $2.00—1802, 
1803,  $1.25  to  $1.50 — 1804,  no  originals  known 
—1836,  Liberty  seated,  flying  eagle,  stars, 
$4.00  to  $7.00—1836,  C.  Gobrechfs  name  in 
field,  $15.00  to  $25.00—1838,  Liberty  seated, 
flying  eagle,  stars,  $25.00  to  $40.00—1839,  Lib- 
erty seated,  flying  eagle,  stars,  $25.00  to 
$35.00—1840,  Liberty  seated,  eagle.  $1.15—1851, 
1852,  $20.00  to  $30.00—1854,  $2.00  to  $3.00— 
1855,  $1.50  to  $1.75—1856,  1857,  $1.25  to  $1.50— 
1858,  $10.00  to  $15.00 — 1900,  Lafayette  dollar, 
perfect  only,  $1.10.  First  regular  coinage, 
1794;  none  coined  1805  to  1835;  1874  to  1877; 
little  or  no  premium  on  dates  not  mentioned 
except  on  proofs  only,  70c. 

TRADE     DOLLARS. 

Proofs  only,  75c.  Coinage  commenced  in 
1873;  repudiated  in  1884.  Redeemed  in  1887. 

HALF    DOLLARS. 

1794,  flowing  hair,  $2.50  to  $4.00—1795,  $.60 
to  $1.00—1796.  fillet  head,  15  stars,  $15.00  to 
$30.00—1796,  16  stars,  $20.00  to  $35.00—1797, 
$20.00  to  $35.00—1801,  1802,  $2.00  to  $3.00— 
1803,  1805,  55c  to  60c— 1815,  head  to  left,  $1.50 
to  $2.50—1836,  milled  edge,  not  lettered,  $1.00 
to  $2.00—1838,  having  a  small  o  under  the 
bust  and  over  the  date — $25.00  to  $50.00—1852, 
Liberty  seated,  $1.00  to  $2.00 — 1853,  without 
arrowheads  each  side  of  date,  or  rays  back 
of  eagle — $25.00  to  $30.00.  First  regular  coin- 
age, 1794;  none  coined  1798,  '99,  1800,  1804,  '16, 
otherwise  to  date  little  or  no  premium  on 
dates  not  mentioned.  1892,  Columbia  Half- 
no  premium. 

QUARTER    DOLLARS. 

1796,  1804.  fillet  head,  $1.00  to  $2.00—1815, 
35c  to  50c— 1823.  head  to  left.  $20.00  to  $40.00 
—1824,  head  to  left,  50c  to  75c— 1827,  head  to 
left,  $30.00  to  $50.00—1853,  no  arrow  points 
at  each  side  of  date  and  no  rays  around  eagle, 
$3.00  to  $4.00— Columbia  Isabella,  3Cc  to  40c. 
First  regular  coinage,  1796;  none  coined  1797 
to  1803,  1808  to  '14,  1817  and  '26:  otherwise  to 
date  little  or  no  premium  on  dates  not  men- 
tioned. 

TWENTY    CENT    PIECES. 

1877  and  1878,  each,  $1.50.  First  Regular 
coinage,  1875;  last,  1878;  there  is  no  premium 
on  1875  and  1876. 

DIMES. 

1796,  fillet  head,  small  eagle,  $1.00  to  $2.00 
—1797,  fillet  head,  13  and  16  stars,  $2.00  to 
$4.00—1798,  fillet  head,  large  eagle,  $1.50  to 


$2.00—1800  and  1802,  large  eagle,  $1.50  to 
$2.50—1801  and  1803,  large  eagle,  $1.00  and 
$2.00—1804,  large  eagle,  $4.00  to  $10.00—1805 
and  1807,  large  eagle,  25c  to  50c — 1809  and 
1811,  turban  head,  25c  to  50c — 1822.  turban 
head,  50c  to  $1.50—1846,  Liberty  seated,  25c 
to  75c.  First  regular  coinage,  1796;  none 
coined  in  1799,  1806,  '08,  '10,  '12,  '13,  '15  to 
'19  and  '26;  otherwise  to  date  little  or  no 
premium  on  dates  not  mentioned. 

HALF    DIMES— 5    CENTS. 

1794K  flowing  hair,  $1.00  to  $2.00—1795,  flow- 
ing hair,  50c  to  $1.00—1796,  fillet  head,  $1.50 
to  $3.00—1797,  fillet  head,  13  stars,  $1.00  to 
$2.00—1797,  fillet  head,  15  and  16  stars,  $1.00 
to  $2.00—1800,  fillet  head,  50c  to  $1.00—1801. 
fillet  head,  75c  to  $1.00—1802,  fillet  head,  $20.00 
to  $40.00—1803,  fillet  head,  $1.00  to  $2.00— 
1805,  fillet  head,  $2.00  to  $3.00—1846,  Liberty 
seated,  75c  to  $1.00.  First  regular  coinage, 
1794;  last,  1873;  none  coined  1798,  '99.  1804, 
'06,  to  '28;  little  or  no  premium  on  dates  not 
mentioned. 

SILVER    3    CENT    PIECES. 

1863  to  1869,  each.  25c  to  75c— 1870  to  1872, 
each,  15c  to  40c — 1873,  coinage  discontinued, 
50c  to  75c. 

NICKEL   5   CENT    PIECES. 

1877,     $1.00    to    $2.00—1878,     lOc    to  20c— 1883, 

without  the  word  "Cents"  does  not  command 
a  premium. 

NICKEL    3     CENT    PIECES. 
1865    to    1876,    proofs    only.     5c— 1877,     50c    to 
$1.00—1878    to   1889,    proofs   only,    5c   to   lOc. 

NICKEL    CENTS. 

1856,  flying  eagle,  $3.00  to  $5.00.  Nickel 
cents  were  coined  from  1856  to  1864;  from  '56 
to  '58  design  was  a  flying  eagle;  from  "59  to 
'64  an  Indian  head;  all  except  1856  bear  no 
premium. 

HALF   CENTS. 

1793,  Liberty,  $1.00  to  $3.00—1794  and  1795, 
Liberty  cap,  25c  to  50c — 1796,  Liberty  cap, 
$10.00  to  $25.00—1795  and  1797,  Liberty  cap, 
lettered  edge,  25c  to  $1.00—1797,  Liberty  cap, 
thin  die,  25c  to  50c— 1800  fillet  head.  5c  to 
30c— 1802.  fillet  head,  75c  to  $1.00—1803  to 
1899,  fillet  head,  5c  to  15c— 1810.  turban  head, 
5c  to  15c — 1811,  turban  head,  25c  to  75c — 1831, 
1836,  1840  to  1848,  each,  $3.00  to  $12.00—1849, 
small  date,  and  1852,  $3.00  to  $10.00.  All 
other  dates  command  a  small  premium. 

BRONZE   2   CENTS. 
1872,    3c    to    15c— 1873,    20c    to    $1.00. 

U.    S.    COPPER    CENTS. 

1793,  flowing  hair,  chain  Ameri,  $2.50  to 
$10.00—1793.  flowing  hair  chain  Ameri.  $1.50 
to  $7.00 — 1793,  flowing  hair,  wreath,  $1.50  to 
$3.50—1793,  flowing  hair,  clover  leaf.  $2.50  to 
$10.00—1794,  liberty  cap,  25c  to  $1.00—1795, 
liberty  cap  lettered  edge,  50c  to  $1.00—1795, 
liberty  cap  thin  die.  25c  to  $1.00 — 1796,  liberty 
cap,  25c  to  $1.50—1796,  fillet  head,  25c  to 
$1.50—1797,  fillet  head.  20c  to  $1.50—1798, 
fillet  head,  lOc  to  $1.CO — 1799,  fillet  head,  $5.00 
to  $30.00—1800.  1801,  1802,  1803,  18^7,  5c  to 
50c— 1804,  fillet  head.  $3.CO  to  $15.00—1805  to 
1806,  lOc  to  75c— 1808,  turban  head  to  left  12 
stars,  15c  to  $1.00 — 1808.  13  stars,  lOc  to  75c — 
1809,  20c  to  $2.00—1810-1812,  5c  to  25c— 1811, 
25c  to  $2.00—1813,  lOc  to  50c— 1814,  13  stars,  2c 
to  25c— 1821,  15  stars,  head  of  Liberty,  3c  to 
50c— 1823,  lOc  to  75c— 1857.  5c  to  25c. 


578 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SILVER. 

(1652)  XII.  Pence,  $20.00— VI.  Pence,  $20.00 
— III.,  but  two  specimens  known,  $75.00.  The 
above  were  coined  about  the  year  1652  (no 
date  on  the  coin),  for  New  England.  The  ob- 
verse has  N.  E.,  and  the  reverse  either  XII.  or 
VI.  or  III.  at  the  top  of  the  coin;  otherwise, 
it  is  perfectly  plain.  New  England  comprised 
New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island 
and  Connecticut. 

PINE    TREE    COINS. 

1652,  III.  Pence,  $1.50  to  $2.50—1652,  VI. 
Pence,  $2.00  to  $3.00—1652,  XII.  Pence  (shil- 
ling), $3.00  to  $6.00. 

OAK    TREE. 

1652,  II.  Pence,  $1.00  to  $2.00—1652.  III. 
Pence,  $1.50  to  $3.00—1652,  VI.  Pence,  $2.00  to 
$3.00—1652,  XII.  Pence  (shilling),  $3.00  to 
$5.00.  These  coins  come  with  the  dates  1650- 
1652  and  1662,  but  were  coined  for  several 
years  without  changing  the  date.  Some  of 
them  had  an  oak  or  willow  tree,  and  they  are 
frequently  clipped,  and  an  early  series  of 
counterfeits  by  one  Wyatt  are  plentiful,  hav- 
ing fine  lines  across.  The  obverse  have:  A 
pine  or  oak  tree  in  centre;  the  legend:  "Ma- 
sathvsets."  The  reverse:  XII.  and  date;  with 
legend:  "New  England.  An  dom." 

SOMMER    ISLANDS. 
BRASS. 

First  coin  made  for  America,  in  memory  of 
Sir  George  Sommers,  who  was  shipwrecked 
upon  the  Bermudas  or  Sommer  Islands  in 
1612.  They  are  made  of  copper — shilling, 
sixpence  and  threepence.  They  bear  no  date, 
but  are  supposed  to  have  been  coined  in  1616. 

Shilling — ship  sailing,  running  boar,  $20.00 
to  $40.00.  Sixpence — ship  sailing,  running 
boar,  $15.00  to  $35.00.  Threepence— ship  sail- 
ing, running  boar,  $15.00  to  $35.00. 

LOUISIANA    AND    CANADA. 

SILVER. 

1670,  Crown,  $25.00—1670,  half  franc,  $4.00. 
These  were  coined  in  France  for  use  in  their 
colonies  in  America,  and  have  on  the  obverse: 
"Lud  XIIII.  D  G  Fr  et  Nav  Rex;"  reverse; 
"Gloriam  Regni  Tui  Dicent,  1670." 

COPPER. 

1670,  Double  L  Crowned,  $5.00—1721,  Two  L's 
crossed,  50c— 1722,  Two  L's  crossed,  50c— 1767, 
Two  Scepters  crossed,  40c. 

CAROLINA   AND   NEW  ENGLAND. 
COPPER. 

1694,  Carolina,  $20.00—1694,  New  England, 
$40.00.  The  above  were  coined  in  England  for 
the  colonies.  The  obverse  has  an  Elephant; 
the  reverse:  God  preserve  New  England  (or 
Carolina)  and  its  Lords  Proprietors,  1864. 

MARYLAND. 
SILVER. 

XII  Pence,  Lord  Baltimore  (1659),  $10.00— VI 
Pence,  Lord  Baltimore,  $10.00 — III  Pence,  Lord 
Baltimore,  $10.00.  Obverse:  Bust;  legend: 
Coecilivus  Dus  Terrae,  Mariae  &  Ct.  Reverse, 
a  crowned  shield.  XII  Crescite  et  Mvltiplica- 
mini.  No  date  on  coin.  Coined  in  England 
for  and  circulated  in  Maryland  about  1659. 

1790,  III  Pence,  Standish  Barry,  $10.00—1783, 
Shilling,  Annapolis,  $3.00—1783,  Sixpence.  An- 
napolis, $3.00 — 1783,  Three  pence,  Annapolis, 
$3.00. 


ROSA  AMERICANA. 

COPPER. 

1722,  Penny,  uncrowned  rose,  $1.00 — 1722, 
Vi  Penny  uncrowned  rose,  25c — 1722,  Farthing, 
uncrowned  rose,  50c — 1/2  Penny,  no  date,  un- 
crowned rose,  $10.00 — Penny,  no  date,  un- 
crowned rose,  $10.00 — 1723,  Penny,  crowned 
rose,  $1.50 — 1723,  l/z  Penny,  crowned  rose,  50c 
— 1723,  Farthing,  crowned  rose,  50c— 1724,  y2 
Penny,  crowned  rose,  $10.00 — 1733,  Penny  (two- 
pence size),  $20.00.  The  above  bears  on  the 
obverse  a  bust;  legend:  Georgius:  D:  G:  Mag: 
Bri:  Fra:  et:  Hib:  Rex.  Reverse:  a  rose, 
either  crowned  or  uncrowned;  legend:  Rosa 
Americana  and  date.  Some  will  be  found 
without  date.  Of  English  origin  and  coined 
for  the  American  colonies. 

CONNECTICUT. 

COPPER. 

1737,  Threepence,  Connectfcut,  $25.00 — 1737, 
Threepence,  I  am  Good  Copper,  $25.00.  Of 
the  above  there  are  two  varieties;  one  bears 
the  date  and  the  other  does  not,  but  both 
were  coined  about  the  same  period.  The  ob- 
verse has:  A  Deer  in  standing  position:  Le- 
gend: "The  Value  of  Threepence,"  or  "Value 
me  as  you  please."  The  reverse:  Three 
crowned  hammers:  I  am  good  copper  1737  or 
an  Ax.  I  cut  my  way  through.  Circulated  in 
the  colonies. 

1785,  Cent.    Auctori    Connec,    lOc — 1786,    Cent. 
Auctori    Connec,    lOc — 1787,    Cent.    Auctori    Con- 
nec,   5c — 1788,    Cent.    Auctori   Connec,    lOc.     The 
obverse   of   these   four   bear  a   bust,    either  fac- 
ing right  or  left:     Legend:     Auctori   Connec  or 
Connect.     The  reverse  Liberty  seated    "Inde  et 
Lib."        (Independence     and     Liberty.)     Coined 
and  circulated  in  the  Colonies  after  their  inde- 
pendence. 

FLORIDA. 
SILVER. 

1760,  Half  Dollar,  $10.00.  This  has  the  heart 
of  Charles  III  of  Spain  on  the  obverse,  and 
on  the  reverse  a  rose: 

PITT    HALF   PENNY. 

COPPER. 
1766,    no  stamps,   50c. 

VIRGINIA. 

1773,  Half  Dollar,  silver,  $2.00—1773,  Half 
Penny,  copper,  15c — 1774,  Shilling,  silver, 
$12.00.  Obverse,  Bust  of  George  III,  Coat  of 
Arms  1773,  Virginia. 

CONTINENTAL   COINS. 

PEWTER. 

1776,  Dollar,  $3.00.  The  obverse:  Sun  blaz- 
ing on  a  sun  dial;  legend:  Fugio,  Mind  your 
business,  Continental  Currency  and  dr.te.  Re- 
verse, chain  of  13  links;  each  link  has  the 
name  of  one  of  the  original  states  upon  it; 
legend:  America  Congress,  We  Are  One. 

NEW   YORK. 

GOLD. 

1787,  Doubloon,  Nova  Eboraca,  $100.00.  Ob- 
verse: Rising  sun;  legend:  Nova  Eboraca,  Co- 
lumbia. Reverse:  Spread  eagle,  Unum  E 
Pluribus,  1787. 

COPPER. 

1786,  Non  vi  virtue  vici,    $25.00.   The  obverse 
has  a  bust  facing  to  left;   legend:   Non  Vi  Vir- 
tue   Vici.      The    reverse:    Justice    seated.      Neo 
Eboracensis    and    date.     1787,     Excelsior    $10.00. 
The  obverse  has:   An  Eagle,    E   Pluribus  Unum 
and  date.     The  reverse:   The  Coat  of  Arms  of 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  FEFERENCE  BOOK. 


570 


New  York,  Excelsior— 1787,  George  Clinton. 
$50.00.  Obverse:  Bust  Geo.  Clinton.  Reverse: 
Arms  of  New  York,  date  and  Excelsior — 1787, 
Nova  Eborac,  50c.  Obverse:  Bust,  "Nova 
Eborac."  Reverse:  Liberty  seated,  "Virt  et 
Lib,"  and  date — 1778,  Non  Dependens  Status, 
$10.00—1787,  Inimica  Tyrannis,  $10.00—1787, 
Neo  Eboracus,  $15.00—1787,  Emunis  Columbia, 
$2.00. 

GEORGIA. 
COPPER. 
1783    Georgius    Triumpho,    30c. 

VERMONT. 
COPPER. 

1785,  Doubloon,    Immune  Columbia,   $200.00. 

SILVER. 

1783,  Half  Dollar  U.  S.  1000,  $100.00— Quar- 
ter Dollar,  300,  $50.00—1783,  Shilling  250. 
$50.00. 

COPPER    CENTS. 

1783-85,  Nova  Constallatio,  15c— 1786,  Nova 
Constailatio,  $5.00.  Obverse:  An  eye;  legend: 
Nova  Constellatio.  Reverse:  U.  S.  Liberties 
et  Justitia,  with  date — 1785,  Immune  Columbia, 
$5.00.  Obverse:  a  bust  or  an  eye;  legend: 
Vermontis  Republica  and  date.  Reverse:  Jus- 
tice, seated,  Immune  Columbia — 1785,  Vermont 
Republica,  50c — 1786,  Vermontensium  Republica, 
50c.  Obverse:  An  eye,  legend:  Vermonts  Res 
Publica.  Reverse:  a  hill  with  trees;  legend: 
Steela  Quarta  Decima,  and  date— 1786-87-88, 
Vernon  Auctori,  15c.  A  bust,  Vermon  Auctori. 
Reverse:  Liberty  seated,  inde  et  lib.,  and  date. 

KENTUCKY. 

SILVER. 

1796,  Myddleton  token,  $10.00.  The  obverse: 
A  group;  legend:  British  Settlements  in  Ken- 
tucky and  date.  Reverse:  Britannia  seated  on 
a  globe;  legend:  "Payable  by  P.  P.  Mydle- 
ton.  Coined  in  England  for  the  colonies. 

COPPER. 

1796,  same  in  copper,  $10.00—1796,  same  in 
copper  y2  penny,  $10.00  (1785),  Copper,  $1.00. 
The  above  have  on  the  obverse  fifteen  stars 
forming  a  triangle.  Each  star  contains  a  let- 
ter, being  the  initial  letters  of  each  State  of 
the  Union;  legend:  E  Pluribus  Unum.  Re- 
verse: A  hand  holding  a  scroll.  "Unanimity 
is  the  strength  of  society."  Coined  about  1785 
in  England,  and  circulated  in  the  colony.  No 
date. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
CENTS    AND    HALF    CENTS. 

1776,  Half  Penny,  three  heads,  $5.00  to 
510.00—1787.  Half  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  25c  to 
50c— 1788,  Half  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  25c  to  75c 
—1787,  One  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  lOc  to  25c— 
1788,  One  Cent,  Indian,  Eagle,  lOc  to  25c — 
1787,  One  Cent,  Arrows  in  left  claw  $5.00  to 
$7.00.  The  obverse:  An  Indian;  legend:  Com- 
monwealth. Reverse:  An  eagle,  upon  its  breast 
the  value  of  the  coin;  above  its  head,  Massa- 
chusetts; below,  the  date;  olive  branch  and 
bunch  of  arrows  in  its  claws — 1788.  Cent, 
$10.00,  same  but  arrows  in  eagle's  right  claw. 

NEW    HAMPSHIRE    CENT. 

1776.  Cedar  Tree,  American  Liberty,  $3.00  to 
$5.00. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

1786.  '87,     '88,     5c.      The    obverse:     A    horse 
head  over  a  plow;    legend:   Nova  Caesarea  and 


date.      Reverse:    a   shield,    E    Pluribus    Unum — 
1788,    horse   head   to    left,    50c— 1786,    $10.00. 

Same  as  above  but  with  the  date  above  the 
beam  of  the  plow,  while  in  the  above  it  ap- 
pears below  the  plow.  1786,  Justice,  Immunis 
Columbia,  $10.00. 

UNITED  STATES  COINS. 

1787,  Silver,  $5.00—1787,  Copper  cent,  lOc.  The 
obverse:  Sun  blazing  upon  a  sun  dial.  Fugio 
and  date,  "Mind  your  business."  Reverse:  A 
chain  of  13  links;  in  centre:  "We  are  one — 
United  States."  The  above  was  the  first  coin 
legally  authorized  by  act  of  Congress  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  called  the  Franklin  Cent, 
on  account  of  the  legend,  "Mind  your  Busi- 
ness." U.  S.  A.  Bar  cent,  50c— 1792,  Liberty, 
Parent  of  Science,  $10.00. 

WASHINGTON  PIECES. 
SILVER. 

1792.  15  stars,  $30.00—1792,  no  stars,  $30.00. 
Obverse:  Bust  of  G.  W. ;  legend:  G.  Washing- 
ton, President,  1792.  Reverse:  Eagle,  stars 
and  no  stars,  United  States  of  America — 1792, 
Dime,  $15.00—1792,  Half  Dime,  $5.00.  Obverse: 
A  head  (representing  Martha  Washington) ; 
legend:  Liberty,  Parent  of  Science  and  Indus- 
try, 1792.  Reverse:  Eagle,  United  States  of 
America. 

COPPER. 

1783,  United  States  (brass),  15c— 1783,  United 
States,  15c.  Obverse,  Bust  of  Washington; 
legend:  Washington  and  Independence  and 
date.  Reverse:  United  States  and  also  Unity 
States.  No  date,  double  head,  15c— 1791,  small 
eagle'  cent,  8  stars,  $3.00 — 1792,  small  eagle,  « 
stars,  $20.00—1791,  large  eagle,  no  stars,  $2.00 
—1792,  eagle  13  and  15  stars,  $15.00.  Bust  G. 
W.  legend:  Washington,  President,  and  date. 
Reverse:  An  eagle  holding  a  scroll  in  its  beak 
—1791-93,  Ship  Half  Penny,  $1.00—1791-93,  Ship, 
Liverpool  Penny,  $3.00—1795,  Grate  Cent,  50c— 
1795,  Liberty  and  Security,  50c.  Nearly  all 
the  Washington  pieces,  especially  the  Cents 
and  Half  Dollars,  were  coined  in  England  as 
patterns  for  the  American  coinage,  but  the  de- 
signs were  not  accepted,  as  it  was  considered 
contrary  to  the  principles  of  our  government 
to  stamp  the  head  of  our  President  upon  the 
National  coinage. 

CALIFORNIA    GOLD    AND    PRIVATE   ISSUES. 
$50.00   GOLD    PIECES. 

1851  Augustus  Humbert,  octagon,  $75.00  to 
$100.00. 

The  California  gold  issues  are  of  consider- 
able interest,  including  as  they  do  $50  gold 
pieces,  oblong  gold  pieces  of  approximately  the 
value  of  $40,  $25  pieces,  $16  oblong  pieces,  $10 
pieces,  $9.43  oblong  pieces,  $5  pieces,  $2.50 
pieces,  $1  round  and  $1  octagon,  half  dollars 
round,  half  dollars  octagonal,  quarter  dollars 
round,  quarter  dollars  octagonal.  The  value  of 
these  coins  varies  from  75c  to  $100.  The 
amount  of  bullion  contained  in  the  coin  hav- 
ing a  considerable  bearing.  Carolina  and  Geor- 
gia gold,  also  Colorado  and  Oregon  gold  pieces 
command  considerable  premium.  There  are 
also  gold  pieces  from  Utah  and  Mormon  gold 
pieces.  The  whole  subject  is  taken  up  in  de- 
tail in  Lehrenkrauss's  pocket  manual  and 
premium  coin  list,  which  can  be  obtained  from 
the  publishers  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  In  the  same 
booklet  the  prices  are  given  of  the  issues  of 
paper  currency.  Also,  the  value  of  foreign 
money,  both  coins  and  bank  notes.  The  book 
is  sold  at  the  merely  nominal  price  of  ten 
cents,  and  the  Editor  acknowledges  his  in- 
debtedness. 


580 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


WEIGHTS  OF  THE  U.  S.  COINS 

And  the  Amounts  for  Which  They 
are  Legal  Tender. 

GOLD. 

WEDDING  ANNIVERSARIES. 

1st  year                                            Parlor 

2d 

3d 

4th 
5th 

Silk 

Wood 

6th 

Iron 

DENOMINATIONS 

Weight, 
Grains 

Amount  for  which  a 
legal  tender 

7th 

8th 
9th 

Copper 

Double  Eagle,  $20.. 
Eagle,  $10   ........ 
Half  Eagle,  $5  
Three  Dollars  
Quarter  Eagle,  $2.50 
Dollars.  . 

516. 
258. 
129. 
77.4 
64.5 
25.8 

SILVE 

Gold     coins     of     de- 
nomination are  legal 
tenders       for       any 
amount. 

R. 

10th 
15th 

Tin 

20th 
25th 

China 

Silver 

30th 

Pearl 

35th 
40th 

Coral 
Ruby 

45th 
50th 
55th 

Sapphire 
Gold 
Emerald 

DENOMINATIONS 

Weight, 
Grains 

Amount  for  which  a 
legal  tender 

Standard  Dollar  
Trade  Dollar  i. 

Half  Dollars  

412.5 
420. 

192.9 

96.45 
77.16 
38.58 
19.29 
11.52 

IOR  C( 

Unlimited. 
Demonetized  —  Not     a 
legal  tender 
Ten  dollars. 
Ten  dollars. 
Five  dollars. 
Ten  dollars. 
Five  dollars. 
Five  dollars. 

DINS. 

60th 
75th 

Diamond 

Month. 
January.  .  . 
February  .  . 
March  
April... 

BIRTH  STONES. 

Stone 
.  .(iarnet 
..Amethyst,  Hyacinth,  Pearl 
.  .Jasper,  Bloodstone 
.  .  Diamond,  Sapphire 

Quarter  Dollars  
Twenty-Cent  Pieces. 
Dimes.  .  . 

Half-Dimes  
Three-Cent  Pieces.  . 

Kif 

May  
June  

.  .Emerald,  Agate 
.  .  Cat's-eye,  Turquoise,  Agate 

DENOMINATIONS 

Weight, 
Grains 

Amount  for  which  a 
legal  tender 

July  Turquoise,  Unyx 
August  Sardonyx,      Carnelian,      Moon- 
stone, Topaz 
September.  .  .  Chrysolite 
October  Beryl,  Opal 
November.  .  .Topaz,  Pearl 
December  Ruby,  Bloodstone 
Courtesy  of  Tiffany  &  Co. 

Five  Cents  
Three  Cents  

77.6 
30. 
96. 
48. 

Twenty-five  cents. 
Twenty-five  cents. 
Twenty-five  cents. 
Twenty-five  cents. 

Two  Cents  

Cents  

THE  EIFFEL  TOWER.  WASHINGTON  MONUMENT. 

Photographed   to    scale:    1    inch=500   feet. 

THE    '-STEEL    AGE"    AND    THE    "STONE    AGE." 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


581 


STATE  HOLIDAYS,  NICKNAMES  AND  FLOWERS.* 


STATE    OF   ALABAMA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  April  13,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son's Birthday;  April  26,  Memorial  Day;  June 

3,  Jefferson     Davis'     Birthday;     July    4,     Inde- 
pendence  Day;    1st   Monday    in    September,    La- 
bor    Day;     October     12,     Columbus     Day;     last 
Thursday     in     November,     Thanksgiving     Day; 
December    25,    Christmas    Day;    Tuesday    before 
Ash    Wednesday,     "Mardi    Gras    Day." 

State    Nickname:      "Cotton    State." 
State    Flower:      Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    ARIZONA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  14, 
Admission  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday:  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  1st  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day.  last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  for 
State  and  county  officers  during  June,  July 
and  August;  every  day  on  which  an  election 
is  held  throughout  the  State;  every  day  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
or  the  Governor  of  the  State,  as  a  public  fast, 
thanksgiving,  or  holiday. 

State   Flower:     Sequoia   Cactus. 

STATE   OF  ARKANSAS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Bear   State." 

State   Flower:     Apple   Blossom. 

STATE    OF    CALIFORNIA. 
January    1,     New    Year's    Day;    February    12, 
Lincoln's     Birthday;      February     22,      Washing- 
ton's   Birthday;    May    30,    Memorial    Day;    July 

4,  Independence    Day;    1st    Monday    in    Septem- 
ber,  Labor  Day;   September  9,   Admission  Day; 
October     12,      Columbus     Day;      December     25, 
Christmas   Day;    every    day    on    which    an   elec- 
tion  is    held    throughout   the    State;    every    day 
appointed     by     the     President     of     the     United 
States,    or    by    the    Governor   of   the   State,    for 
a   public   fast,    thanksgiving,    or  holiday.    Every 
Saturday  from  12  o'clock  noon  until   12  o'clock 
midnight    is    a    holiday    as    regards    the    trans- 
action  of   business  in   the  public   offices   of  the 
State. 

State    Nickname:       "Golden     State." 
State    Flower:      Golden    Poppy. 

STATE   OF  COLORADO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration  Day;  July  4. 
Independence  Day;  August  1.  Colorado  Day; 
1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day:  October 
12,  Columbus  Day;  (one)  day  in  November, 
K lection  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Centennial    State." 

State    Flower :      Columbine. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 
January  1.  New  Year's  Day:  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday:  March  4,  Inauguration 
Day.  every  fourth  year;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  the  first 
Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Thanks- 
giving Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 


STATE  OF  CONNECTIC¥T. 
January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  1st  Monday  of  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  De- 
cember 25,  Christmas  Day;  the  day  designated 
by  the  Governor  as  a  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer,  customarily  Good  Friday;  the  day 
designated  by  the  Governor  as  a  day  of 
Thanksgiving,  customarily  the  last  Thursday 
of  November. 

State    Nickname:    "Nutmeg    State." 

State    Flower:      Mountain    Laurel. 

STATE    OF    DELAWARE 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  third  Tuesday  of  Febru- 
ary, Election  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  Good  Friday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Mon- 
day of  September,  Labor  Day;  the  first  Tues- 
day after  the  first  Monday  of  November, 
Election  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day; 
every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  noon  until  12 
o'clock  midnight;  any  day  appointed  or  rec- 
ommended by  the  Governor  of  the  State  or 
the  President  of  the  United  States  as  a  day 
of  thanksgiving  or  fasting  and  prayer,  or  other 
religious  observance. 
State  Nickname:  "Blue  Hen  State." 
State  Flower:  Peach  Blossom. 

STATE    OF    FLORIDA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  April  26,  Memorial  Day; 
June  3,  Jefferson  Davis*  Birthday;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  General  Election  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  in  cities  or  towns  where  carnival  asso- 
ciations are  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
celebrating  the  same,  the  day  in  each  year 
known  as  Shrove  Tuesday. 

State    Nickname:      "Peninsular    State." 

State   Flower:      Orange   Blossom. 

STATE    OF    GEORGIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Georgia  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  April  26,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  In- 
deoendence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day ;  last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day:  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  every  day  on  which  an  election  is  held 
throughout  the  State;  every  day  appointed  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States  or  the 
Governor  of  .the  State,  as  a  public  fast  or 
Thanksgiving' day,  or  holiday. 

State    Nickname:       "Cracker    State." 

State    Flower:      Cherokee    Rose. 

STATE    OF    IDAHO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration 
Day;  June  15,  Idaho  Pioneer  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  first  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day:  De- 
cember 25.  Christmas  Day;  every  day  on 
which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State,  and  every  day  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  or  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State,  for  a  public  fast,  thanks- 
giving, or  holiday. 

State    Flower:      Syringa. 


•Copyright  1912,  by  Munn  <fc  Co.,  Inc.    This  matter  has  been  prepared  after  much  painstaking  inves- 
tigation and  must  not  be  reprinted. 


582 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


STATE    OF    ILLINOIS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  in  cities  of  200,000  inhabitants  or  more, 
from  12  o'clock  noon  to  12  o'clock  midnight 
on  Saturday. 

State    Nickname:      "Sucker    State." 

State   Flower:     Violet. 

STATE   OF    INDIANA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  Labor  Day;  Thanksgiving 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  the  day 
of  any  General  National  or  State  Election. 

State    Nickname:      "Hoosier    State." 

STATE    OF    IOWA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  The  day  of  the  general  elec- 
tion; Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christ- 
mas Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Hawkeye    State." 

State  Flower:     Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    KANSAS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  any  day 
recommended  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  or  the  Governor  of  the  State  as  Thanks- 
giving Day,  and  any  day  which  may  hereafter 
be  declared  a  legal  holiday  for  the  purposes 
of  negotiable  instrument  act. 

State   Nickname:      "Sunflower    State." 

State    Flower:      Sunflower. 

STATE  OF  KENTUCKY. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  last  Thursday  in  November,  Thanks- 
giving Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Blue   Grass   State." 

State   Flower:     Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    LOUISIANA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  8, 
Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans; 
February  22,  Washington's  Birthday;  Good 
Friday;  June  3,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  Thanksgiving  Day  (as  desig- 
nated by  the  President) ;  all  general  election 
days  (in  localities  where  elections  are  held) ; 
Mardi  Gras  Day  (in  the  Parish  of  Orleans) : 
first  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Sat- 
urday from  12  noon  to  12  midnight  (in  cities 
and  towns  where  the  population  is  fifteen 
thousand  or  more). 

State    Nickname:      "Pelican    State." 

State    Flower:      Magnolia. 

STATE     OF     MAINE. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day  (bank  holiday 
only);  February  22,  Washington's  Birthday; 
April  19,  Patriots'  Day;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day:  last  Thursday  in 
November,  Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  every  day  on  which  an  elec- 


tion  is   held   throughout   the   State,    and   every 
day  appointed   by   the   President   of  the   United 
States,    or    the    Governor    of    the    State,    for    a 
public   fast    or  thanksgiving   day,    or  holiday. 
State    Nickname:      "Pine    Tree   State." 
State  Flower:     Pine   Cone  and  Tassel. 

STATE    OF    MARYLAND. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  Good  Friday;  Arbor 
and  Highway  Day;  May  30,  Memorial  Day 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  September  12,  De- 
fenders' Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
General  Election  Day;  Congressional  Election 
Day;  November  23,  Repudiation  Day;  Decem- 
ber 25,  Christmas  Day;  all  special  days  that 
may  be  appointed  or  recommended  by  the 
Governor  of  the  State,  or  the  President  of  the 
United  States  as  the  days  of  thanksgiving, 
fasting  and  prayer  or  other  religious  observ- 
ance, or  for  the  general  cessation  of  business; 
Saturday  half-holidays  (in  some  cities). 
State  Nickname:  "Old  Line  State." 
State  Flower:  Black  Eyed  Susan. 

STATE    OF    MASSACHUSETTS. 

February  22,  Washington's  Birthday;  April 
19,  Patriots'  Day;  May  30,  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  last  Thursday  in  November,  Thanksgiv- 
ing Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Bay    State." 

STATE     OF    MICHIGAN. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  1st  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  Elec- 
tion Days  (embracing  National,  State,  County 
and  City  Elections) ;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day;  any  day  appointed  by  the  Governor  of 
this  State,  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer  or 
thanksgiving;  Saturday  afternoons  a  legal  holi- 
day for  banks  unless  voted  to  the  contrary 
by  the  directors. 

State    Nickname:      "Wolverine    State." 

State    Flower:      Apple    Blossom. 

STATE    OF    MINNESOTA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Good  Friday;  May  30,  Me- 
morial Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  Labor 
Day;  Election  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Gopher   State." 

State    Flower:      Moccasin. 

STATE    OF    MISSISSIPPI. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  April  26,  Memorial  Day; 
June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  In- 
dependence Day;  first  Monday  in  September, 
Labor  Day;  last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State   Nickname:      "Bayou   State." 

State    Flower:      Magnolia. 

STATE    OF    MISSOURI. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day:  July  4,  Independence  Day:  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  any  general  State  election  day;  any 
Thanksgiving  Day  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States  or  by  the  Governor  of 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


583 


the      State;      December     25,      Christmas     Day; 
every  Saturday  from  12  o'clock  noon   in   cities 
of  300,000  population  for  county  and  municipal 
officers. 
State    Flower:      Goldenrod 

STATE    OF    MONTANA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Stub    Toe    State." 

State    Flower:      Bitter    Root. 

STATE    OF    NEBRASKA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  April  22,  Arbor  Day; 
May  90,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  Independence 
Day  1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day; 
any  day  designated  by  Governor  or  President, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Flower:      Goldenrod. 

STATE  OF  NEVADA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  of  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day:  October  31,  Admission 
Day;  Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christ- 
mas Day;  the  day  on  which  the  primary  elec- 
tion is  held  throughout  the  State,  the  day  on 
which  the  general  election  is  held,  any  day 
that  may  be  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  or  by  Governor  of  the 
State,  for  public  fast,  thanksgiving  or  holi- 
day. 

State    Nickname:      "Silver    State." 

STATE,    OF    NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  Fast  Day  (in  April, 
whenever  appointed  by  the  Governor) ;  May 
30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Thanks- 
giving Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Granite    State." 

STATE    OF    NEW    JERSEY. 

January  1,  commonly  called  New  Year's 
Day;  February  12,  called  Lincoln's  Birthday; 
February  22,  known  as  Washington's  Birthday; 
Good  Friday;  May  30,  known  as  Decoration 
Day;  July  4,  called  Independence  Day;  the 
first  Monday  of  September,  known  as  Labor 
Day:  October  12,  known  as  Columbus  Day; 
December  25,  known  as  Christmas  Day;  any 
general  election  day  in  this  State;  every  Sat- 
urday from  twelve  o'clock  at  noon  until 
twelve  o'clock  at  midnight,  and  any  day  ap- 
pointed or  recommended  by  the  Governor  of 
this  State,  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  or  fasting 
and  prayer,  or  other  religious  observance. 

State   Nickname:      "Jersey    Blue   State." 

State    Flower:      Sugar    Maple    (tree). 
STATE    OF   NEW   MEXICO. 

January  1  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday:  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
October  12,  Columbus  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  and  all  days  designated  by 
proclamation  of  the  Governor  of  the  State  as 
fast  days  or  thanksgiving  days. 

State    Flower:      Cactus. 

STATE    OF    NEW    YORK. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washington's 


Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  first  Monday  of  September, 
Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day;  De- 
cember 25,  Christmas  Day;  each  general  elec- 
tion day  and  each  day  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  or  by  the  Governor 
of  this  State  as  a  day  of  general  thanksgiving, 
general  fasting  and  prayer,  or  other  general 
religious  observances;  from  noon  to  midnight 
of  each  Saturday. 

State    Nickname:      "Empire    State." 

State   Flower:     Rose. 

STATE    OF    NORTH    (?AROLINA. 

January  1,  commonly  called  New  Year's 
Day;  January  19,  Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday; 
February  22,  known  as  Washington's  Birth- 
day; April  12,  Halifax  Independence  Resolu- 
tions; May  10,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
May  20,  Anniversary  of  Signing  of  Mecklen- 
burg Declaration  of  Independence;  July  4, 
called  Independence  Day;  the  first  Monday 
of  September,  known  as  Labor  Day;  Thanks- 
giving Day;  December  25,  known  as  Christ- 
mas Day;  General  Election  Day. 

State   Nickname:     "Old  North  State." 

STATE     OF    NORTH    DAKOTA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Arbor  Day;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
in  September,  Labor  Day;  Election  Day; 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Nickname:       "Flickertail    State." 

State   Flower:     Goldenrod. 

STATE    OF    OHIO. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday 
of  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colum- 
bus Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  any 
day  appointed  and  recommended  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State  or  the  President  of  the 
United  States  as  a  day  of  fast  or  thanks- 
giving. 

State    Nickname:      "Buckeye    State." 

State  Flower:     Scarlet  Carnation. 

STATE.    OF    OKLAHOMA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30.  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day 
on  which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State;  every  day  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  Governor  of 
the  State,  for  a  public  fast,  thanksgiving  or 
holiday. 

State   Flower:     Mistletoe. 

STATE    OF    OREGON. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  first  Monday 
in  September;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
December  25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day  on 
which  election  is  held  throughout  the  State; 
every  day  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  or  by  the  Governor  of  the 
State,  as  a  day  of  publip  fasting,  thanksgiv- 
ing, or  holiday. 

State    Nickname:       "Beaver    State." 

State    Flower:      Oregon    Grape. 

STATE    OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Good  Friday;  May  30,  Me- 
morial Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st 


584 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  October  12, 
Columbus  Day;  1st  Tuesday  after  1st  Monday 
in  November,  Election  Day;  December  25, 
Christmas  Day;  every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock 
noon  until  12  o'clock  midnight;  any  day  ap- 
pointed or  recommended  by  the  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  or  the  President  of  the  United 
States  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  or  fasting  and 
prayer,  or  other  religious  observance. 

State    Nickname:      "Keystone   State." 
STATE    OF   RHODE.  ISLAND. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  2d  Friday  in  May, 
Arbor  Day;  May  30th,  Memorial  Day;  July  4, 
Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day; 
Tuesday  after  first  Monday  in  November, 
Election  Day;  Last  Thursday  in  November, 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Nickname:       "Little    Rhody." 

State    Flower:      Violet. 

STATE    OF    SOUTH    CAROLINA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Robert  E.  Lee's  Birthday;  February  22,  Wash- 
ington's Birthday;  May  10,  Confederate  Me- 
morial Day;  June  3,  Jefferson  Davis'  Birthday; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  December  25,  Christmas; 
National  Thanksgiving  and  all  general  elec- 
tion days;  the  first  Monday  in  September  and 
Thursday  of  Fair  Week  in  each  and  every 
year,  in  all  the  counties  in  the  State  in  which 
the  State  Agricultural  Mechanical  Society  holds 
an  annual  Fair.  In  Charleston  and  Richland 
Counties,  each  and  every  Saturday  from  12 
o'clock  noon  until  12  o'clock  at  midnight. 

State     Nickname:       "Palmetto    State." 

STATE     OF     SOUTH     DAKOTA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day, 
and  every  day  on  which  an  election  is  held 
throughout  the  State,  and  every  day  ap^ 
pointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
or  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  for  a  public 
fast,  thanksgiving,  or  holiday. 

State    Nickname:      "Swinge    Cat    State." 

State  Flower:  Anemone  Patens. 

STATE    OF    TENNESSEE. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  Good  Friday;  2d  Fri- 
day in  May,  Confederate  Day;  June  3,  Jeffer- 
son Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  Independence 
Day ;  1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day ; 
last  Thursday  in  November,  Thanksgiving 
Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  every  day 
on  which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State,  and  every  day  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  or  by  the  Gov- 
ernor of  the  State,  for  a  public  fast,  thanks- 
giving day,  or  holiday. 

State    Nickname:       "Big    Bend    State." 
STATE    OF   TEXAS. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  March  2,  Anniversary 
of  Texan  Independence:  April  21,  Anniversary 
of  Battle  of  San  Jacinto;  June  3,  Jefferson 
Davis'  Birthday;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
first  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day;  Octo- 
ber 12,  Columbus  Day;  December  25,  Christ- 
mas Day:  all  clays  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United .  States,  or  by  the  Governor,  as 
days  of  fasting  or  thanksgiving,  and  every  day 
on  which  an  election  is  held  throughout  the 
State. 

State    Nickname:      "Lone    Star    State." 

State    Flower:      Blue    Bonnet. 


STATE    OF    UTAH. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  April  15,  Arbor  Day;  May 
30,  Memorial  Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
July  24,  Pioneer  Day;  first  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day, 
all  days  which  may  be  set  apart  by  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  or  the  Governor, 
of  the  State,  by  proclamation,  as  days  of 
fast  or  thanksgiving. 

State    Flower:      Sego   Lily. 

STATE    OF   VERMONT. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day;  August  16. 
Bennington  Battle  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Sep- 
tember, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Colymbus 
Day;  December  2f>,  Christmas  Day:  and  a 
day  appointed  or  set  apart  by  the  Governor, 
or  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  as 
a  day  of  thanksgiving,  prayer  or  other  special 
observance. 

State    Nickname:      "Green    Mountain    State." 

State   Flower:     Red   Clover. 

STATE     OF    VIRGINIA. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  January  19, 
Lee-Jackson  Day;  February  22,  Washington's 
Birthday;  May  30,  Confederate  Memorial  Day; 
July  4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in 
September,  Labor  Day;  the  Tuesday  next  fol- 
lowing the  first  Monday  in  November,  Elec- 
tion Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day;  and 
any  day  appointed  or  recommended  by  the 
Governor  of  the  State,  or  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  as  a  day  of  thanksgiving  or 
fasting  and  prayer,  or  other  religious  ob- 
servance. 

State    Nickname:      "The    Old    Dominion." 

STATE     OF     WASHINGTON. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  May  30,  Memorial  Day;  July 
4,  Independence  Day;  1st  Monday  in  Septem- 
ber, Labor  Day;  October  12,  Columbus  Day: 
Thanksgiving  Day;  December  25,  Christmas 
Day. 

State    Nickname:       "Chinook    State." 

State    Flower:    Rhododendron. 

STATE    OF    WEST    VIRGINIA. 

January  1,  commonly  called  New  Year's 
Day;  February  12,  called  Lincoln's  Birthday; 
February  22,  Washington's  Birthday;  May  30, 
Decoration  Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day; 
1st  Monday  in  September,  Labor  Day:  Octo- 
ber 12,  Columbus  Day;  Election  Day;  Thanks- 
giving Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "The    Panhandle." 

State    Flower:      Rhododendron. 

STATE    OF    WISCONSIN. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  22, 
Washington's  Birthday;  May  30,  Decoration 
Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day:  Primary  Elec- 
tion Day;  General  Election  Day;  Thanksgiv- 
ing Day;  December  25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Nickname:      "Badger    State." 

State  Flower:     Violet. 

STATE,    OF    WYOMING. 

January  1,  New  Year's  Day;  February  12, 
Lincoln's  Birthday;  February  22,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday;  Arbor  Day;  May  30,  Me- 
morial Day;  July  4,  Independence  Day:  Gen- 
eral Election  Day:  Thanksgiving  Day;  Decem- 
ber 25,  Christmas  Day. 

State    Flower:      Gentian. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


585 


(>(  (  I  PvHl.XCKS    DURING    PRINTING.* 


The  printing  of  a  volume  like  the  Scientific 
American  Reference  Book  naturally  takes 
several  months.  During  this  time  changes 
are  constantly  occurring  but  it  is  impossible  to 
go  back  and  make  them  after  the  book  has 
gone  to  press;  therefore,  advantage  is  taken 
of  inserting  in  the  last  "form"  whatever 
corrections  and  additions  are  necessary  to 
bring  the  matter  in  the  book  up  to  date. 

POPULATION.— According  to  the  census  of 
1910  there  were  1,346,925  women  of  voting 
age  in  the  six  states  in  which  woman  suffrage 
prevails  (page  13).  Woman  suffrage  was 
defeated  at  the  last  state  election  in  Ohio; 
initiative  and  referendum  amendment  passed 
Sept.  3). 

The  population  of  England  and  Wales 
(1910)  was  36,070,492;  the  population  of 
London  proper  was  4,521,685  and  of  Greater 
London,  7,251,687. 

It  is  estimated  that  1,000  persons  were  killed 
and  from  5,000  to  0,000  injured  in  the  earth- 
quake which  occurred  on  both  sides  of  the 
Dardanelles,  Turkey,  Aug.  9.  (Page  5.) 

It  is  estimated  that  50  persons  were  killed 
in  the  cyclone  which  swept  Regina,  Saskatche- 
wan on  June  30. 

COMMERCE. — On  Sept,  3  there  was  $1,220,- 
932,997.68  in  gold  in  the  vaults  of  the  Treasury 
at  \Vashington,  Denver,  San  Francisco  and 
New  York. 

11,221,624,084  cigarettes  were  smoked  in 
the  United  States  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1912.  The  consumption  of  whiskey 
and  rum  was  133,377,458  gallons  and  of  beer 
62,108,733  barrels. 

MERCHANT  MARINE. — The  German  Survey 
Ship  "Planet"  sounded  a  depth  of  32,086 
feet,  the  greatest  sea  depth  ever  recorded, 
about  40  miles  from  Mindanao,  P.  I.,  during 
June. 

The  largest  motor-ship  yet  constructed  is 
being  built  for  the  Standard  Oil  Co.,  at  Kiel, 
Germany.  It  is  420  feet  long  and  65  feet  wide, 
carrying  capacity  15,000  tons. 

During  the  winter  of  1912  the  White  Star 
liner  Olympic  will  be  renovated  at  a  cost  of 
$1,500,000:  she  will  have  side  bunkers  which 
practically  means  an  inner  skin.  (.Page  204.) 

The  new  50,000-ton  liner  being  built  by 
the  White  Star  Co.  will  be  named  the  Britannic. 

For  the  first  time  in  35  years  a  merchant 
vessel  flying  the  American  flag  sailed  from 
New  York  for  a  Mediterranean  port;  the 
steamer  is  a  10,000-ton  vessel  named  Robert 
M.  Thompson. 

The  \\  hite  Star  liner  Majestic  has  com- 
pleted her  501st  trip  across  the  Atlantic, 
covering  a  total  distance  of  1,500,000  miles. 

Aug.  28. — French  liner  "France"  made 
voyage  from  New  York  to  Havre  in  5  days. 
16  hours  (.page  215). 

Empress  of  Russia,  15,000-tons,  built  for 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Co.  was  launched 
at  Glasgow. 

Sept.  2. — Steamer  Nantucket  took  fire  and 
turned  turtle  at  Baltimore.  1  person  killed. 

Sept.  3. — 7  men  of  crew  of  sailing  vessel 
Criocieth  Castle  lost  vt  sea. 


RAILROADS.— A  30,000  foot  tunnel  costing 
$10,000,000  is  being  dug  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  by  the  Harriman  System  (Page 
258.) 

Sept.  6-8.— Dr.  Barker  covered  1,331  miles 
in  40  hours,  48  minutes  from  a  camp  in  the 
North  Carolina  Woods  to  Bar  Harbor,  Me. 
(Page  253.) 

"V\  IR'ELESS. — A  Wireless  system  is  to  be 
established  in  Argentine  Republic  capable  of 
receiving  and  sending  messages  at  612  miles. 

The  German  Telefunken  Co.  has  established 
wireless  communication  over  the  Andes 
between  Lima  and  Para  a  distance  of  3,400 
kilometers.  (2,112  miles.) 

It  is  expected  that  the  new  wireless  station 
at  Nauen,  near  Berlin,  will  include  New  York 
in  its  radius  of  action. 

Regular  commercial  service  has  been  estab- 
lished between  San  Francisco  and  Honolulu. 

The  Norwegian  Government  is  erecting 
high-power  stations  in  Norway  for  the  purpose 
of  conducting  commercial  telegraph  service 
between  New  York  and  northern  Europe. 

The  largest  wireless  station  in  the  world  is 
being  erected  at  Carnarvon,  Wales. 

Esperanto  is  transmitted  under  same  tariff 
as  code  and  cipher  messages.  (Page  191.) 

PRESS  CABLE  RATES. — It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  present  press  cable  rate  of  12  % 
cents  between  Germany  and  the  United  States 
will  be  cut  to  7  cents,  meeting  the  recent  cut 
of  the  Western  Union  (page  292) ;  a  statement 
issued  by  the  French  Cable  Co.  seems  to  in- 
dicate that  no  such  step  is  likely  to  be  taken 
in  regard  to  a  cut  between  France  and  the 
United  States. 

POST  OFFICE. — A  deputation  of  100  promi- 
nent representatives  of  France,  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Russia,  Austria,  Belgium,  Italy, 
Holland  and  Turkey  is  about  to  be  organized 
with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  world-wide  two 
cents  post. 

Point  Barrow,  Alaska,  is  the  northernmost 
Post  Office  of  the  United  States. 

NAVY. — The  United  States  submarine  holds 
a  world's  record  after  diving  283  feet  off 
Point  Diablo  in  San  Francisco  Bay. 

President  Taft  has  withdrawn  37,000  acres 
of  oil  fields  in  the  Elk  Hills,  Cal.,  as  a  reserve 
source  of  fuel  for  the  navy. 

Sept.  14. — German  torpedo-boat  G-171 
rammed  by  Battleship  Zahringen.  6  men  killed. 

Sept.  15. — 10  naval  apprentices  drowned  at 
the  Great  Lakes  Training  Station  on  Lake 
Michigan  when  a  cutter  was  swamped. 

AVIATION. — Georges 'Legagneux  attained  a 
height  of  18,681  feet  at  the  Villacoublay 
Aerodrome  (Paris)  breaking  the  world's 
record.  (Page  454.) 

193  aviators  have  been  killed  since  the  be- 

§  inning  of  aeroplane   flying;     there   were   73 
eaths  in  1911  and  77  up  to  Sept.  30  in  1912 
(Page    31).     53    army    aviators    have    been 
killed  since  Sept.,  1908. 

MISCELLANEOUS.- — The  largest  office  build- 
ing (floor  space)  in  the  world  is  to  be  erected 
on  the  site  of  the  Equitable  Life  Assurance; 
Co.,  New  York,  at  a  cost  of  $29,000,000,  in- 
cluding the  cost  of  the  site. 

October  9  will  be  observed  throughout  the 


Sept    23. — Steamer  Obnovka  sunk   in   col- 
lision on  River  Devina,  Russia.    115  drowned.  schools  of  New  York  State  by  instruction  re- 
New    Holland-American    liner    (page   203)    |  garding  the  prevention  of  fire  as  "Fire  Pre- 

i  vention  Day."     (Page  583.) 


will  be  named  the  "Statendam." 
•The    latest    information 


vention  Day."     (Page  583. 
ven    in   this   book   bears  date  Oct.  4,   19 U. 


586 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


SUBMARINES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Dimensions. 

j 

1 

Armament. 

. 

Name  or  Number. 

Wh«re  Built. 

Launched. 

Length.  | 

I 

J 

1 

Number  ol 
Screws. 

j 

If 

Maximum 
Trial  Speed 

Guns. 

1 

I 

it 
J3 

£  I 

Adder      ..     . 

Grampus., 

Elizabethport 
S.  Francisco 

1901 

1902 

63  4 

63  4 

11 

11 

120 

120 

160 
160 

7—8 

7—8 

Holland    ..     . 
Moccassin 
Pike  .. 

Elizabethport 
Elizabethport 
S.  Francisco 

1896 
1901 
1902 

64  0 

63  4 
63  4 

10 
11 
11 

74 
120 
120 

150 
160 
160 

8 
7—8 
7  —  8 

Plunger 
Porpoise 
Shark 

Elizabetbport 
EUzabetbport 
Elizabethport 

1902 
1901 
1901 

63  4 
63  4 
63  4 

11 
11 
11 

120 
120 
120 

160 
160 

160 

7—8 
7—8 
7—8 

Cuttlefish 

Qnincy,  Mass. 

1906 

I 

Viper 
Tarantula 

Qulncy,  Mass. 
Quincy,  Mass. 

1909 

>  80  6 

13  0 

•• 

•• 

170 

8J-10 

Octopus 

Qulncy,  Mass. 

1906 

106  0 

,, 

.. 

tl 

273 

Stingray          .  \ 

19091 

Tarpm           .  I 

19091 

(239-1 

Boul'.a            .  1 

1909  1 

•  • 

•  • 

\274J 

•  • 

•  • 

2 

•  • 

Snapper          .   \ 

Qulncy,  Mass. 

1909J 

Narwhal         .   | 

I 

19091 

OTO 

Gravlins 

1909> 

11 

4 

ulajliuo           •    I 
Salmon             .  ) 

1909J 

\  310  j 

" 

Skipjack         .  \ 
Sturgeon          .  / 

Quincy,  Mass. 

Carp  .  .            .  \ 
Barracuda       .  / 

Sau  Francisco 

Pickerel          .  1 
fikate               .   / 

Seattle 

Bldg. 

160-0 

13  0 

.. 

.. 

525 

..     !     9J-14 

.. 

6 

.. 

Thrasher 

Philadelphia 

Tuna.. 
Stal   .. 
Nos.  28-31(4).. 
Nos.  I.-llI.  (3)* 

Newport  Kews 
Newport  News 
Quincy,  &c.  .  . 

1911 
Bldg. 
1910 

22 

•  Sub-snrface  destroyers 
Letters  and  numbers  instead  of  names  are  now  used  for  all  submarines. 


THE  FIRST  CURTISS  TURBINE 
NOW  AN  EXHIBIT. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


587 


AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 


The  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  organized  in  1848,  is  a 
learned  society  existing  as  a  continuation  of 
the  American  Association  of  Geologists  and 
Naturalists,  organized  in  1840.  It  was  char- 
tered in  its  present  form  in  1874.  At  present 
it  has  a  membership  of  about  8,000.  Any 
person  may  become  a  member  of  the  associa- 
tion upon  recommendation  in  writing  of  two 
members  or  fellows,  after  which  he  is  elected 
to  membership  by  the  Council,  or  by  the  spe- 
cial committee  of  the  Council  resident  in 
Washington.  The  admission  fee  for  members 
is  $5  and  the  annual  dues  $3. 

Fellows  are  elected  by  the  Council  from 
such  of  the  members  as  are  professionally  en- 


gaged in  science.  On  the  election  of  any 
member  as  a  fellow,  a  fee  of  $2*  is  paid  in 
addition  to  the  annual  dues  of  $3. 

Any  member  or  fellow  who  pays  the  sum 
of  $50  to  the  association,  at  any  one  time,  be- 
comes a  life  member  and  as  such  is  exempt 
from  all  further  assessments.  Any  person  pay- 
ing the  sum  of  $1,000  is  classed  as  a  patron. 

The  association  is  made  up  of  11  sections 
as  follows : 

Mathematics  and  Astronomy;  Physics;  Chem- 
istry; Mechanical  Science  and  Engineering; 
Geology  and  Geography;  Zoology;  Botany;  An- 
thropology and  Psychology;  Social  and  Eco- 
•nomic  Science;  Physiology  and  Experimental 
Medicine;  Education. 


NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES. 


The  National  Academy  of  Sciences  was  in- 
corporated under  the  Act  of  Congress  May  3, 
1863,  with  the  object  that  it  "shall,  when- 
ever called  upon  by  any  department  of  the 
Government,  investigate,  examine,  experiment 
and  report  upon  any  subject  of  science  or  art ; 
the  actual  expense  ***  to  be  paid  from  appro- 
priation which  may  be  made  for  the  purpose." 
The  Association  can  not,  under  any  circum- 
stances receive  compensation  from  the  govern- 


ment for  its  services.  The  annual  meeting  is 
held  in  Washington  on  the  third  Tuesday  in 
April;  annual  reports  are  made  each  year  at 
the  Autumn  meeting  which  is  held  at  such 
places  in  the  United  States  as  may  be  desig- 
nated by  the  Council.  The  membership  of  the 
Association  is  limited  to  150,  not  more  than 
10  to  be  elected  in  one  year;  the  number  of 
foreign  associates  is  limited  to  50.  There  are 
at  present  120  members  and  44  foreign  asso- 
ciates. 


THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION. 


The  Smithsonian  Institution  was  created  in 
1846  by  an  Act  of  Congress  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  will  of  James  Smith- 
son,  an  English  chemist  and  mineralogist,  who 
bequeathed  his  fortune  to  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  at  Washington, 
an  institution  for  "the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men."  From  the  income 
of  the  fund  the  building,  known  as  the 
Smithsonian  Building,  was  erected  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  The  institution  is  legally  an 
establishment  having  as  its  members  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  the  Vice-President, 
the  Chief  Justice  and  the  President's  Cabinet. 
It  is  governed  by  a  Board  of  Regents  consist- 
ing of  the  Vice-President,  the  Chief  Justice, 
three  members  of  the  United  States  Senate, 
three  members  of  the  House  of  Representa- 


tives and   six  citizens  appointed  by  joint  reso- 
lution   of    Congress. 

For  increase  of  knowledge,  the  institution 
aids  investigation  by  making  grants  for  re- 
search and  exploration,  supplying  books,  ap- 
paratus, etc.  It  occasionally  provides  lectures 
which  are  published ;  initiates  scientific  pro- 
jects; publishes  scientific  papers.  For  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge  the  institution  issues 
three  regular  series  of  publications:  "Annual 
Report,"  "Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,"  and  "Smithsonian  Miscellaneous 
Collections."  The  institution  in  co-operation 
with  the  Library  of  Congress  maintains  a  sci- 
entific library  which  contains  about  260,000 
volumes.  The  original  endowment  of  $541,000 
has  been  increased  by  gifts  and  accumulated 
interest  to  $987,000,  yielding  an  annual  in- 
come of  $58,375. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  CENSUS  BUREAU. 


The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
which  is  under  the  control  of  the  Department 
of  Commerce  and  Labor,  is  divided  into  two 
main  branches,  namely,  the  taking  of  the 
decennial  censuses  of  the  United  States,  and 
of  collecting  such  special  statistics  as  are  re- 
quired by  Congress.  The  thirteenth  decennial 
census  was  taken  in  1910  and  in  accordance 
with  the  Act  of  Congress  approved  July  2, 
1902,  covered  population,  agriculture,  manu- 
factures and  mines  and  quarries. 

The  special  statistical  inquiries,  which  are 
mostly  made  in  the  intervals  between  the 
decennial  censuses,  include  statistics  of  births 


and  deaths  in  registered  areas;  statistics  re- 
garding the  insane,  feeble-minded,  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  blind;  crime,  pauperism  and  be- 
nevolence; social  and  financial  statistics  of 
cities;  wealth,  debt  and  taxation;  religious 
bodies;  electric  light  and  power,  telephones 
and  telegraphs,  and  street  railways;  transpor- 
tation by  water;  cotton  production  and  dis- 
tribution; and  production  of  forest  products. 
The  statistics  relating  to  deaths  in  cities  and 
to  the  production  of  cotton  are  secured  an- 
nually; the  other  statistics  mentioned  are  se- 
cured at  intervals  of  from  five  to  ten  years, 
but  not  at  the  same  time  as  the  regular 
decennial  censuses. 


THE  PRESIDENTIAL  SUCCESSION. 


In  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation 
or  inability  of  both  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,  then  the  Secretary  of  State  shall 
act  as  President  until  the  disability  of  the 
President  or  Vice-President  is  removed  or  a 
President  is  elected.  The  remainder  of  the 
order  of  succession  is  as  follows:  Secretary  of 


the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-Gen- 
eral, Postmaster-General,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  and  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  The  act- 
ing  President  must,  upon  taking  office,  con- 
vene Congress,  if  not  at  the  time  in  session, 
in  extraordinary  session,  jiving  twenty  days' 
notice. 


588 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


FOOD  SOURCES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


A  system  of  sparkless  wireless  telegraphy 
has  been  invented  by  a  young  French  engi- 
neer, Julien  Bethenod,  by  which  it  is  said  to 
be  possible  to  establish  wireless  stations  in 
close  proximity  to  one  another  without  the 
messages  being  confused  and  also  to  exchange 
communication  ten  times  faster  than  by  sub- 
marine cables  at  about  one-tenth  the  expense. 


SPARKLESS  WIRELESS  SYSTEM. 

This  system  necessitates  as  a  plant  only  an 
alternator  and  antennae  of  a  special  char- 
acter. Bethenod's  discovery  also  makes  wire- 
less telephony  more  possible.  With  a  spark, 
only  2,000  oscillations  per  'second  can  be 
produced:  by  sparkless  wireless  telephony, 
20,000  oscillations  can  be  produced,  which  is 
about  the  same  as  the  human  voice. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  CIVIL  SERVICE. 


The  United  States  Civil  Service  Act  ap- 
proved January  16,  1883,  provides  for  the 
appointment  of  three  Commissioners,  a  Chief 
Examiner,  a  Secretary,  and  other  employes, 
by  the  President,  to  assist  him  in  classifying 
the  government  offices  and  positions,  formu- 
lating rules  and  enforcing  the  law. 

GENERAL  RULES.— The  purpose  of  the 
Civil  Service  act  is  "to  regulate  and  improve 
the  Civil  Service  of  the  United  States."  The 
act  requires  the  rules  to  provide  for  free  and 
open  examinations  of  applicants  for  positions 
in  the  public  service;  that  appointments  shall 
be  made  from  those  graded  highest  in  com- 
petitive examinations;  for  the  apportionment 
of  appointments  at  Washington  among  the 
States  upon  the  basis  of  population;  for  a 
period  of  probat'on  of  six  months  before  any 
absolute  appointment  is  made. 

APPLICATIONS.— All  applicants  for  exami- 
nations must  be  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
and  of  the  proper  age.  No  person  will  be  ex- 
amined who  is  physically  disqualified  for  the 
service  which  he  seeks;  who  has  been  guilty 
of  criminal,  infamous,  dishonest  or  disgrace- 
ful conduct;  who  is  addicted  to  the  use  of 
intoxicating  liquors  to  excess;  who  has  been 
dismissed  from  the  public  service  for  delin- 
quency and  misconduct  and  who  has  failed  to 


receive  absolute  appointment  after  probation. 
No  discrimination  is  made  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  political  or  religious  opinions. 

EXAMINATIONS.— The  examinations  are 
opened  to  all  persons  qualified  as  above.  The 
examinations  are  held  twice  a  year  in  each 
State  and  Territory,  before  boards  of  examiners 
chosen  from  among  persons  in  government  em- 
ploy. The  dates  and  places  of  examination  are 
publicly  announced  through  the  newspapers  or 
other  means.  Full  information  as  to  rules 
governing  examinations,  manner  of  making  ap- 
plication, etc.,  is  given  in  the  "Manual  of 
Examinations,"  which  may  be  obtained  free  by 
writing  to  the  commission  in  Washington. 

APPOINTMENTS.— It  is  necessary  to  obtain 
an  average  of  70  per  cent,  to  be  eligible  for 
appointment.  In  case  of  a  vacancy.  tin- 
names  of-  three  persons  standing  highest  of 
the  sex  desired  on  the  eligible  list  are  given 
to  the  appointing  officer  who  chooses  any  one 
of  the  three  names,  returning  the  other  two 
to  the  register  to  await  further  consideration. 
No  person  can  be  removed  from  a  competitive 
position  except  for  such  cause  as  will  pro- 
mote the  efficiency  of  the  public  service  and 
for  reasons  given  in  writing.  The  salaries 
vary  in  the  different  departments  and  cannot 
be  given  in  the  short  space  allotted  to  the 
subject. 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


589 


Courtesy  of  "The  Sphere" 

HOISTING  ON  BOARD  A  NAVAL  HYDRO-AEROPLANE 


River                    Length 
North    America 
Mississippi- 
Missouri   ....4,194 
Yukon    2",  050 

fnlnrarln            ...2.000 

LONGEST  RIVERS 
Exceeding    2,000 
River                    Length 
South   America 
Amazon     3,300 
La    Plata  2,950 
Africa 
•Vile          3,670 

OF  THE  WORLD. 

miles    in    length. 
River                    Length 
Niger     2,600 
Asia 
Obe    3.235 
Yangtsekiang     3,000 
Lena     2,860 
Amur    2,700 

River 
Mekong 

Yenisei    . 

Length 
2,600 
2',500 

Hwangho 

2,300 
2,000 

Europe 
Volga     .  . 

...2,325 

Kongo    2,80ft 

INDEX. 


Abandoned     Applications....^ 

Abstracts  of  Patent  Decisions  rf64 
Accidents,    Coal   Mine........  82 

Accidents,    Railway  255,  256,  257 

Acreage  of  Farms « 

Adams  Express  Co ^59 

Aerology     •  •  •  •  •*£? 

Africa,    Railways    235,    £ 

Agriculture,  Department  of.. 192 
Agricultural  Implements  114,  133 
Agricultural  Papers  ........ m 

Air  Accidents  -.31,  585 

Air  Craft,    Evolution   of 437 

Alabama,    Holidays    581 

Aliens   Admitted    ••  27 

Aliens,  Future  Residence  of.  33 

Aliens,    Occupation    of 34 

Allan   Line    205,   207 

Altitude    Record    585 

Aluminum    8° 

American  Association  for  the 

Advancement    of    Science.. 587 
American  Aviation  Records.. 448 

American    Express    Co 259 

American  Inventors   ••••••••  -362 

American  Line   ....200,   202,   206 

American  Museum  of  Safety. 454 

Anchor  Line    200,    202 

Ancient      Wonders      of      the 

World     189-192 

Angle,   To  Bisect  551 

Angles    547 

Angular  Measure  ...563 

Antarctic   Explorations  151,    158 

Aphelion   46« 

Apothecaries'  Liquid  Measure  562 

Apples    60 

Arbitration,   Court  of   83 

Arc    Lamps    124 

Arc    of    Circle     547 

Arc,   To  Plot  Out   552 

Area,     Comparative     of     the 

U.    S 1 

Areas,  Keppler's  Laws,  Equal  463 

Area  of   States    16 

Area  of  States  by  Size 17 

Area  of  States  of  World  148,  157 
Area  of  the  United  States...  5 

Argentina  138,  140,  142,  144 

Argentina,    Railways    ..235,    238 

Arizona,    Holidays    581 

Arkansas,    Holidays 581 

Armies,     Cavalry     389 

Armies,    Coast  Artillery    389 

Armies,    Mobilization    390 

Armies,    Field    Artillery 389 

Armies,    Fortress   Artillery.  .389 

Armies,    Infantry    389 

Armies  of  Leading  Powers.. 391 

Armies  of  Minor  Powers 390 

Armies    of    World 389 

Armor    Plates     112 

Army    Gun    for    Air-craft 401 

Army,  Medals  404,  405,  406 

Around  the  World    222 

Artificial    Flowers,    etc 133 

Artificial     Stone     133 

Artists'    Materials    133 

Asbestos    95 

Asphalt    92 

Asses   on    Farms    57 

Astronomical   Symbols   463 

Astronomy'   , 463 

Atlantic,   Bed  of 199 


Atlantic    Cable,     First 296 

Atlantic  Transport  Line  200,  202 
Atmosphere,  Circulation  ...499 
Atmosphere,  Composition, 

etc 485 

Atmospheric   Electricity    505 

Atmosphere,    Heating,    etc. ..487 

Atmosphere,    Moisture    in 502 

Atmospheric  Pressure   489 

Atmosphere,    Profile    484 

Atomic    Weights     457 

Australasia.... 138,  140,    142,   144 

Australia,    Patent    Law 367 

Australia,  Railways 235,   239 

Austria,    Army   390-396 

Austria-Hungary  138, 1,40, 142, 144 

Austrian  Money   177 

Austria,    Navy 410,    411 

Austria,    Patent    Law 367 

Austria,  Postal  Service.  .326-329 
Austria,  Railways.  .235,  236,  238 
Austro-American  Line.. 200,  202 

Automobile    Industry 116 

Automobiles    133 

Aviation    437 

Aviation  Records,  Alighting  450 
Aviation  Records,  Altitude 

449,  454 

Aviation  Records,  American  448 
Aviation  Records,  Distance 

449,  453 
Aviation    Records,    Duration 

449,  453 
Aviation       Records,        Speed 

448,    450 

Aviation     Records,     Weight- 
carrying    450 

Aviators   Killed    585 

Avoirdupois    Weight    563 

Axle    Grease    133 

Awnings,   Tents  and  Sails... 133 


Babbitt    Metal    133 

Bags     133 

Bags,   Paper   133 

Baking  Powders  133 

Ball-Bearing   Devices    542 

Balloon,    Pilot    511 

Balloons,  Growth  of  Passive. 437 
Balloons,  Growth  of  Power.. 438 

Bank,    Clearings    2 

Bank    Line    210 

Bankruptcy,     Patent     Rights 

in    -.375 

Banks,    National    2 

Banks,    Private    163 

Baskets     133 

Bass    66 

Batteries,    Primary    121 

Batteries,   Storage  124 

Beaufort  Wind  Scale    510 

Bees    54 

Beet  Sugar    133 

Belgium     138,  140,  142,  144 

Belgium,   Patent  Law  367 

Belgium,    Postal   Service  326-329 
Belgium  Railways  ..235,  236,  238 

Bell,    Alexander   G 363 

Bells,    Heaviest    567 

Belting    120 

Belting    133 

Berliner,    Emile    364 

Bessemer    Converters    114 

590 


Bicycles,    Motorcycles..  .116,  133 

Billiard    Tables    133 

Biplanes    444 

Birth    Stones    580 

Blacking,        Cleansing       and 

Polishing     133 

Blanchard,    Thomas    362 

Blank   Books    127 

Block   Signals    255 

Blotting    Paper    125 

Bluing     133 

Boiler  Explosions   27 

Boiling  Points  of  Elements  458 

Bolivia   138,   140,  142,   144 

Bolts 113 

Bone,  Carbon  and  Lampblack  133 

Book  Binding    127 

Book  Production    130 

Book     Production,      Interna- 
tional     129 

Books     127 

Booth    Steamship    Co 207 

Boots    and    Shoes    122,.  133 

Boxes,     Cigar    133 

Boxes,    Fancy   and  Paper 133 

Brass  and  Bronze  Products.. 133 

Brazil    138,    140,    142,    144 

Brazil,     Railways     235,  238 

Bread,    etc 133 

Bread,    Composition  of    51 

Brick   and    Tile    133 

Bridges,    Longest    567 

British   India,    Patent  Law.  .368 
British   India,    Railways 

235,    236,    239 

Brooms   and    Brushes    133 

Brush,    Charles    F 363 

Building  and   Loan   Associa- 
tions      170 

Building   Operations    118 

Building    Paper    125 

Buildings,    Highest    ....546,    585 

Bulgaria   138,   140,   142,   144 

Buoys 225 

Bureau    of    Mines    95 

Burros    on    Farms    57 

Bushel,    Statutory   Weights.. 568 

Butter     53 

Butter,      Cheese,      Condensed 

Milk    133 

Buttons     133 


Cable    Alphabet    296 

Cable    Letters,    Night 293 

Cable  Lines   of  World 286 

Cable    Messages,    Cipher 291 

Cable    Messages,    Code 291 

Cable  Messages,    Plain 291 

Cable    Messages,    Rules 291 

Cable    Rates,    Press 292 

Cables   and    Telegraphs 279 

Cables,     Submarine    288 

Cable  Word  Rates   2"93 

Calcium   Lights 133 

Calendar,   Perpetual   564 

Calendar,    200   Years    483 

California,     Holidays 581 

Cams   and   Cam   Movements.  536 

Canada     138.  140,  142,141 

Canada,    Patent   Law    365 

Canada,    Population    of    39 

Canada.  Railways  .,235,.  236,  23S 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


591 


Canada,    Railways    -261 

Canadian-Australian   Line    ..209 

Canadian  Express  Co    259 

Canadian   Northern   Express. 259 
Canadian      Pacific      Railway- 
Co 206,    207,    210 

Canadian  South  African  Line  207 

Canal,  Panama  265,  271 

Canal,    Suez    211 

Canal  Zone,    Population   of..  17 

Candles    133 

Canning  and  Preserving  105,  13: 
Card   Cutting,    Designing    ...133 

Carnegie   Institution    453 

Carnegie  Peace  Fund 82 

Carpets  and  Rugs    108,  131 

Carnages  and   Wagons.  .118,  13, 

Cars,     Railroad     116 

Cars,    Steam-railroad    133 

Cars,    etc.,    St.    Railroad 133 

Cash,    Registers,   etc 133 

Cattle  on  Farms   57 

Cement  89,  118,   133 

Census    Bureau    587 

Cereal   Crops    46 

Charcoal     133 

Cheese    53 

Chemicals    133 

Chemicals,    etc 122 

Chemical    Substances    459 

Chemistry     457 

Cherries    60 

Chile     138,  140.  142,  1 44 

Chili.  Railways 235,  238 

China  138,   140,  142,   144 

China    Decorating    133 

China,   Railways    235,    239 

Chocolate  and  Cocoa  133 

Chord     547 

Christian    Associations    13 

Cigarettes     585 

Circle     547 

Circles,     Area     556,  573 

Circle,    Diameter   556 

Circle,    Formulas    for 556 

Circle,    The    556 

Circle,   To  Find  Center 551 

Circulation    of    Money    2 

Circumference,    To   Square... 560 

Cities,    Manufacturing    101 

Cities    of    the    World 42 

Cities   of   U.    S 11 

Civil    War    Figures 399 

Clams  66 

Clay  and  Stone  US 

Clay    Products    92 

Climate     509 

Clocks  and  Watches   133 

Clothing     133 

Cloth,    Sponging,    etc    133 

Clouds     494 

Clutches     526 

Coal     83,     86 

Coal  Consumption,  Steamers  221 

Coal,    First   Use    114 

Coal    Stations,    Africa    123 

Coaling  Stations,   Europe   ...123 
Coaling        Stations,        North 

America     273 

Coaling        Stations,         South 

America    273 

Coal    Mine   Accidents    82 

Coal,    Price    of    87 

Coal,    Production   of    3 

Coast  Defense  Battery   402 

Cocoa,     Production     156 

Codfish     66 

Coffee    and    Spice    133 

Coffee,     Production     179 

Coffins    '. 133 

Coinage   159 


Coin    List,    Premium    576 

Coins,    Old    574 

Coins,    Weight  of  U.    S 580 

Coins,    Weights,    etc 576 

Coke    88,   133 

Coke,  Production  of  114 

College  Attendance    40 

College  Colors  451 

College    Publications    tZl 

Colorado,    Holidays    581 

Colossus    of    Rhodes    190 

Colt,    Samuel    .'...363 

Columbia    138,  140,  142,  144 

Columns,    Highest 546 

Combustion,    Heat   of   459 

Comets,    Periodic    466 

Command   of   Sea   412 

Commerce    137 

Commercial    Statistics    138 

Commodities,  Relative  Prices  161 
CompaiiiaTransatlantica  202,207 
Conductivity,  Electrical  . .  .570 

Conductivity,    Heat    570 

Confectionery     133 

Conflagrations,    Notable    166 

Connecticut,    Holidays    581 

Conservation    Association 74 

Consumption,  Mortality  from  19 

Copper,    Production   of 3,  61 

Copper,     Tin,     Sheet-iron 134 

Copyright    Law    384 

Copyrights,        Patents       and 

Trade-Marks     351 

Cordage,    Twine,    etc.    .  .108,  134 

Cordials    and    Syrups    134 

Cork,    Cutting    134 

Corn,    Acreage    45,    47 

Corn    Drills    114 

Corn    Huskers     Ill 

Corn  Planters    114 

Corn,   Production  of   3 

Corn    Shelters     114 

Corporations 172 

Corsets     134 

Costa  Rica 138,   140,   142,   144 

Cotton    Acreage     52 

Cotton   Consumed    3 

Cotton  Goods    108,134 

Cotton    Planters    114 

Cotton,    Production    of 3,54 

Cotton    Seed    Products     54 

Couplings,    Angle    Shaft 528 

Cows,     Dairy     53 

Crops,    Enormous    47 

Crucible    Furnace    114 

Crucibles 134 

Cuba    138,  140,   142,   144 

Cuba,    Patent    Law    368 

Cube     547 

Cubic    Measure     562 

Cultivators     114 

Cunard  Line  200,  202,  205,  206,  207 
Currency,  Gold  and  Silver.. 161 

Currency,    Foreign    17t> 

Curve     547 

Customs     182 

Customs  Receipts   2 

Customs    Tariffs    183 

Cutlery   Tools    134 

Cuts    of   Meats    62 

Cycloids     556 

Cyclones    500 

Cylinder    547 

Cyma,    To    Draw 552 


Dairymen's    Supplies    134 

Darwinian    Theory    102 

Date   Line    481 

Day  Letters   284 


Deaths     ...22 

Debt,  U.  S 2 

Decimal    Equivalents    567 

Decimal    System    564 

Declination     4C5 

Deferred    Cables    294 

Delaware,   Holidays   ....581 

Denmark     138,  140,  142,  144 

Denmark,   Patent  Law 367 

Denmark,  Postal  Service  326-329 
Denmark,  Railways  235,  236,  238 
Denominations,  Order  of  ...  37 

Dentist's    Materials    134 

Department    of    Agriculture.  192 

Department    of    War 403 

Department    Post    Office 344 

Depth   of   Bea    198 

Depths   of  World's  Ports 213 

Design    Patents    354 

Designs     375 

Deutschland,    Record    of 216 

Diagonal     547 

Diameter    547 

Diamond    Measure    563 

Diamond  Production   95 

Digestion     Race     61 

Disasters,     Marine    219 

Disasters,    Mining    86 

Disasters,    Submarine 434 

Disk  Drills   114 

Distances  from  New  Orleans 

274-277 

Distances  from  New  York  274-277 
Distances    from     San     Fran- 
cisco     274-277 

Distances    in    Knots    218 

D.   o?  C.    Holidays  581 

Diving    Bell     572 

Divorces  and   Marriages   23 

Dock,    Floating    194 

Domes,    Largest    518 

Donaldson    Line    206,207 

Drafting     Devices     544 

Drills,    Corn    114 

Drop  Letters    333 

Dry  Measure,    U.    S 562 

Duration   Records   456 

Dusty    Trades    20 

Dutch     Money     176 

Dyeing    Textiles    134 

Dyestuffs    122,    134 

Dynamos    124 


Eads,   James  B 363 

Earth    463 

Earthquakes     5 

Earth,     Section    of 464 

Ecliptic     465 

Ecuador   138,  140,  142,  144 

Edison,    Thomas  A 363 

Education     40 

Educational   Journals    127 

Education    Disbursements    ..     2 

Eels     66 

Egg  Statistics   60 

Egypt     138,  140,  143,  144 

Eiffel    Tower    580 

Elder,    Dempster   Line 207 

Electrical    Industry    124 

Electrical     Machinery     134 

Electrical  Symbols  372,  376 

Electric   Locomotives    244 

Electricity     495 

Electroplating     13  i 

Electrotyping     127 

Elements,    Distribution    ,459 

Elements     457 

Elevated    Railways    260 

Elevations     232 


592 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Elevator    Safety    Device    543 

France,    Record   of   S.    S  215 

Great   Northern   Express  Co.  259 

Fruits                     60 

Greece                  139    141     143     145 

Ellipse,    To    Construct    554 

Fruits,  Composition  of  44,  53,  55 
Freight    Mileage    247 

Greece,    Railways  235,    238 
Greek   Alphabet                            467 

Ems    in    Page     Number    ....546 

Freight    Revenue    247 

Grindstones                                  134 

Enameling  Japanning  134 

French  Line  200,  203,  206 

Gristmill    Products    107 

Engines    and    Power    105 
England    Army            390-396 

French    Money    176 

Groceries,    Prices    of  160 

England'    Navy..  410,   411 

Fuel   Oil,    Consumption  249 

Gun    Salutes    393 

Engraving    127 

Furnishing   Goods,    Men's    ..134 

Engraving,    Dyesinbrng    134 
Engraving,    Wood    134 

Furs,    Dressed    134 
Fuses,    Electric    124 

Haiti    139,    141,    143,    145 

Ericsson,   John    363 

Hamburg-American    Line 

Essential    Oil    Industry    122 

Galvanized    Plates    113 

200,  203,  207 
Hammocks    134 

Evolute    of    Circle     55C 

Galvanizing     134 
Garrisoned  Posts   399 

Hand        Stamps,         Stencils, 
Brands      134 

Expansion,     Linear    572 
Expansion,     Liquid     572 
Explosives    122,    134 

Gas     134 
Gas,    Elec.    Fixtures    134 
Gas,    First    in    U.    S  81 

Hanging    Gardens    of    Baby- 
lon       191 
Harness    120 

Exports     146 

Gas,    Illuminating    131 
Gas  Meter;   How  to  Read  a.  561 

Harrows    114 
Harvesting    Implements    ....114 

Express   Rates,    Domestic.  ..  .182 
Express    Rates,    Foreign    ...182 

Gatun     Dam     265 
Gatun    Lake    265 
Gatun    Locks    267 
Gearing     532 

Hat    and    Cap    Materials  Lit 
Hats    1(>s>    1:'4 
Hay   Carriers   H4 
Hay    Crop    48 
Hay    Loaders            H4 

Fabre   Line    200,  203 
Factories    98 
Failures  3.  159 
Fanning    Mills    Hi 
Farm  Animals   54,  56 

Gears,    Chain     526 
Gears,    Differential    534 
Gears,    Friction    524 
Gears,    Mangle    534 
Gears,    Rope    526 

Hayracks     H4 
Haystackers     114 
Hay    Tedders     114 
Heating    Apparatus,     Elec.  ..124 
Heavens,     Northern     469 

Farm  Products   2 

Gems     94 

Heavens,     Southern     475 

Farm   Property    2,43 

Geodesy,     International     Bu- 

Helix,    To    Construct  560 

Farms,  Foods  and  Forests  ..  43 
Farms,   Wealth  Production  of  45 
Felt    Goods     108 

Geographic   Board,    U.    S  196 
Geographical    Measure     563 
Geologic    Times    76 

Henry,    Joseph    363 
Heptagon,    To  Construct  552 
Hexagon     547.    552 

Fertilizers  122,   134 
Files                               134 

Geometrical  Constructions 
547    550 

Holland-America    Line.  .200,  203 

Financial    Statistics    138 

Holland,    Railways  235,    236 

Firearms,    Ammunition    134 

Georgia,     Holidays  581 

Honduras     138,140,142,144 

Fire   Engines,    Steam    170 

German  Empire  139,  141,  143,  145 

Hops     59 

Fire    Extinguishers    134 
Fire  Losses,   Annual   170 

German    Money    17? 
Germany,    Army   390-396 

Horizon    at    Different   Eleva- 
tions       232 

Fires    in    U.    S  169 
Fires,    Urban  and  Rural  169 

Germany,    Patent    Law    367 
Germany,   Postal  Service.  326-329 

Horseshoes     113,  134 
Horses   on    Farms    57 
Hosiery    and  Knit  Goods  108,134 

Fisheries  of  the   U.    S  66 

Glass                              .118    121,  134 

House-furnishing    Goods     ...134 

Flags,   Banners,  etc  134 
Flatirons,    Electric    124 
Flavoring    Extracts    134 

Globe    Express   Co  259 
Gloves    and     Mittens  122 
Gloves     Leather    120 

Human    Body,    Composition.  459 
Humidity     490 

Flax    and    Hemp    134 

Gloves     Mittens     Leather       134 

Flaxseed    Crop    54 

Glucose     Starch                  114    134 

Hungary,     Railways  235,  236,  238 

Florida,    Holidays    581 

Glue     134 

Hunting   Accidents    23 

Florist    Products    54 

Gold    and   Silver    79 

Hydro-Aeroplane                  444    589 

Flour-mill   Products    134 
Flour    Products    107 

Gold    and    Silver    Coin  163 
Gold     and     Silver,     Produc- 

Hyperbola,     To    Construct.  .  .554 

Foods       ,...61,   63    105    134 

Food,    Farms  and  Forests   ..  43 
Foreign    Coins,    Value    of...  130 

Gold,    Imports    and    Exports.  157 
Gold,    Production    of  3 
Gold     Silver     Leaf     Foil        134 

Implements,    Agricultural    ..114 
Icebergs                      162 

Forests,    Farms  and  Food    ..  43 
Forests,     National     68 

Gold,     Silver,     Refining  134 
Gold     Test    for                           576 

Ice,    Manufactured    118,  134 
Idaho     Holidays    581 

Forests  of  the   US                  67 

Illinois     Holidays                     582 

Foundry    Products    134 

Illiteracy    in    the    U.    S  30 

Graphite                                 95    134 

Fourth  of  July  Fatalities   .  .  37 

Graphaphones     132 

Immigrants,.     State    of    Pas- 

Fowls   on    Farms    59 

Grain     Price    of                         160 

sage     30 

France                  138    140    143    144 

mmigra                                        j^g 

France    Navy                      410   411 

Imports                   146,  150 

France      Patent    Law  ....      367 

235     236     238 

Prance,  Postal  Service   ..326-329 
France,   Railways   ..235,  236,  238 

Great    Britain,    Postal      Ser- 
vice        326-329 

Inclined    Plane,     Movable  522 
Inclined    Plane,    Revolving..  522 

SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


593 


Inclined   Plane,    Simple 522 

India,     British.. 139,  141,  143,  145 

Indiana,    Holidays    582 

Indians     19 

Industries,    Leading    99 

Initiative     48 

Ink     134 

Insane     41 

Instruments     134 

Insular   Line    207 

Insulated    Wire     124 

Insurance,    Casualty    171 

Insurance,        Casualty       and 

Surety     161 

Insurance   Companies    172 

Insurance,     Fire     171 

Insurance,     Life     170 

Insurance,      Life,      Premium 

Rates     173 

Insurance,     Marine     171 

Insurance,    Ocean    Marine    ..165 
Insurance,   Ordinary  and  In- 
dustrial      174 

Interest  Tables   164,186 

Internal    Revenue    182 

Internal  Revenue  Receipts..  2 
International  Money  Orders. 337 
International  Parcels  Post.. 345 
Inventors,  American  ......  .362 

Iowa,    Holidays    582 

Iron      80 

Iron  and  Steel   ill,   135 

Iron,    Production    of 3 

Islands,    Area    of    Largest... 173 

Isotherms,    Annual    499 

Italian    Money    177 

Italian    Royal    Mail    Lines 

200,  203 

Italy     139,  141,  143,  145 

Italy,     Army 390-396 

Italy,    Navy    410,  411 

Italy,     Patent    Law 367 

Italy,    Postal    Service 326-3')9 

Italy,     Railways.... 235,  236,  238 


Japan    139,    141,    143,    145 

Japan,   Army    390-397 

Japan,    Navy    410,  411 

Japan,    Patent   Law 368 

Japan,    Postal   Service    .  .326-329 
Japan.      Railways. .  .235,  239,  236 

Jewelry     135 

Joint    Stock    Companies 172 

Joints,     Universal     .  .     528 


Kaiser   Wilhelm    der    Grosse, 

Record    of    216 

Kaiser    Wilhelm    II,     Record 

of     215 

Kaiser    Wilhelm    II,     Section 

of     230 

Kansas,    Hol;days    582 

Kaolin  and  Ground   Earths.. 135 

Kentucky,    Holidays   

Kilometres  &  Miles 567 

Knit    Goods     108 

Knots.     Distances    in 218 

Kronprinzessin    Cecilie,    Rec- 
ord   of    215 

Kronprinz      Wilhelm,       Rec- 
ord   of    216 


Labels    and    Prints 378 

Labels    and    Tags 135 

Lakes,    Area    of    Largest 137 

Lamp    Signals.     R.    R 329 

Lamport    &    Holt    Line 2*07 

Land,     Distribution     181 


Land    Lines    of    World 281 

Land     Measure      562 

Languages  of  the  World 147 

Lapidary    Work    135 

La   Provence,    Record   of 215 

Lard     135 

Lasts    135 

Latitude     465 

Laundries      132 

Law    Journals    127 

Lead    80,   135 

Leather   120,   135 

Leather    Goods     135 

Lemons   60 

Lettergrams     285 

Lever,     Bell    Crank     519 

Lever,      Common      519 

Lever,    Compound    519 

Lever,    Revolving    519 

Leyland    Line    205 

Liberia    139,    143,   145 

Life-boat     Drill     2*29 

Life-Saving   Service    221 

Lighthouses     564 

Lightning  Flashes   507 

L  ghts,    American    564 

Light   Year   466 

Liquid     Measure,     U.     S 562 

Liquors    135,    585 

Lime   92,   135 

Linear    Measure    562 

Lines,    Drawing    550 

Linoleum      110 

Listers    114 

Lithographing    127 

Lloyd  Sabaudo  200 

Loan   and  Trust  Companies.  163 

Lobster    66 

Locomotives    135 

Locomotives,    Classification    2'43 

Locomotives,     Cost     of 245 

Locomotive,      Freight,      Lar- 
gest   245 

Locomotives,    Heavy   244 

Locomotive,     Mallet     Articu- 
lated     522 

Locomotive,    Most  Powerful   518 
Locomotive,    Piping  Arrange- 
ment     522 

Log  Measure   74 

Log    Rules    7  if 

Longitude     465 

Looking-Glasses    ..135 

Louisiana,     Holidays     582 

Lumber   Cuts    69,  70 

Lumber,    Timber    Products.  .135 

Lusitania,    Record   of 215 

Luxemburg   141,    143,  145 


Machine     Elements     519 

Mackerel     66 

Mail    Matter,    Classification  333 

Mail   Matter,    Domestic 333 

Mail     Matter,     First- 

Class     333,  334 

Mail    Matter,    Second-Class    334 
Mail     Matter,     Fourth- 
Class    335,    336 

Mail    Matter,    Third- 

Class    334,    335 

Mail    Revenue,     Railway. ..  .253 

Mails,    Time    341 

Mail     Service     324 

Mail   Services,    Foreign 326 

Mail    Traffic    317 

Maine,    Holidays   582 

Malt    ...135 


Manufactures   97 

Manufacturing    Expenses....  104 
Marble    and     Stone    Work..  135 
Marconigrams,        Transatlan- 
tic      307 

Marine     Corps,     U.     S 434 

Marine  Disasters  219 

Marine,    Merchant    193 

Maritime  Progress   213 

Marriages  and  Divorces    23 

Maryland,    Holidays    582 

Massachusetts,   Holidays  ....582 

Matches     135 

Mats  and  Matting   135 

Matson  Navigation  Co 211 

Mattresses  and  Spring  Beds  135 

Mauretania,    Record   of 215 

McCormick,    Cyrus    H 363 

Measures,    Weights     561 

Meat,     Cuts     of 61 

Meat    Packing    105 

Mechanical  Movements.  5 19,  52*3 
Medals  of  Army  and 

Navy     404-406 

Melting  Points  of  Elements  458 
Mercantile  Fleets,  Foreign  195 
Merchandise,  Imports  and 

Exports   149,   152 

Merchant    Marine    193 

Merchant  Marine  of  U.    S...194 

Merchant    Ships,    Fastest 198 

Merganthaler,    Ottmar   364 

Meteorological    Elements   ...486 
Meteorological    Instru- 
ments     486,    487-497 

Meteorological   Services    510 

Meteorology     485 

Meteorology      and      Aeronau- 
tics    511 

Metric   Measures   566 

Metropolitan  Life  Building  366 
Mexico  ....139,  141,  143,  145 

Mexico,     Army     390-397 

Mexico,    Patent    Law 368 

Mexico,    Postal  Service  32*6-329 

Mexico,    Railways    235,  238 

Mica     95 

Michigan,    Holidays    582 

Milk     53 

Milk,   Composition  of 60 

Millinery   and   Lace   Goods.. 135 

Mineral  and  Soda  Waters 135 

Mineral    Products     78 

Mineral      Products      of      the 

U.     S 77 

Mineral    Waters    95 

Mines     and     Quarries 75 

Mining     Disasters     86 

Minnesota,    Holidays    582 

Mirrors     135 

Mississippi,    Holidays    582 

Missouri,     Holidays    582 

Models   and    Patterns 135 

Modern  Wonders  of  World... 189 

Mortality,    Table    of 574 

Monetary  Systems  of  Money.  184 

Money    by    Telegraph 285 

Money  Orders,  Domestic.  ..332 
Money  Orders,  International. 33 7 

Money   Order   System 337 

Monroe    Doctrine    403 

Montana,     Holidays     583 

Months,    Foreign    Names 546 

Monuments,    National    68 

Moon    464 

Morocco     139,  145 

Morse,     Samuel    F.     B 363 

Mortality,     Table     of 574 

Motorcycles    116 


594 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Motors,     Electric     124 

Mountains,    Highest    174 

Moving     Pictures     135 

Mowing    Machinery    114 

Mucilage    and    Paste 135 

Mules    on    Farms 57 

Municipal    Building    New 

York     278 

Munson    Steamship    Line 2'08 

Musical    Instruments     135 

Music    Journals     127 

Music,     Sheet     127 


Nails   113 

National      Academy      of 

Sciences    587 

National    Banks    160 

National   Express   Co 259 

Nativity   of   Population 15 

Nautical    Measure    564 

Nautical,     Statute    Miles 564 

Nautical    Terms    22*5 

Naval   Enlistment,    U.    S....410 

Naval   Ordnance,    U.    S 418 

Naval  Vessels,   U.   S 415-417 

Navies   of    World 409,  425 

Navy  and   Naval   Militia...  .435 

Navy  Disbursements   2 

Navy,   Medals   404-406 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Armored  Ships 

420-424 

Navy,   U.  S.,   Cost  of 435 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Cruisers 425 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Fuel    Ships.. 43 2 

Navy,   U.   S.,  Gunboats 430 

Navy,  U.  S.,  Hospital  Ships.4321 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Monitors 428 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Pay 429 

Navy,     U.     S.,     Ships    Under 

Construction    433 

Navy,  U.  S.,  Supply  Ships.. 432 
Navy,  U.  S.,  Tenders  to 

Torpedo  Boats   429 

Navy,     U.     S.,     Torpedo-boat 

Destroyers    42'6 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Torpedoes 428 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Transports. ..  .430 

Navy,    U.     S.,     Vessels 425 

Navy,    U.    S.,    Wireless 307 

Nebraska,    Holidays    583 

Needles,  Pins,  Hooks,  Eyes.  135 
Netherlands  139,  141,  143,  145 
Netherlands,  Patent  Law..  3  67 
Netherlands,  Postal  Service 

326-329 

Nevada,    Holidays    583 

New    Hampshire,     Holidays.  583 

New    Jersey,     Holidays 583 

New     Mexico,      Holidays....  583 

Newspapers   4,    127 

Newspaper,    Products    of 125 

Newspaper    Wrappers    332 

Ne.w     York     &     Cuba     Mail 

S.     S.     Co 208 

New   York,    Holidays 583 

New     York     &     Porto     Rico 

S.     S.     Co 208 

New  Zealand,  Patent  Law.. 3 67 
Nicaragua..  13  8,  140,  142,  144 

Nickel     92 

Night   Letters    2'84,    285 

Night    Sky:    January,    Febru- 
ary     469 

Night  Sky:  July,  August.. 473 
Night  Sky:  March,  April.. 471 
Night  Sky:  May,  June 472 


Night    Sky,    November,    De- 
cember     475 

Night    Sky:    September,     Oc- 
tober     474 

Nippon   Yusen   Kaisha   S.    S. 

Co.    ., , 210 

Nodes     465 

North    Carolina,     Holidays.. 583 

North    Dakota,    Holidays 583 

Northern     Express     Co 259 

North    German   Lloyd, 

201,    204,    205 

Nobel    Prizes     408 

Norway....  139,    141,    143,    145 

Norway,    Patent   Law 367 

Norway,   Postal  Service.326-32'9 
Norway,    Railways, 

235,    236,    238 

Nursery    Products    54 

Nutation    465 

Nuts     113 


Oakum    135 

Oats,    Acreage    of 49 

Occupations     102 

Oceanic   S.    S.    Co 211 

Ocean   Rates    200 

Ocean   S.    S.    Co 210 

Ocean        Vessels,        Develop- 
ment     217 

Occurrences     During     Print- 
ing      585 

Octagon,    to    Construct 554 

Officers  of  Army  and   Navy. 394 

Ohio,    Holidays     583 

Oil 135 

Oilcloth    : 110 

Oilcloth   and   Linoleum 135 

Oil,     Sperm     66 

Oklahoma,    Holidays    583 

Oleomargarine     54 

Oleomargarine    135 

Olympic     213,     585 

Open-hearth    Furnace    113 

Optical    Goods    135 

Oranges     60 

Orchard   and   Vineyard   Prod- 
ucts       60 

Oregon,    Holidays    583 

Organs    132 

Oval     547 

Oysters    66 


Pacific  Coast  S.   S.    Co 201 

Pacific  Mail  S.   S.   Co.. 201,   211 

Pacific    Express    Co 259 

Paint   and    Varnish-. 122,  135 

Pamphlets     127 

Panama....  138,    140,    142,    144 

Panama  Canal    254,    265 

Panama  Canal,  Breakwaters. 269 

Panama    Canal,     Dams 266 

Panama    Canal,    Excavation. 268 

Panama    Canal    Railroad 2'72' 

Panama   Canal    Statistics 272 

Panama    Canal    Zone 272 

Panama      Railroad       S.       S. 

Line     208 

Panelboards     124 

Paper  and  Pulp 125 

Paper  and   Wood  Pulp 135 

Paper  Goods    135 

Paper  Patterns  135 

Paper,    Waste    1?5 


Parabola,  to  Construct. 554,   556 

Paraguay 139,     143,     145 

Parallelogram     547 

Parallelogram,   to  Construct.  551 

Parallelepiped    547 

Parcels   Dispatched    331 

Parcels  Post,  Domestic. 3 40,  342 
Parcels  Post  Information.  .345 
Parcels  Post,  International, 

343,    345 
Parcels    Post,    Rate    Zones.. 3 40 

Parcels  Received  331 

Passengers,    Arrival  of 2'9 

Passports     407 

Patent     Appeals 353 

Patent  Assignments    354 

Patent  Decisions  364 

Patented    Articles    354 

Patent  Infringement   353 

Patent    Interference    353 

Patent  Law,   United  States.. 3 68 

Patent    Medicines     135 

Patent   Reissues    353 

Patent      Rights      in      Bank- 
ruptcy      375 

Patents,    Design    354 

Patents,     Foreign     365 

Patents,      General      Informa- 
tion      351 

Patents    Issued    4 

Patents,    Number    355,     359 

Patents,      Trade-Marks,      and 

Copyrights    351 

Patent         System,          United 

States     355 

Paving   Materials    135 

Peaches     60 

Peanuts      135 

Pears    60 

Pencils,    Lead    135 

Peninsular        &        Occidental 

S.   S.  Co 208 

Pennsylvania,    Holidays    583 

Pennsylvania  R.    R 254,    263 

Pens     135 

Pension    Act    38 

Pensions     38 

Pentagon   550 

Pentagon,     to     Construct 552 

Perihelion     463 

Periodicals      127 

Persia 139,    141,    145 

Perspective,   Isometric  554 

Peru 139,    141,    143,    145 

Peru,    Railways    2*35,    238 

Petroleum    88,    135 

Petroleum,     Production     of..     3 

Pharos   of  Alexandria    190 

Philippines,    Patent   Law 368 

Phonographs     132,  135 

Photo-Engraving   135 

Photographic    Apparatus    and 

Materials 135 

Pianos     132 

Pig   Iron    89,  111 

Pigments    92 

Pipes    and    Tubes 113 

Pipes,    Tobacco    135 

Platinum    79 

Plows     114 

Plums     60 

Polygon     550 

Polygon,    to    Construct 554 

Population    and    Social    Sta- 
tistics          It 

Population,    Center    of 10 

Population,    Density  of 256 

Population,     Increase    in 10 

Population     in     1910 8 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


595 


Population    of   the   U.    S....     1 

Population    of   World 12 

Population    of    World's    Em- 
pires      157 

Population,      U.      S.,      1790- 

1910    6 

Population,         Urban         and 

Rural    13 

Porto   Rico,    Patent   Law.... 36 8 

Ports  of  World 153 

Portugal 139,     141,143,145 

Portugal,    Patent   Law 367 

Portugal,    Postal    Service,^ 

Portugal,    Railways, 

2T35,    236,    238 

Postage   Rates    336 

Postage  Rates,  First-class..336 
Postage  Rates,  Foreign, 

339,  346-349 

Postage  Rates,  Fourth-class. 33' 
Postage  Rates,  Second-class. 33 7 
Postage  Rates,  Third-class.  .337 
Postage  Stamps,  Coiling...32< 

Postage  Stamps,  Value 327 

Postage  2  Cents   340,585 

Postal  Business,  World's 32! 

Postal   Cards,    Printing 326 

Postal  Cards    332",    333 

Postal     Employees,      Reward 

to  331 

Postal      Information,       Prac- 
tical      333 

Postal  Savings  System.  164,  345 
Postal  Service,  World.. 3 27-3 2 9 

Post    Office    Affairs 32*3 

Post     Office     Department 344 

Post    Office    Expenditures, 

323,     324,    325 

Post  Office  Receipts 4 

Post    Office     Revenue.. 323,  324 

Post  Offices    3 

Post   Office,    United    States.. 3 23 

Potato    Crop    51 

Potato    Diggers    114 

Potato    Planters    114 

Pottery   135 

Poultry   in   the   U.    S 59 

Power,    Comparison    of 96 

Power,     Transmission    545 

Precession     465 

Precious    Metals    78 

Precious    Stones    

Precipitation   491 

Precipitation,      Annual.  513,  51~ 

Premium  Coin  List 576 

Preserving    and    Canning. ..  .105 

Presidential   Succession    587 

Press     Cable     Rates 292,  585 

Press   Cable   Rates 292" 

Printers'    Marks 322 

Printing    and    Publishing 135 

Printing,    Early    130 

Printing,     Job     1" 

Prints    and    Labels 378 

Prison   Population    18 

Private    Mailing    Cards 33? 

Provisions  of  Liner 22  < 

Provisions,    Prices   of 160 

Publications    12 

Publications,    Mailing   of 331 

Public    Roads     25! 

Pulley,    Compound   51! 

Pulley,   Simple  519 

Pullman  Company   

Pulp   Goods    136 

Pulp    Wood     71,125 

Pumps    136 


ursuits,     Distribution     of..  24 
Pyramids  of   Egypt 192 


Quadrangle     550 

Quadrant   550 

Quadrilateral  550 

Quebec    S.    S.    Co 208 

Queenstown  Records  215 

Quicksilver  80 


Races  of  Mankind 35,  163 

Radius     550. 


Rags     ....«•••••••••••• 

Railroad   Cars    116,  244 

Railroad   Locomotives    244 

Railroad    Mileage  * 242 

Railroads     233 

Railroad   Record    585 

Railroad  Speeds   251,253 

Railroads,       Revenues       and 

Expenses    249 

Railroad    Tickets    250 

Railroad    Transportation    ...323 

Rails   112,  113 

Railway  Accidents.. 255,  256,  257 

Railway    Electric,    First 118 

Railway    Employees    246 

Railway    Mail   Revenue 253 

Railway    Progress    240 

Railway    Speed,    England 254 

Railway    Tunnels,    Long 258 

Railways,     Foreign,      Statis- 
tics     236 

Railways   of   Canada 261 

Railways  of  World,   Growth  235 

Railways,    U    S 241 

Railways,.    World's 238,  243 

Rainfall,   Bulk  and  Weight.  .103 

Range    Finding   Tower 401 

Rates,    Cable    Words 293 

Rates,    Ocean 200 

Rates    of   Postage 336 

Rates    from   Canada 207 

Rates  to  Pacific  Ports 209 

Rates     to     South     American 

Ports     207 

Rates,       Telegraph,       North 

America     283 

Rates  to  Trans-Pacific  Ports  209 
Rates  to  West  Indian  Ports  207 

Rates,    Wireless    308 

Ratchet    Movements    528 

Reapers  114 

Recall    48 

Records,    Steamship    215 

Red    "D"    Line    208 

Red    Star  Line 201,204,206 

Referendum    4S 

Reflection     550 

Refractors,    Largest    47 

Registered   Mail    232,  338 

Religions   of    Europe    36 

Religions   of   Mankind    36 

Religions   of   the   U.    S 36 

Religious    Papers    127 

Reply-coupons     33S 

Resin     7-. 

Resistance, .    Variation    57( 

Revenue,    Freight    247 

Revenue,    Passenger    249 

Rhode   Island,    Holidays 584 

Rhodes  Scholarships   130 

Rhomboid     550 

Rhomb,.   Rhombus   550 

Rice    136 

Rice  Crop    59 


Rice    Cleaning    106 

Right   Ascension    465 

Rigs  of  Sailing  Vessels   223 

Rivers   of   the    World 589 

Rivets    113 

Roofing    Materials    136 

Roofing    Paper    125 

Roosevelt    Dam    618 

Rosin  and  Turpentine   122 

Roumania   139,   141,   143,  i*5 

Roumania,  Railways  235,  236,238 
Royal     Mail     Steam     Packet 

Co 208 

Rubber    Goods    136 

Rubber,    Production    179 

Rugs,    Carpets    108 

Rules,    Ivory   and   Wood 136 

Rural    Delivery    330 

Rural   Population    14 

Russia  139,  141,  .143,.  145 

Russia,.    Army    390-397 

Russia,  Navy  410,  411 

Russian-American    Line. 201,  204 

Russian    Money    178 

Russia,    Patent  Law 367 

Russia,   Postal  Service.  ..326-329 
Russia,    Rys.    ..235,  236,  238,  239 


Safes    and    Vaults    136 

Safety  Appliances    253,.  255 

Sailing,    Vessels,    Rigs 223 

Sailing    Vessels,    Tonnage... 193 
Salaries    Federal    Officials... 408 

Salaries,    Postmasters    331 

Salvador   138,   140,   142.   144 

Salt    92,  93,  122,  136 

Sand    92 

Sand,    Emery  Paper,    Cloth..  136 
Santo    Domingo. 139,  141,  143,  145 

Savings   Banks 161,    163 

Savings  Banks,  Deposits  in..    2 

Savings  Banks,    First 165 

Saws   136 

Scales  and  Balances 136 

Scallops    66 

Scandinavian-American    Line 

201,  204 

Scandinavian  Money   177 

School  Attendance    40 

Schools,    Special    40 

Science,     American    Associa- 
tion       587 

Scientific  American  Trophy.. 447 

Scientific   Journals    127 

Sciences,    National    Academy 

of     587 

Screws   136 


Sea  Coast  Guns 394 

Sea  Coast  Guns 398 

Sea,  Depth  of 585 

Searchlights  124 

Secant  547 

Sector  547 

Seeders  and  Planters 114 

Seed  Separators  114 

Segment  of  Circle 550 

Selandia,  Engine  Room 232 

Semicircle  550 

Servia  139,  141,  143,  145 

Seven  Wonders  of  World, 

Ancient  189 

Seven  Wonders  of  World, 

Modern  189 

Sewing  Machines  136 

Sewing  Machines,  Early 

Types  388 

Sheep  on  Farms 58 

Shingles  69 

Shipbuilding  116136 


596 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


Ship    Building    in    U.    S 194 

Shoddy     136 

Shovels    113 

Show   Cases   136 

Shrimp     66 

Siam    139,.   141,    143,   145 

Signs,  Advertising  Novelties  136 

Silk  Goods  110,  136 

Silver  and  Gold 79 

Silver    and    Gold,    Estimated 

Stock    160 

Silver  and  Gold,   Production  155 

Silver   Coin    2 

Silver,   Imports  and  Exports  15S 

Silver,    Test   for 576 

Silverware,    Plated    Ware 136 

Sine     550 

Singer    Building    366 

Skins    120 

Slate   92 

Slaughtering    105 

Slaughtering,   Meat  Packing. 136 

Smelting,    Refining    136 

Smithsonian    Institution    ....  587 

Soap    136 

Soap   Production    115 

Soda-water    Apparatus     136 

Solar    System    466 

Solar  System,  Satellites  of.. 465 
South  Africa,  Patent  Law... 368 
South  American  Republics, 

Patent   Laws    368 

Southampton    Records    215 

South    Carolina,    Holidays. .  .584 

South   Dakota,    Holidays 584 

Southern    Express    Co 259 

Southern  Pacific  S.    S.    Co. ..208 

Spain   139,   141,   143,   145 

Spain,    Patent    Law ...367 

Spain,  Postal  Service. ..  .326-329 
Spain,  Railways.... 235,  236,  238 

Spanish    Money 178 

Sparkless,    Wireless    588 

Specific    Gravitv 460,  461 

Speed,    Comparison 150 

Speed   of  Vessels 197 

Speeds,     Railroad 251 

Spikes    113 

Spiral,     Arithmetic 556 

Spiral,     Length    of 560 

Spiral,    To    Construct 556 

Spires,     Highest 546 

Spirit    Measure 562 

Sponges  66 

Sporting  and  Athletic  Goods  136 

Spout    501 

Springs    113,    545 

Springs,   Steel,   Car  and  Car- 
riage    136 

Square     550 

Square,    To    Construct 551 

Square,   To     Describe     About 

Circle   552 

Square,    To   Inscribe   in   Cir- 
cle     552 

Stamp    Books    332 

Stamp    Coils    332 

Stamped    Envelopes 331,    332 

Stamps  Imitations    332 

Starch  and   Glucose 115 

Stars,    Distances   of 468 

Stars,  Names  of  Principal.  ,4fi7 
Stars,  Order  of  Magnitude.  .468 

Stars,     Shooting 466 

Stars,   When  Added  to  Flag. 518 

State    Banks 163 

State    Flowers    581 

State    Holidays 581 

State     Nicknames 581 

States,  Thirteen  Original...  5 
Stationery  Goods 136 


Statistical    Information 1 

Statuary  and  Art  Goods 136 

Statue    of   Jupiter 191 

Statute,    Nautical   Miles    ....564 
Steamboat     Inspection      Ser- 
vice     221 

Steam    Packet    212 

Steam    Packing 136 

Steam     Pressure,      Tempera- 
ture      569 

Steamship     Records 215 

Steamship   Routes,    Africa... 175 

Steamship   Routes,    Asia 179 

Steamship    Routes,    Austral- 
asia      183 

Steamship  Routes,  Europe.. 168 
Steamship  Routes,  North 

America    162 

Steamship     Routes,       South 

American    165 

Steamship     Speeds,     Propor- 
tional      21fi 

Steam  Vessels,   Tonnage 193 

Steel  and  Iron  Manufactures     111 

Steel,    Production   of 3 

Stereotyping  and  Electrotyp- 

ing     136 

Stone    92 

Storage   Batteries    124 

Storm    Signals 512 

Stoves    and    Furnaces 136 

Straw    Boards    125 

Street-railroad    Cars    116 

Street    Railways    260 

Strength,    Pulling    573 

Submarine    Cables    288 

Submarine     D'sasters 434 

Submarine   Record    585 

Submarines  of  the  U.    S 586 

Suez   Canal 254,    271 

Suffrage,    Woman    13 

Sugar     108 

Sugar    and    Molasses 136 

Sugar    Beets    51 

Sugar   Consumed    3 

Sugar    Production 51 

Sugar,    Production    of 3 

Suicides   21,  20 

Sulphur  and   Pyrite 92 

Sulphuric,.  Nitric  and  Mixed 

Acids    136 

Sun    465 

Super-dreadnought,       Boiler- 
room   Section    421 

Super-dreadnought,     Conning 

Tower   Section 419 

Super-dreadnought,       Engine 

Section     427 

Super-dreadnought,  Gun  Sec- 
tion      431 

Super  -  dreadnought,        Stern 

Section      436 

Superficies     550 

Surgical    Appliances    136 

Sweden    139,  141,  143,  145 

Sweden,   Patent  Law 367 

Sweden,  Postal  Service.  .326-329 
Sweden,  Railways.  .235,  236,  238 

Swine    on    Farms 58 

Switchboards      124 

Switzerland  ....139,  141,  143,  145 
Switzerland,  Patent  Law.... 367 
Switzerland,  Postal  Service 

326-323 
Switzerland,  Railways 

235,  236,  238 


Tables,    Interest 164 

Talon,    To    Draw 552 

Tangent   550.  551 


Tanning    120 

Tantalum    Lamps    124 

Tea,     Production     149 

Telegraph,    Development   315 

Telegraph    Earnings    317 

Telegraphic    Apparatus    124 

Telegraph     Investment 317 

Telegraph       Messages,       Do- 
mestic     279 

Telegraph        Rates,        North 

America    283 

Telegraph    Tolls    286 

Telegraph    Traffic    317 

Telegraphs    and    Cables 279 

Telegraph    Wires    315 

Telegraphy,    Wireless    299 

Telephone   Apparatus    124 

Telephone,    Comparison  with 

Other   Industries    318 

Telephone  Conversations 

312,    318 
Telephone    Development    311-315 

Telephone     Directories 318 

Telephones,  Distribution. .  .311 
Telephone  Distribution, 

World     319 

Telephone     Earnings     317 

Telephone   Investment 

312,  315-318 
Telephone         Statistics         of 

World     311 

Telephone  System,  Bell.  .319-321 

Telephone     Traffic 317 

Telephone    Wires 314-316 

Temperature  and  Radiation. 48.8 
Temperature,  Distribution.  .498 
Temperature,  Low,  High, 

Normal   and    Mean    513-516 

Temperature,    Table    of 569 

Temple    of    Diana 190 

Tennessee,    Holidays 584 

Terne    Plate lir» 

Tesla,     Nicola 364 

Texas,     Holidays 584 

Textiles    108 

Thermometer   Scales    462 

Thomson    Line    206 

Threshing  Machinery    114 

Thunderstorms    501 

Ties  69 

Time    .....478,  479,  482,  563 

Time,    Conversion  of 480 

Time,    On    Board    Ship 19S 

Tin    82 

Tin    and    Terne   Plate 115 

Tin    Foil     136 

Tin,    Production    of 3 

Tissue  Paper   125 

Titanic     194 

Titanic,    Bridge    of 222 

Tobacco    Crop    45 

Tobacco    Manufactures     13<5 

Tolls,      Telegraph      286 

Tomb  of   Mausolus   191 

Torpedo    Boat   Destroyers 426 

Towers,    Highest    546 

Toyo  Risen  Kaisha  S.   S.   Co.211 

Toys   and    Games 136 

Trade    Discount   Table 188 

Trade    Journals    127 

Trade-Marks     379 

Trade  -  Marks,        Copyrights, 

Patents     351 

Traffic,     Freight     247 

Traffic,   Passenger  247 

Training    Schools    41 

Train    Service    255 

Trains,    Long-Distance    254 

Transatlantic  Marconigrams  307 
Transatlantic  Stea  m  s  h  i  p 

Lines    202 


SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN  REFERENCE  BOOK. 


597 


Transformers    124 

Transportation  Manufactures  lli 

Trapezium     550 

Trapezoid     550 

Triangle,  Acute- Angled  550 

Triangle,    Equilateral    ..547,  550 

Triangle,    Isosceles    547 

Triangle,     Scalene     547 

Trinidad     Line     208 

Trip   Hammer   542 

Troy  Weight   563 

Tungsten   Lamps   124 

Tunnels,    Railway    258,    585 

Turbine    Engines    216 

Turbine,    First    130 

Turkey    139.    141,    143,    145 

Turkey.     Patent    Law 368 

Turkey.    Railways    235,  238 

Turpentine      70 

Turpentine    and    Rosin.  .122,  136 

Turtles     66 

Twine     331 

Type-founding    and    Printing 

Materials    136 

Typewriters    and     Supplies.  .136 
Typhoons     501 


Umbrellas    and    Canes 136 

Union   of  South  Africa.  .141,  145 

Union   S.    S.    Co 209 

United    Fruit    Co 209 

United  Kingdom  139, 141,  143,  145 
United   States  ..139,  141,  143,  145 

U.    S.   Army 390-397 

U.    S.    Copyright   Law 384 

U.    S.    Express   Co 259 

U.    S.    Marine    Corps 434 

U.    S.    Military    Academy ....  401 

U.    S.    Naval    Academy 435 

U.    S.    Naval   Enlistment 410 

U.    S.   Navy   410,   411 

U.   S.,   Navy  and  Naval  Mili- 
tia     435 

U.    S.    Patent    System 355 

U.    S.     Patent    Law 368 

U.     S.     Post    Office 323 

University  Attendance    40 

Upholstering    Materials 136 

Urban   Population    14 

Uruguay    139,  141,  143,  145 

Uruguay,    Railways   235,  238, 

Utah,    Holidays    584 


Vacuum  Tubes   124 

Vapor   Lamps    124 

Varnish   and   Paint    122 

Vault  Lights  and  Ventilators  136 
Vegetables,  Composition  of 

44,  51,   53,   55 

Venezuela 139,  141,  143,  145 

Vermont,    Holidays    584 

Vessels,    American    3 

Vessels,    Comparison  of 197 

Vinegar    and    Cider 136 

Virginia,   Holidays   584 

Voting    Americans    13 


Wage    Earners    100 

Wage  Earnings,  Variation  of   98 

Wage   Tables   187 

Wall   Paper    125,136 

Wall   Plaster   136 

War    Department     403 

War    Disbursements    2 

Washing   Machines,     Clothes 

Wringers    136 

Washington,    Holidays    584 

Washington   Monument    580 

Watch  on  Board  Ship   198 

Water,    Distribution    181 

Waterfalls,    Famous    455 

Water  Surface,  Total   169 

Wealth    per  Capita    2 

Wealth,    U.    S 2 

Weather   Map    508 

Weather    Prediction    510 

Wedding    Anniversaries    580 

Wedge    522 

Week    End    Letters 296 

Weights    and    Measures 561 

Wells    Fargo   Express   Co 259 

Western    Express   Co 259 

Westinghouse,    George    364 

West   Virginia,    Holidays.  ...584 

Wheat    Acreage    46 

Wheat   Crop,    What   it   Means  50 

Wheat,    Production    of 3 

Wheel    and   Axle 519 

Wheelbarrows     135 

Whalebone     66 

Whips    136 

Whitehead    Torpedo    411 

Wh'te    Star-Dominion   Line.. 207 
White   Star  Line  201,  204,  205,  206 


Whitney,   Eli   362 

Winans,    Ross    363 

Wind     493 

Windmills     136 

Window  Shades  and  Fixtures  136 

Winds,    Periodic    500 

Wine    Measure    562 

Wine,   Production    156 

Wire    113,    115,   136 

Wire,    Copper,    Weight 571 

Wire    Gauges    571 

Wire,     Iron     571 

Wireless   Information    309 

Wireless  Rates   308 

Wireless    Sparkless    588 

Wireless   Stations    301 

Wireless    Stations,    Alaska..  304 
Wireless   Stations,    Canada 

301,  304 

Wireless  Stations,   Europe  ..306 
Wireless    Stations,     Imperial 

Service     300 

Wireless      Stations,      Trans- 
Oceanic    306 

Wireless      Stations,       United 

States    301,  302 

Wireless    Telegraphy... 299,    585 

Wireless,    U.    S.    Navy 307 

Wire,     Steel     571 

Wirework     136 

Wisconsin,    Holidays    584 

Woman' s    Suffrage 13,    585 

Wood   Carpet    136 

Wood    Distillation    136 

Wood,    Jethro    362 

Wood    Preserving    136 

Wood   Pulling    136 

Wood,    Turned  and   Carved.. 136 

Wool,  Production   3,   51 

Wool   Scouring   136 

Woolen    Goods    no 

Woolen,         Worsted,         Felt 

Goods    136 

Woolworth   Building 

Facing  page  1 

Woolworth    Building    350 

Words    in    Line    and    Page, 

Number  546 

Worsted  Goods   110 

Wrapping   Paper 125 

Wright,    Orville    364 

Wright,    Wilbur    364 

Wyoming,    Holidays    584 


&*. 

/      * 

W.Hatten 


••t-f  ^Inshore  Ffahiny  Grou 
Granted  to  the  Cnited  States 
by  the  Treaty  of  1818. 
Mackerel  Fishing  Banks. 
Cod  and  Halibut  Banks. 

Mackerel,  Cod  and  HaUbvA 
60=  &b 


Copyright,    1912,    by   Munn    &   Co.,    Inc. 
THE  FISHING  BANKS  OF  THE  NORTH  ATLANTIC. 


-V 


13  fp/7 
NOV  36  1919 


MAR  21 


50m- 


250717 


H 


